Survey Principle SUG 102 TXT - 1

THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC ADO EKITI
DEPARTMENT OF SURVYING AND GEOINFORMATICS
S
U
G
102
BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING II

Chapter One
1.0 Distance Measurement
Surveying has to do with the determination of the relative spatial location of points on or near
the surface of the earth. It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between
objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of
establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurements. Along with the actual
survey measurements are the mathematical calculations. Distances, angles, directions,
locations, elevations, areas, and volumes are thus determined from the data of the survey.
In plane surveying, the distance between two points means the horizontal distance. If the
points are at different elevations, then the distance is the horizontal length between plumb lines
at the points. Linear surveying involves measurement of distances between points on the
surface of the earth. There are various methods of linear surveying and their relative merit
depends upon the degree of precision (accuracy) required.
Distance is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying. Although frequently measured

as a spatial distance (sloping distance) in three-dimensional space, usually it is the horizontal
component which is required. Distance is required in many instances, e.g. to give scale to a
network of control points, to fix the position of topographic detail by offsets or polar
coordinates, to set out the position of a point in construction work, etc. Distances are not
necessarily linear, especially if they occur on the spherical earth.
1.1. Types of Distance Measurement

The distance between two points can be horizontal, slope, or vertical.
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1.2. Methods of Linear Surveying

The basic methods of measuring distance are, at the present time, by taping or by
electromagnetic (or electro-optical) distance measurement , generally designated as EDM. For
very rough reconnaissance surveys or approximate estimates pacing may be suitable. For
distances over 5 km, GPS satellite methods, which can measure the vectors between two points
accurate to 1 ppm are usually more suitable.
Linear surveying methods can be broadly divided into two heads:

1. Direct measurement
2. Measurement by optical means or Indirect Method
1. Direct Measurement
In this surveying method, distances are actually measured on the surface of the earth by means
of chains, tapes, pacing etc.
 Pacing: Accuracy 1: 100
 Taping: Accuracy 1: 10,000
2. Measurement by Optical Means
In this method, observations are taken through a telescope and distances are determined by
calculation as in tachometer or triangulation.
In these linear surveying methods, distances are measured with instruments that rely on
propagation, reflection and subsequent reception of either radio or light waves. The various
instruments that are used under the electronic methods are:
i. Geodimeter,
ii. Tellurometer,
iii. Decca navigator, and
iv. Lambda position fixing system.
1.3. Measure Distances Using of Theodolite as Tacheometer

An optical/mechanical theodolite is a device for measuring angles horizontally and vertically
from a survey 'station' (a known location) to a survey target at a location whose position is
unknown. These instruments do not measure distances directly. Basic principles of trigonometry
are used to work out the internal angles of triangles that are measured, and then co-ordinate
geometry techniques are used to establish positions within a national or regional reference
framework for the unknown points.
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Tacheometry Definition:- Tacheometry or tachemetry or telemetry is a branch of angular

surveying in which the horizontal and Vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means
as opposed to the ordinary slower process of measurements by tape or chain.
Advantages of tacheometry
 Tacheometer is used where chaining is difficult such as river, valley, broken boundaries,
stiff slope, and undulations.
 It is used in the preparation of contour maps, in which horizontal & vertical distances
are required to be measured.
 It is used for the survey road, railway.
 It is also used for the hydrographic survey.
 It is used for checking distances measured by tape, chain & dumpy level.
 It is used where accuracy is not required.
 It saves time & money.
Differences between theodolite and tacheometer.

• It is used for measurement of
Theodolite horizontal & vertical distances.
Tacheometer
• In tacheomtric survey, direct
• It is used for measurement of
measurement of distances are
horizontal & vertical angle.
• possible.
In theodolite survey, distances are
measured by chain or tape.in case obstacles like
• Suitable
• Suitable for planeriver
& hilly area with
broken ground.
less obstacles.
More stations• areLess required
stations in
are required in
•
theodolite survey.tacheometric survey.
Constants of Tacheometer.
Multiplying constant i.e. (f/i) or m.
Additive constant i.e. (f+c) or C.
Where f = focal length of image glass C = length of image
Instrument used.
I. Tacheometer
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II. Levelling or stadia rod.

I. Tacheometer – It is a transit theodolite provided with a stadia diaphragm.
The diaphragm is provided with two horizontal stadia hairs in addition to regular cross hair.
Additional hair should be equidistant from central one.
Types of diaphragm commonly used as follows.
Types of diaphragm.
Types of Telescope in Tacheometry.

