Transport engineering II

First semester

4th year

By Dr.Ir Alphonse Nkurunziza

1
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING II
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING.

Phase I: Study of the movement of traffic on existing road network

Phase II: Wider study on new roads, cutting of corners, widening, intersection etc…..

Phase III: Planning studies for future traffic (origin-destination) studies etc.

E.g. (How should a new road be adequate after 7 years) we need traffic engineering for planning.

FUNCTIONS OF TRAFFIC ENGINEERING.

Planning and travel forecast

Collection of factual information (densities, weights, speeds, volume on the network)
Design and placement of control regulatory measures.
Research. (Develop new methods and techniques for operation and managing transportation fa-
cilities)
Traffic accident recordings, getting data from traffic police.

TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTICS.

Traffic engineers by necessity deal with people, vehicles, the road network and environment.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PEOPLE.

1. DRIVER CHARACTERISTICS.

P.I.E.V: Perception, Intellection, Evaluation, and Volition.

P.I.E.V TIME THEORY.

In the context of traffic engineering P.I.E.V time theory means the time taken by drivers to initiate an
action in response to an external stimulus . “the more time taken to react, the more prone to the acci-
dent”.

P.I.E.V is an acronym for Perception, Intellection, Evaluation, and Volition.

I. PERCEPTION: It is the initial reception of the stimulus which may be visual, auditory(hear), tac-
tile(touch) or a combination.
II. INTELLECTION: It is the process of understanding the stimulus.
III. EVALUATION: The stage during which the driver makes mental decision.
IV. VOLITION: Is the initiation of the physical action, if any, decided in the previous stage.

“P.I.E.V is not constant for different situations”.

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EVALUATION PROCESS.

It is the traffic light changes from green to yellow, then;

Stop
A

Continue Ċ
Ȧ A= Accident
Ac- C
cel Ċ= Cited by traffic police.
er- A
ate A
.
C
Ȧ
Ċ

VISION.

CONE OF VISION.

30 to 50 is good canal vision angle.

θ = cone of vision.

Most drivers have an accurate cone of vision up to 120 in which images are clear.

The driving task.

T True point.

Vehicle ȦṀṪ M Mind.

A Action.

Object.

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 ȦṀṪ safe

ȦṪṀ safe

ṪȦṀ Unsafe.

Explanation.

Your Mind tells you to stop, then you take action at the true point.

a)

Ṫ object.

High risk driving. (no mind, no action)

b)
ṀṪ

Suicidal e.g. killing. (Attack on the sky scrapers U.S.A)

APPROCHES USED IN TRAFFIC ENGINEERING.

 The human behavior is adjusted as per fixed facilities through control and regulations.
 The facilities are designed as per defined human behavior. If you have designed already your fa-
cility, then option one is taken.

2 .VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS.

An understanding of vehicle characteristics is necessary for geometrical design of high ways, design of
pavements and traffic engineering. Some of the characteristics of interest to traffic engineers are:

i. Vehicle length.
 For design of parking facilities and temporary vehicle storage bags such as left turns, or
right turns, minimum turning radius, road capacity etc…
ii. Width of vehicle.
 Lane width, width of shoulders, parking facilities etc..
iii. Height of vehicle.
 Clearances provided over bridge, electric service lines etc…
iv. Speed of vehicle.
 Braking distances, capacity of high ways, design of intersection and intersection con-
trols. Etc.
v. Power of vehicle.
 Speed, braking distances etc…
vi. Acceleration/deceleration characteristics.
 Time required to cross the intersection’
 Overtaking operation, stopping distances etc…

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 vii. Braking characteristics
viii. Head light of vehicles, night operations etc.

VEHICLE KINEMATICS.

ACCELERATION. (Uniform acceleration theory)

V  V O  at.

X V O t  1 at
2
2
2 2

X v v
_ 0

2a

How to determine the acceleration of the vehicle.

 Field studies.
 Characteristics from manufacturers.

In reality, the acceleration is not uniform. Acceleration rate varies with speed.

Studies on passenger cars show that the acceleration rates are 4km/hr at the speed between 32-
56km/hr decreases to 3-2 km/hr at a speed of 105 km/hr.

NON UNIFORM ACCELERATION THEORY.

Acceleration of vehicle can be given by the expression;

dv
 a  bv..........1 where a and b are constant.
dt

dv
d 
t
a  bv
t
dv
 a  bv
0

When speed  0 ; acceleration is maximum = a

When the acceleration =0; speed is maximum.

t   1 loga  bvv
v
b 0

5
 
  1 loga  bv  log a  b v0
b
 

t   1 log
a  bv  

b
 
a  b v0  
a  bv 
log
a  b v   bt
0

a  bv bt
e
a  b v0

 bt  bt
a  bv  ae  bv0 e  0 Dividing each by b we get ........i

 bt
a  v  ae  v0 e
bt
0
b b

a bt bt
v  a  e  v0 e .......ii
b b

Substituting the value of V from equation ii into equation i.

 
a  b a 1 e
b
 bt
 v e ........iii
0
 bt

dv
dt

 a  bv0 e  bt

Integrating and simplifying.

X a t a
b 2 1  e  vb 1  e ........iv.
bt 0 bt

b
Example1:

A driver traveling at 50km/hr behind another car decides to overtake and presses the accelerator. The
acceleration behavior of the vehicle is given by

dv
 4  0.05v
dt

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Find

i. The maximum speed of the vehicle.

ii. The maximum acceleration rate
iii. The rate at which the vehicle is accelerating after 3seconds.
iv. How long it will take for this vehicle to reach a speed of 80km/hr.

Solution.

dv
1.  4  0.05v  0
dt
4
v  80km / s  288km / hr
0.05
2. amax
dv  4  0.050  4m / s 2
dt
3. dv
dt

 a  bv0 e  bt
 2.84m / sec
2

a4
b  0.05
v 0
 50km / hr (m/s).
t  3 sec .
4. v  80km / hr 22.22m / s 
v 0
 50km / hr 13.89m / s 
 a  bv bt 
 e 
 a  bv0 

a=4 v=22.22 m/s

b=0.05 vo=13.89 m/s

therefore t=2.7 secs.

BRAKING DISTANCE.

The distance travelled(skidded) under emergency conditions is of great use in traffic system design and
accident analysis.

The distance “S” travelled while skidding from a speed V1 to V2 on a slope of angle θ is given by;


SV
2
V 2 
2

2 g cos   tan  
1

7
Where

g=acceleration due to gravity.

 =coefficient of friction.

 Use minus (-) when you moving down hill.

 Use plus (+) when you are moving up hill.

For a level surface;

s
v  v 
2
1
2
2
2 g

You can use skid marks to determine who was at higher speed for accident analysis.

ACCIDENT ANALYSIS.

The length of the skid mark on the road surface provides important “clues “to the accident investi-
gator. Since they can be used to estimate the speed of the vehicle that was braked.

Let the length of skid marks after an accident on a level road or stretch of road be SA

v  2 g s  v 
1
2 2
Then, 1 a 2

Since V 2
0

Let the legal speed limit be VL. If the speed limit is exceeded;

S > 2Vg
A
L

STOPPING DISTANCE.

The stopping distance is the total distance travelled between perceiving an obstacle and coming to a
complete hall. It includes the distance travelled during P.I.E.V and braking.

The braking distance can include a rolling distance as well as a skidding distance.

3. ROAD AND ENVIRONMENT CHARACTERISTICS.

The design of the road is intimately related to capabilities and limitations of the road users and vehi-
cles. For new high ways or the redesign an old ones, we must give attention to the following Basic
characteristics.

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 SELECTION OF SPEED STANDARDS.

This depend on

A. Environment
i. Adjacent area.
ii. Where they are restrictions. On expansion of right of way.

TERRAIN (TOPOGRAPHY).

The speed of a road user is dependent to a great extent on the type of terrain.

 For geometric design 3 types of terrain

i. Flat terrain
ii. Rolling terrain
iii. Mountainous terrain/hilly terrain.
 Density =number of vehicles occupying a space in a given time.
4. TRAFFIC STREAM CHARACTERISTICS.
Fundamental traffic stream relationship.
Parameters.

a) speed 
time

dis tan ce km
hr

b) Volume =the number of vehicles passing a point (q) on a road by unit time.