 External focusing
 Internal focusing
 External focusing fitted with anallatic lens.
Anallatic lens -It is an additional lens generally provided in the external focusing tacheometer
between object glass & eyepiece.
Advantages of anallatic lens.

1. For calculation of horizontal & vertical distances constant (f + c) = 0, if tacheometer is
provided with anallatic lens.
2. Calculation becomes simple.
Essential characteristics of Tacheometer.

 The value of constant (f/i) =100.
 The telescope should be provided with anallatic lens.
 The telescope should be powerful, magnification should be 20 to 30 times the diameter.
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 The vision through the telescope should be clear & bright image at longer distance.
Fixed Hair Method.
There are three different cases used.
Case I): Line of sight is horizontal and the staff held is vertical.
Case II): Line of sight is inclined and the staff held is vertical.
Case III): Line of sight is inclined and the staff held is normal to the line of sight.
Vertical Distance
Horizontal Distance D = (f/i) S Cos2θ+ (f+c) Cosθ

Where, θ is angle between horizontal line of sight & central reading.
Systems of Tachometric Measurement

Depending on the type of instrument and methods or types of observations, tacheometric
measurement systems can be divided into four basic types:
(i) Stadia systems
(ii) Substance systems
(iii) Tangential systems
(iv) Optical wedge systems.
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1.4. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

A tape measure or an EDM device (such as a total station) can measure horizontal and slope
distances. EDM is very useful in measuring distances that are difficult to access or long
distances. It measures the time required for a wave to be sent to a target and reflect back. A
distance measured on a slope can be trigonometrically converted to its horizontal equivalent by
using the slope angle or vertical difference of elevation (DE). Figure 1 below illustrates a basic
example of the geometry used to determine the horizontal distance of a measurement over
uneven ground.
EDM instruments have largely replaced steel tapes in practically all measurements, except lower
order work, such as close staking out, building measurements, etc. Wherever feasible, distances
over 30 meters (100 feet) should be measured with an electronic measuring device. Accurate
distances under 30 meters can be obtained with a calibrated steel tape.
A theodolite having a multiplying constant of 100 and additive constant of 0.00 was centered
and levelled at a height of 1.48m above a point C, of reduced level 46.87m.
A levelling staff was held vertically at points D and L in turn and the readings shown in table
1.1 below were taken.
Required:
Calculate;
a. The reduced levels of points D and L
b. The horizontal distances; DCD and DCL
Staff Position Staff readings (m) Vertical circle readings Horizontal circle readings
D 3.240, 3.047, 2.853 020 21’ 07” 560 49’31”
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L 2.458, 2.230, 2.002 020 21’36” 980 07’ 18”
Figure 1.2 tacheometric Exercise.

(a) The reduced levels of points D and L are obtained as follows;
From equation (ii)
VCD = ½ KS sin 2 Ø + C sin Ø
= ½ (100) (3.240 – 2.853) sin 2(020 21’ 07’’) + 0
= 50 (0.387) sin (4.703890)
= 1.587m
VCL = ½ KS sin 2 Ø + C sin Ø
= (100) (2.458 – 2.002) sin 2(020 21’36’’) + 0
= 50(0.456) sin (4.7200)
= 1.876m
Using equation (iii)
Reduced level at point D = RLD.
RLD = RLC + hi + VCD – m
= 46.87 + 1.48 + 1.587 – 3.047
= 46.89m
RLL = RLC + hi – VCD – m
= 46.87 + 1.48 – 1.876 – 2.230
= 44.24m
(b) The horizontal distance DL = KS cos2 Ø + C cos Ø
From equation (i)
Horizontal distance DCD = 100 (3.240 – 2.853) cos 2 (020 21’ 07’’) +0
= 38.7 (0.998315911)
= 38.635m
Horizontal distance = 100 (2.458 – 2.002) cos2 (020 21’36’’)
= 45.60 (0.998304362)
= 45.523m
Slope = Difference in RL = 46.89 – 44.24
Total distance 38.635 + 45.523
= 2.650 = 0.0315
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84.158
Ø = tan-1 0.0315 = 1.80
1.5. Calibration of Instrument
A Theodolite.
The tacheometer at every time has two constants namely;