V
time
 
number of vehiclesv
hr

c) Density = The number of vehicles occupying a unit length (K) of the road.

D
numberofve hicles v
dis tan ce km
 
Relationship.

Volume = speed x density.

qv  hr   km hr k v km

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Relationship between density and space head way.

Head 1 Head 2

Direction
Speed

Speed head way

1
spaceheadway 
density.

1
Timeheadwa y 
volume.

e.g. density =100 v/km

space head way =1/100v =10 m/vehicle.

Space head way (spacing) (S); It is the distance between head to head of a successive vehicles.

=Distance/no_ of vehicles.

S= 1/k.

Time head way (interval); It is the interval of time from head to head of two successive vehicles as they
pass a point.

=Time/ no_of vehicles. = 1/q.

T=1/q.

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 SPEED-VOLUME RELATIONSHIP.

Volume Qmax
(q)

Q1

Non-
Congestion
congested
area.

0 U1 V0 U2 Speed (u)

At the optimum speed, it is where the maximum volume is got.

In congested area, the speed is influenced by the vehicles.
In non-congested area; the speed is freely taken, travel with out being influenced by a vehicle in
front of you.
As the volume approaches 0 in non-congested area, the vehicle is only one and it is running at
high speed.

Explanation.

At a very low speed the traffic volume is very low.

With an increase in speed, traffic volume is also increasing up to a certain limit as the head way initially
decreases. But as the speed is increasing further, the head way increases thus decreasing the volume.

Optimum speed is at which the volume is maximum.

SPEED-DENSITY RELATIONSHIP.

Speed (u)

Free speed (uf)

Jam density
(Kj)
Density(k)
11
(999(((k)
 With increase in density, the speed decreases.when there is no vehicle, (density =0),the speed is maxi-
mum.

This is called free speed (uf).

At very high density, the speed approaches zero. This density is called “ jam density”. This relationship is
found to be linear with excellent colleration.

VOLUME- DENSITY RELATIONSHIP.

Volume(q)

(q)
qm

km

Density(k)

As the density increases from zero,(i.e no vehicle), volume also increases to a point of critical density at
which the volume is maxium. Therefore, the volume decreases as the density increases to a maximum
value called “Jam Density” when all vehicles are almost stopped.

Basic relationship → q  uk ........(1)

Green shield’s model.

ku 
p
 1.......2
k v j f

Substituting (2) and (1).

 k
Q  u f 1  k .
 kj 

dq
From max. Q  0
dk

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Differentiate w.k.r.t.k.

dq d  2uf


 ku k
du dk  f
kj 


dq
 u f  2k
uf  0
du kj

2k v f
u f
 .
kj

Kj  2k.; K  Kj / 2

Km  Kj / 2......(3)


u f
u 0
2
.......(4)

Q  uk .
Q  u0 k m
max

kj u f
Q  x
max 2 2
Kj u f
Q 
max 4

Q-U-K relationship based on safe space head way.

Spacing.

Space head way.

Stopping distance = P.I.EV time + Braking distance.

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 2

= ut  u
2 gu

Space head way = stopping distance + length of the vehicle.

Space head way (s)  ut  u L

2 gu

1
Density 
speedheadway.

1
K= 2

ut  u L
2 gu

b c a

Ka  kbu  ke u  1
2

ka  1  kbu  kc u 2  0
 ke u  kbu  ka  1  0
2

 1 
u   gut  g  ut   2ugL  1
2

 KL 

Example.

Speed in (km/hr) Density in (v/km)

60 10
50 20
45 30
40 40
35 50
30 60
20 70
15 80
10 90
5 100

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 a) Plot a scatter diagram.

Speed

Density.