The multiplying constant, denoted by K.
Additive constant denoted by C.
These constant can be determined for any instrument whose either are not known or need to
be recalibrated.
Finding K and C for an instrument
The instrument to be calibrated or recalibrated is centered at a point on a horizontal ground;
the eyepiece focusing is used for stadia measurements of two staff positions placed at
different distances away from the instrument say 100m and 200m with the staff held vertically
upright. The staff is sighted with the telescope at a horizontal line of sight. The lower and upper
staff readings are carefully read and recorded as illustrated in the figure below
Calibration of Equipment
We know that horizontal distance = KS cos2Ø + C cos Ø
Since the line of sight is horizontal, it follows that Ø = 0.This implies that horizontal distance,
D = KS + C ……. (iv)
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Equation (iv) is used to determine the constants for any instrument whose readings are taken
as explained previously.
Example.
The table below shows the observations (readings) taken to determine the two constants
for an instrument.
Table 1.0: Stadia readings
Horizontal distance Reading on staff.

(m) ( m)
Lower wire Upper wire

30 1.133 1.433
90 1.452 2.352
Required:
Find the values of these constant.
Using equation (iv)

D = KS + C
For staff 1, D1 = KS1 + C
=> 30 = K (0.3) + C ……….. (1)
For staff 2, D2 = KS2 + C
=> 90 = K (0.9) + C ……….. (2)
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Subtracting equation (1) from (2)

90 = K (0.9) + C
- 30 = K (0.3) + C
60 = 0.6K + 0
K = 60/0.6 = 100
K = 100
Substituting the value of K into equation (1)

30 = 100 (0.3) + C
30 – 30 = C
=> C = 0
Hence, the values of these constants are;
K = 100 and C = 0
1.6. Principle Of Subtense Bar Tachometry
From the diagram below the distance to determine is PX (from the theodolite station to the bar
station). The bar is of length b (CD) positional horizontally and normal to the line of sight (AB)
of the theodolite. The line of sight (AB) is equal to the horizontal distance PX (L). The paralytic
angle is O subtended by the bar.
i.e.
SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SUBSTENSE TACHEOMETRY.
i). Incorrect length of bar.
ii). Incorrect setting of the bar at right angles to the line being measured.
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iii). Non-horizontally and poor centering of bar and theodolite over the station marks.
iv). Errors in measured substense angle.
Example
b Angle
H1 3 010 20’
H2 4 020 30’
H3 3 040 20’
H4 3 030 30’
Required: Find H
SOLUTION b). H2 = b/2 tan-1 0/2

a). H1 = b/2 tan-1 0/2
= 3/2 tan-1 010 20’
2
-1 0
= 1.5 tan 0 40’ =
= 1.5 x 33.6901
= 50. 54m = 2 x 51.3402
c). H3 = b/2 tan-1 0/2 d). H4 = b/2 tan-1 0/2
= 3/2 tan-1 040 20’

2
= 1.5 tan-1 020 10’
=
= 1.5 x 65.2249
= 97.84m = 1.5 x 60.2551
TUTORIAL QUESTION
Stn. Distance b
H1 150.420 4
H2 180.200 4
H3 145.234 3
H4 400.110 4
You are required to find θ
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EXERCISES
1.Describe the conditions under which tacheometric surveying is advantageous? Explain how
would you obtain in the field the constants of tacheometer?
2. Sighted horizontally, a tacheometer reads 1.645 and 2.840 corresponding to the stadia wires,
on a vertical staff 120m away. The focal length of the object glass is 20 cm and the distance
from the object glass to the trunnion axis is 15 cm. Calculate the stadia interval?
3. Two distances of 50 & 80 meters were accurately measured out, and the intercepts on the
staff between the outer stadia webs were 0.496 at the former distance and 0.796 at the latter.
Calculate the tacheometric constants?
4. An external focusing theodolite with stadia hairs 2mm apart and object glass of 15 cm focal
length is used as a tacheometer. If the object glass is fixed at a distance of 25 cm from the
trunnion axis, determine the tacheometric formula for distance in terms of staff intercept?
5. Explain how a subtense bar is used with a theodolite to determine the horizontal distance
between two points?
6. What are the different methods employed in tacheometric survey? Describe the most
commonly used method?
7. Explain how would you determine the constants of a tacheometer? What are the advantages
of an anallactic lens used in tacheometer?
8. Show the arrangement of the lenses in an ordinary anallactic telescope?
9. In an anallactic telescope the focal lengths of the objective and anallactic lenses are 24 cm
and 12 cm respectively & the constant distance between this is 19.5 cm for a multiplier of 100.
Determine the error that would occur in horizontal distance D when the reading intercepts2
meters with an error of one hundredth of a mm in the 1.75mm interval between the subtense
line?
10. The following readings were taken on a vertical staff with a tacheometer fitted
with an analytic lens and having a constant of 100.
Calculate the relative level of the ground at A and B and the gradient between A and B.
11.The following notes refer to a line levelled tacheometrically with an anallatic
tacheometer, the multiplying constant being 100:
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Compute the reduced levels of P.Q and R and the horizontal distances PQ and QR.
12. Two points A & B are on opposite sides of a summit. The tacheometer was set up at P on
top of the summit, and the following readings were taken.
13. The following observation were made using a tacheometer fitted with an anallatic lens,
the multiplying constant being 100.
14. A staff was held vertically at distance of 45m and 120m from the centre of a theodolite
fitted with stadia hairs and the staff intercepts with the telescope horizontal were 0.447m and
1.193m respectively. The instrument was then set over a station P of R .L 500.25m and the
height of the instrument was 1.45m. The hair readings on a staff held vertically at station Q
were 1.20, 1.93 and 2.66m while the vertical angle was -9°30’. Find the distance PQ and the
RL of Q.
15. Tacheometer was setup at a Station A and readings are taken on vertically held staff at B
were 2.255, 2.605 and 2.955. The line of sight being at an inclination 8 0 241. Another set of
observation on the vertically held staff at B.M gave the readings 1.640, 1.920 and 2.200
respectively. The inclination of the line of sight being 2 0 151. Calculate the horizontal distance
between A + B and the elevation of B if the R.C of B.M is 418.685 M. The constants of the
instruments were 100 & 0.30.
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Chapter Two
2.0 Traversing
Theodolite traversing is a method of establishing control points, their position being
determined by measuring the distances between the traverse stations (which serve as
control points) and the angles subtended at the various stations by their adjacent stations.
In traditional surveying by ground methods, traversing, the act of marking the lines, that is,
establishing traverse stations and making the necessary observations is one of the most basic
and widely practiced means of determining the relative locations of points.
There are two kinds of traverses: CLOSED and OPEN. Two categories of closed traverses
exist: polygon and link.
OR
Traverse is a vector whose angles and distance are measured consecutively.
Traverse can also be defined as the series of connected lines called “course” where lengths and
bearings (direction) can be determined by appropriate field measurements. The straight line are
known as traverse legs and the end points of the lines are known as stations.
Traverse Surveying is a popular method of surveying. A traverse is currently the most common
of several possible methods for establishing a series or network of monuments with known
positions on the ground. Such monuments are referred to as horizontal control points and
collectively, they comprise the horizontal control for the project. Traversing is that type of
survey in which a number of connected survey lines form the framework and the directions and
lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help of an angle measuring instrument and a
tape or chain respectively.
A Traverse is a succession of straight lines along or through the area to be surveyed. Using the
technique of traversing, the relative position of the control points is fixed by measuring the
horizontal angle at each point, between the adjacent stations, and the horizontal distance
between consecutive pairs of stations.
2.1. Types of traverses

There are two types of traverse used survey. These are open traverse, closed traverse, and
directional traverse.
a. Open Traverse: An open traverse begins at a point of known control and ends at a station
whose relative position is known only by computations. The open traverse is considered to be
the least desirable type of traverse, because it provides no check on the accuracy of the
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starting control or the accuracy of the fieldwork. For this reason, traverse is never deliberately
left open. Open traverse is used only when time or enemy situation does not permit closure on
a known point.
b. Closed Traverse: This traverse starts and ends at stations of known control. There are two
types of closed traverse--closed on the starting point and closed on a second known point.
i. Closed on the starting point: This type of closed traverse begins at a point of known
control, moves through the various required unknown points, and returns to the same
point. This type of closed traverse is considered to be the second best and is used when
both time for survey and limited survey control are considerations. It provides checks on
fieldwork and computations and provides a basis for comparison to determine the
accuracy of the work performed.
ii. Closed on a second known point: This type of closed traverse begins from a point
of known control, moves through the various required unknown points, and then ends
at a second point of known control. The point on which the survey is closed must be a
point established to an equal or higher order of accuracy than that of the starting point.
This is the preferred type of traverse. It provides checks on fieldwork, computations,
and starting control. It also provides a basis for comparison to determine the accuracy
of the work performed.
2.2. Advantages of Traverse Network
Traverse networks have the following advantages:
i. Little reconnaissance is required compared with that needed for an interconnected
network of points.
ii. Observations only involve three stations at a time so planning the task is simple.
iii. Traversing may permit the control to follow the route of a highway, pipeline or tunnel,
etc., with the minimum number of stations.
Measuring distances alone in surveying does not establish the location of an object. We need to
locate the object in 3 dimensions. To accomplish that we need:
1. Horizontal length (distance)
2. Difference in height (elevation)
3. Angular direction.
An angle is defined as the difference in direction between two convergent lines. A horizontal
angle is formed by the directions to two objects in a horizontal plane. A vertical angle is formed
by two intersecting lines in a vertical plane, one of these lines horizontal. A zenith angle is the
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complementary angle to the vertical angle and is formed by two intersecting lines in a vertical
plane, one of these lines directed toward the zenith.
2.3. Types of Measured Angles