Green shield’s model.

 k
Q  u f 1  k
 kj 

Speed Density
(y-axis) (x) Y2 X2 Xy
60 10 3608 100 600
50 20 2500 400 1000
45 30 2025 900 1350
40 40 1600 1600 1600
35 50 1225 2500 1750
30 60 900 3600 1800
20 70 400 4900 1400
15 80 225 6400 1200
10 90 100 8100 900
5 100 25 10,000 500
 y 310  x  550 y
2
 12608 x
2
 38500  xy  12100

From Y  a  bx . Determine regression equation and find multiplying and additive constants.

y  a  bx

a  y  bx

b
x y i 1
r
x y 1 1

x
2

x y
2 2
1
1 1

15
 x y   xy  nxy
1 1

 y   y  n y 
2 2 2
1

 x   x  n(x)
2 2 2
1

From the above data;

N =10

 y  310 ; y  31
 x  550; x  55
 y  12608
2

 x  38500
2

 xy  12100

 4950
Multiplying constant b b  0.6
8250

Additive constant a a  31  0.6 x55  64

From

y  a  bx
y  64  0.6 x
y  64  0.6 x  u  64  0.6k
q  uk  64  0.6k k
from
xy  64  0.6 x x
from
y  64  0.6 x  u  64  0.6k
 uk  64k  0.6 k
2

Volume – density relationship

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Q  u 64k  0.6 k
2

from  again
u  64  0.6k
 u  64u  0.6ku
2

 64u  0.6Q
2
u
0.6Q   u  64u
2

 u  64u
2

Q  volume  density  relationship.

0.6

From

Y=64-0.6x

Determine;

i. Optimum speed⇒ from(volume – density relationship)

ii. Jam density⇒y=0. (64=0.6X)
iii. Free speed⇒ x=0; y=64.

Time head way and speed head way determination.

Speed (y) Density(x) Volume(xy) Time head way Speed head way
60 10 600 1 1 1 1
 
volume 600 density 10
50 20 1000 1/1000
45 30 1350 1/1350
1

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF URBAN ROADS & INTERSECTIONS.

 GEOMETRIC DESIGN.
 Design of various factors of road, corners, sight distances, alignment (horizontal & verti-
cal), side slopes, super elevation etc.

Requirements of Geometric Design.

a. Maximum utility and efficiency

b. Safety
c. Comfort
d. Economy
e. Beauty (aesthetics)

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Design control and Criteria

1) Design period. (from 15-20 years). How to determine these years in prediction of future traffic
or demand.
i. Reasonable estimates of future traffic prediction are not practical beyond 20 years.
ii. Normally good type of pavement has life of 15-20 years.
iii. Public funds should be paid off in 20 years.
2) Design Hourly Volume (DHV)
30th highest hourly volume means the volume exceeded 29 times in a year.
Reasons.
 There are not many hours in which the volume is much less than 30th H.V
 As a percentage of ADT (Annual Daily Traffic), it varies only slightly from year to year.
3) Direction Sprit (Distribution) of Traffic.
If there is a high percentage of traffic in one direction during PEAK HOURS, wider sections will be
required.

60% traffic is considered for design. It can be taken for the

two way lanes.

60% 40%

Moving 45%

55%

4) Truck Factor (T).

The overall effect of traffic operation of a truck may be equivalent to 3-5 passenger cars de-
pending up on the condition of the road. (gradient, sight distances etc)

TRAFFIC FORECAST.

(future predictions say 20 years)

Types;

Normal traffic (existing)

Generated traffic
In addition to the normal traffic growth on a road year after year, the new improved road cre-
ates traffic for its self.
Attracted traffic (diverted traffic)
Trips which were previously made using alternative routes.

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HIGH WAY CAPACITY.

Capacity is the amount of traffic a road can accommodate in one hour. The capacity of a road or inter-
section is the maximum rate at which the vehicles can pass along the road or through an intersection.

The rate of traffic flow

This is the traffic counted for a period less than an hour and extrapolated as traffic/hour.

e.g. Amount of traffic in 15 minutes and the highest amount of traffic in 15 minutes is taken and multi-
plied by 4 to get amount of traffic per hour at a section.

PEAK HOUR VOLUME.

It is hourly volume countered with in peak period

peak  hour  volume

Peak Hour Factor=
rate  of  volume.
Analysis of the capacity is necessary for;
i. Measuring the deficiencies of the existing system and establish priority needs.
ii. Propose changes in the existing system
iii. Design new facilities based on capacity analysis and future traffic demands.
iv. Compare relative effectiveness of different modes of transport.

CAPACITY DEFINITIONS.

1. Basic Capacity (theoretical / I deal capacity)

This is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass through a given point on a road during one hour
under Ideal conditions.