i. Interior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent
lines on the inside of a closed polygon figure.
ii. Exterior angles are measured clockwise or counter-clockwise between two adjacent
lines on the outside of a closed polygon figure.
iii. Deflection angles, right or left, are measured from an extension of the preceding course and
the ahead line. It must be noted when the deflection is right (R) or left (L).
Angles to the right are turned from the back line in a clockwise or right hand direction to the
ahead line. This is ODOT’s standard.
Angles to the left are turned from the back line in a counter-clockwise or left hand direction to
the ahead line.
2.4. Field procedures of Traverse Survey

Traverse procedure comprises five distinct stages:
i. Planning
ii. Reconnaissance
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iii. Station marking

iv. Measurement/fieldwork
v. Adjustment.
i. PLANNING
Planning determines the resources needed to undertake the traverse: time, equipment and
personnel. At this stage it is essential that:
a. the personnel are appropriately trained and the equipment is in good order
b. there is a verifiable method of error distribution within acceptable tolerances
c. there is agreement on the origin and alignment of the coordinate system to be used,
whether local, a previously established grid or the OSNG
d. There is agreement on the height reference (datum) to be used, particularly if a DTM
and contour survey are to be produced.
ii. RECONNAISSANCE
It is good practice to reconnoiter a site for traverse stations (as well as for other problems that
may arise during survey) in advance. The stations must be located so that the forward and rear
stations are clearly inter-visible at each set-up. The number of stations in a traverse should be
kept to a minimum to reduce the accumulation of error and the amount of computation
required. Short distances between stations increase the number of stations, which may in turn
introduce disproportionate errors in angular measurement.
iii. STATION MARKING

Station markers must be fixed securely whether they are for the duration of the survey or
meant to be permanent and for future use. They must be clearly marked with the centre point
to designate the exact point of reference for measurements. This shows the station location
relative to a minimum of three points of detail that are likely to survive. When working on
historic sites it is important to consider the impact of survey marks on the fabric of the
monument. Note that the consent of English Heritage is needed before fixing a station point
permanently, by means of a ground anchor or buried fixing, on a designated Scheduled
Monument and that similar consent will be required in other nations.
Station markers and control points should be placed where they will not be disturbed, and
consideration should also be given to placing them where personnel and equipment will be out
of harm’s way during survey work. They should also, wherever possible, be located away from
the archaeological features to be recorded, so that the station symbols do not interfere with
archaeological detail on the drawing.
iv. MEASUREMENT OR FIELDWORK