Ideal conditions.

i. There should be no interruption on the road, free from side interferences by vehicles and pedes-
trians.
ii. No trucks in the traffic stream ( only passenger cars)
iii. Traffic lanes are 3.5 m wide (or more)
iv. Horizontal and vertical alignments is satisfactory for average road way speed of around
110km/hr and overtaking sight distance is not restricted.
v. Road surface is smooth and good.
vi. Visibility and weather conditions are normal.
2. Possible Capacity.
It is the maximum number of vehicles that can pass a point on a road in one hour under prevail-
ing road way, traffic and weather conditions. (this can range from zero to basic capacity)
3. Practical Capacity: (Design capacity)

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 Means the maximum number of vehicles that can pass through a given point on a road during
one hour without traffic density being so great to cause unreasonable delay restrictions to driv-
er’s freedom to move under prevailing conditions.

LEVEL OF SERVICE (LOS)

The term “level of service” is associate with different operating conditions that occur on a road, when it
accommodates various traffic volumes. It is a quantitative measure of the effect of a number of factors
which include;

a. Speed and travel time

b. Traffic interruption
c. Freedom to maneuver
d. Driver’s comfort.
e. Safety
f. Vehicle operating costs.

L O S A; -free flow accompanied by low volumes and high speed, low density (speed around
110km/hr).

L O S B; - stable flow speed from 90km/hr

L O S C; - Stable flow speed from 80+km/hr

L O S D; - Unstable flow, speed restricted but tolerable (around 65+km/hr)

L O S E;- Restricted flow, speed restricted to around 48+km/hr

L O S F; - Forced flow, very low speed, queues are formed.

The mostly common measure of LOS are operating speeds for uninterrupted flow (e.g. intersections)

INTERSECTION CONTROL.

Conflict point=32

Conflict point =8.

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Types of intersections of grade.

a) b) c) d) e)

crossing skewed T – type Y – type multiple

crossing

f) g) round about

railway crossing.

Control measures.

 Right of ways control – no control.

 Signing
 Manual control (traffic police)
 Signalization
 Street closure
 Grade separation.

Choice of control method.

The control strategy adoptable at particular intersection is hilly dependent on the classification of inter-
esting streets.

Free way Free way Express way arterial collector local

Express way G G G1 C G1 C
arterial G G1 S S S S1 C
*
local S1 4S,2S S*,4S,2S
2S, 2YU.

Q – Grade separation

S – Signalization

S* - signalization if other option do not work.

4S – Four way stop sign.

2S – 2way stop sign

2Y – 2way yield sign.

U – Uncontrolled.

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 C – Closure.

TWO WAY YIELD SIGN CONTROL.

Priority right of way is given to a particular street by placing a given sign on the other street.

Where there is an obstruction, the yield

Sign is put where there is protect line

of sight.
Y

STOP SIGN CONTROL.

2 – Way stop and yield sign 4 – way stop sign.

Heavy.

2 – Way stop sign. 3 – way stop sign.

The 4 – way stop sign is provided when:

22
  Heavy flow exists from all approaches.
 Approximate equal flows exist from all approaches.
 High frequency of accident involving turning movements.
Only if signalization is not an available option.

SIGNALISATION

Isolated intersections

Intersection design are independent of any other near intersection.

Basic objectives.

Regulate the process of sharing the right of way by separating conflicting movements by of traffic in
time.

Basic Rules

1. The available capacity is assigned in town to (previous) conflicting movements.

2. The non – conflicting movements are usually allowed to proceed at the same time.

STANDARD PHASING SCHEMES.

Phase 1 Phase 2.

2 – phase scheme.

Cycle length: The time required for complete sequence of signal indications.

3 – phase scheme – type H

23
Type B.

4 – phase scheme.

Q1 Q2 Q3 Q4

OR

Phasing schemes at T – intersection.

2 – phase scheme 3 – phase scheme

Q1 Q2 Q3

Q1 Q2

24
CHOICE OF A PHASING SCHEME.

Basic principle.

Start with 2 – phase scheme and carry out approximate analysis

Steps.

Step 1: identify the geometry. (lane geometry is defined from the site plan)

Step 2: identify hourly volumes.

Step 3: through plus left turn traffic check..

e.g. WN = movements from

north.

Vn2 Ln
Vn1

Us1 Us2
Ls

WN = movements

From south.

In the traffic volume allows the left turns and through traffic at the same time they are 2- phase scheme
is possible.

The LN will always wait for the gaps in through traffic.

Lane movements.

Critical lane movements. Total movement.

wl i

 max wN  LS ;W S  LS 
The higher value is chosen from a above.

25
 
Max  VS 1  LN ;VS 2  LN ;VN 1  LS ;VN 2  LS 
The left turns in a phase can be accommodated during the green and amber (yellow) periods if;

 
 1200  wl
7200
wi1  i

  VLi 
n
c
 i 1 

WLi = total lane movement.

C = cycle length. (Seconds)

ULi =critical lane movement.

At the yellow time 2 vehicles/seconds.

7200
Allow  120  left  turn  in  one  cycle
60

It is possible, if it posses left hand lane.

SINGLE LANE APPROACH.

LN
UN Ls Vs

v v
l max
 l max  1
2 u max

v max

 max V N ;V S 
L max

 max LN ; LS 

26
 V min

 min V N ;V S 

Two Lane approach

Ln
VN2 VN2 VS1 VS2
Ls
 1 
Un2  l s  2 Vs1 
 
V L  MaxV 1max  l max  2 V 1max 
 1

 
Vs  L  1 Un 
 
2 N 1
2

Example.

60 106

28 2 4
0

374 274

490 248
8 0
160 140
226 210

27
 Check two phase scheme.

For the phasing scheme, you ignore the right turn lane and
274
248 106 Consider only the left turn as there are no conflicts in the
2 4
140 Right turn lane.

28 226 8 0

374
490

Q1 Q2

Or 274 C= 90 sec.
28
106 From the fig. if one
248 0
8
Car process for 490
374 2 4
490 140 226 Why not 28? So no

Q1 Q2 Q3 Need for checking.

Wl  490  374  28
1
Wl  274  248  140 Wl  232
2 3
Vl  490
1
Vl  274
2 Vl  226 3
Vl  L Vl  L  1200490
1 2 7200?
no  check.
2 2
Q  232  3 90

Three phase type A

Total critical lane mov’t  Vl  Vl  Vl

1 2 3
 776 the level of service will be high.

Three phase type B

Vl  Vl  Vl
1 2 3
 1000
 three  phase  type  A  is  better

28
STEP 4: DEVELOP PASSENGER VOLUMES.

Factors

Vehicle type. Equivalent pc unit.

Truck 2.0
Motor-cycle 0.33
Bicycle 0.20
Three wheeler 0.67
Through bus 1.7
Local bus 5.0

Cars Trucks Buses Bikes

(Local)

28+0+0+0 8+0+0+0 0+0+0+0 258+4+12+0

212+10+0+2 194+16+0+0
366+2+0
246+2+0+0

468+10+12+0

122+2+16+0
158+2+0+0
56+4+0+0 92+12+12+0

2+0+0+0 2+2+0+0

206
28 326
176
250
1 6
388
8 0
233
548

Q1 Q2 Q3

29
STEP5: TURNING MOVEMENT ADJUSTMENTS.

Turning movement take more time than through traffic.

The left turning movements are converted to equivalent through movements.

CASE 1: Left turn lane available.

1 LT ≅ 1.05 through.

CASE 2: Left turn lanes not available

 No separate turn phase

Opposite (traffic) volume/hr 0 – 299, 300 – 599, 600 – 999 > 1000.
 Separate turn phase ( 3 – phase type A Q1)
1LT=1.2 through.

The right turns are adjusted to account for the conflict with pedestrians.

Pedestrian flow/hour. Multiplicative factor

Low 0 – 99 1
Moderate 100 – 599 1.25
Heavy 600 – 999 1.50
Very high ≥ 1000 2.0

STEP 6: LANE WIDTH ADJUSTMENTS.

Factors.

Lane width Multiplication factor

2.45 – 3.04 1.10
3.05 – 3.95 1.00
3.96 – 4.85 0.90
4.86 – 5.76 0.80

PASSENGER CAR UNITS.

206 X 1.05
326
28 126 X 1.2=152
0
28 X 1.05 388 0
1 6 8
548
1.2 X 233=280
Q1 Q2 Q3

30
  Pedestrian adjustments.
⟹ Low pedestrian (0 – 99 ) → no adjustments.
 Lane width adjustments.
Adjustment lane width ⇒ no adjustment.

CRITICAL LANE VOLUMES

Q  206 X 1.05  216.3  80  137

1

7200
A.M  of  traffic processed during  amber   80
90
Q  548
2

6
Q  280  8   291
3 2

Total critical lane of volumes

ℇcl = 137+ 291 + 548= 976.

LEVEL OF SERVICE

The capacity, S, of the intersection for the critical lane movements is taken as 1800, 1720, and 1620
pcu/hr for 2, 3, and 4 phase schemes, taking into account the increased lost time as the number of
phases increases.

The level of service is considered high when ℇcl/s ratio is low and vice-versa.

The level of service is provided by the phasing scheme is obtained as;

Maximum sum of critical lane volumes.

Level of service 2 – phase 3 – phase 4 – phase or more

A 1000 950 900
B 1200 1140 1080
C 1400 1340 1270
D 1600 1530 1460
E 1800 1720 1650

ℇCL =976 ⟹ LOS = B.

TRAFFIC SIGNAL TIMING

Given a phasing scheme, the amount of green, amber and red time that is to be allocated to each phase
should be determined.

31
OPTIMUM CYCLE LENGTH.

This based on minimum delay ( by Webster formula)

1.5l  5
c o

q
1  i 1
n i

Where; C0 = optimum cycle length, see

L = total lost time in critical lane during one cycle.

Qi = critical lane flow in phase i in equivalent through pcu.

N = number of phases

S =saturation (maximum possible) flow per lane in through pcu.

S depends on width of a lane.

Width (m) S
3 1850
3.5 1875
4 1975
4.5
5 2175
1 2550

LOST TIME

When a green indicator is given, traffic can not depart instantly and same time is lost by each of the
first three or four vehicles. This time lost has been suggested as 2 seconds per phase.

ALL – RED TIME.

In the same situation it is appropriate to convert a portion of amber indication to a red indication for
which the indication for all approaches is red. This “ all – red ” time is mostly lost as well.

32
AMBER TIME.(Minimum) – yellow time.

This is provided depending up on approach speed to enable driver to make appropriate decision (either
stop or proceed)

Speed limit (km/hr) Minimum amber time (sec)

V1≤ 50 3
50 < VL ≤ 60 4
60 < VL ≤70 5
70 < VL ≤80 6

GREEN/RED INDICATION.

Given a cycle time that is sufficient, the delay is minimum by dividing the cycle time among the phases in
proportion to Q1 after substituting the total lost time.

Example.

q i
gi = ( c – l) * critical lane volume.
 q
n
i 1 i

Back tour example

Phase number Amber (a) secs All red ( r) secs Lost time (l) secs Lane width (m)
Q1 3 1.3 2 3.0
Q2 4 1.3 2 3.0
Q3 4 1.3 2 3.0

1.5L  5
c o
 ; L  lxn  rxn
q
1  i 1
n i

s
L  2 x3  1.3x3  9.9
Optimum cycle length
1.5 x9.9  5
  41.7  sec onds
976
1
1850
co  45  sec onds  say.

33
Effective green time (gi).


45  9.9  4.8  sec onds
g 1 136
976
45  9.9  19.8  sec onds
g 2  548
976
45  9.9
g 3  291  10.5  sec onds.
976

Actual green, Amber and Red indication for phase is Gi, Ai, and Ri

Therefore Gi + Ai + Ri = C

Further Gi + Ai =gi +L

Gi – Li + Ai = gi

Q1 ⟹ G1= 4.8 + 2 - 3=3.8 seconds

Q2 ⟹ G2= 19.8 + 2 - 4=17.8 seconds

Q3 ⟹ G3= 10.5 + 2 - 4=8.5 seconds.

PHASING DIAGRAM
1.3
G Y R
Q1 3.8 3.0 38.2 45

Q2 R G Y R
8.1 17.8 4.0 15.1 45

Q3 Red G Y
4.0
45
31.2- 8.5

1.3

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