The measurement phase of a traverse begins by setting up the instrument over the starting
station point, with a prism over a second known point and another prism over the first new
station. These three stations are known, respectively, as the occupied (current) station, rear
(back) station and forward (fore) station. The back station is the station that is used to
establish the azimuth at the start of the traverse and can also be the station that will be the last
one occupied in the traverse. The fore station is the next station in succession. On occupation
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of a station, record the instrument and target heights, then measure and record the angles and
distances between the back and fore stations.
Measurements should be taken using both faces of the instrument and at least one set should
be measured. The simplest method of resolving traverses requires a computed horizontal
distance and the angles to derive 2-D coordinates for the station values. The data are recorded
on a tabulated record sheet, on the instrument itself, or on a separate data logger or computer.
Meanwhile, the person setting out and minding targets will be marking and witnessing the
traverse stations, removing the target from the rear station when signaled to by the instrument
operator, and moving the target forward to the next station.
Traverse observations should follow a consistent procedure. The angles should be turned in the
same direction and taken in sets. A round of angles describes the measurement of the
horizontal angle between two other stations on the traverse and a set is the data from at least
two rounds, one taken on each face of the instrument. Using both faces of the instrument
distributes errors in centering. At each set-up the surveyor should make sure the angles are
booked securely and check the sets are complete (including the instrument and target heights)
before moving on. If the traverse is booked manually, make use of a prepared observation form
so that each angle and distance is recorded to enable it to be clearly identified with the
occupied station, target stations and heights thereof. Before finishing fieldwork, check for
missing data: if possible obtain an approximate check of the misclosure of the traverse. Missing
measurements cannot be added once off site. During the traverse, the horizontal angles,
vertical angles, and distances are measured.
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a. Horizontal Angles. Horizontal angles are determined from instrument readings made at the
occupied station by sighting the instrument on the rear station and turning the instrument
clockwise to the forward station. When measuring horizontal angles, the instrument is always
sighted at the lowest visible point of the station markers designated the rear and forward
stations. Horizontal angles are used in determining azimuths.
b. Vertical Angles. Vertical angles are determined from instrument readings made at the
occupied station to the height of instrument on the station marker (usually a range pole) at the
forward station. When the distance between two successive stations in a traverse exceeds
1,000 meters, the vertical angle must be measured reciprocally (measured from each end of
that particular traverse leg). This reciprocal measurement procedure is used to eliminate errors
caused by curvature and reflection. Vertical angles are used in determining the difference in
height between stations.
c. Distance. The distance between the occupied station and the forward station is measured
by using electronic devices, horizontal taping, or trig-traverse procedures. The distance is used
in conjunction with the horizontal and vertical angles to determine coordinates and height.
v. ADJUSTMENT
Small errors in centering the instrument, station marking and instrument pointing are magnified
and expressed as a traverse misclosure. On completion of the measurement phase, provided
that the misclosure is within satisfactory limits, adjust the traverse data so that the accuracy of
the coordinate values for each station is optimized, based on the best possible error
distribution. This adjustment can be manual or by means of computer software, on the TST
itself, a field computer or in the office. Traverse adjustment is based on the assumption that
random errors (of centering, for example) have accumulated throughout the traverse
observation procedure. The correction for misclosure of the traverse is distributed among the
angles and distances measured, resulting in refined positions for the stations that compensate
for the misclosure. It is important to note that distributing the misclosure around the network is
a compensation for these errors rather than blunders. If a mistake is made, then the errors
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propagated by it will also be distributed, resulting in incorrect positions for all stations. Careful
adherence to a standard observation procedure and checking that the measurements returned
conform to the anticipated results as work progresses minimize the chances of such
occurrences.
2.5 Procedure In Theodolite Traverse
The procedures in theodolite traverse follows the general pattern used in all surveying
operations:
 Angular observations
 Linear measurement
 Computation
 presentation
Adjustments of a theodolite
The adjustments of a theodolite are of two kinds:
1. Permanent Adjustments
2. Temporary Adjustments
Permanent Adjustments: The permanent adjustments are made to establish the relationship
between the fundamental lines of the theodolite and, once made; they last for a long time.
They are essential for the accuracy of observations.
Permanent Adjustments: The permanent in case of a transit theodolites are:-
i) Adjustment of Horizontal Plate Levels. The axis of the plate levels must be perpendicular to
the vertical axis.
ii) Collimation Adjustment. The line of collimation should coincide with the axis of the telescope
and the axis of the objective slide and should be at the right angles to the horizontal axis.
iii) Horizontal axis Adjustment. The horizontal axis must be perpendicular to the vertical axis.
iv) Adjustment of Telescope Level or the Altitude Level Plate Levels. The axis of the telescope
levels or the altitude level must be parallel to the line of collimation.
v) Vertical circle Index Adjustment. The vertical circle Vernier must read zero when the line of
collimation is horizontal.
Temporary Adjustment
The temporary adjustments are made at each set up of the instrument before we start taking
observations with the instrument. There are the temporary adjustments of a theodolite: -
Centering, Levelling, Focusing.
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2.6. Terms used in Theodolite Traversing

i). Line of Collimation:-It is an imaginary line joining the intersection of the cross-hairs with
the optical centre of the objective.
ii). Axis of Plate Level: - It is the straight line tangential to the longitudinal curve of the plate
level tube at its centre.
iii). Axis of the Attitude Level Tube: - It is the straight line tangential to the longitudinal
curve of the altitude level at its centre.
iv). Face left Condition: - If the vertical circle is on the left side of the observer, it is known
as face left condition.
v). Face Right Condition: - If the vertical circle on the right side of the observer it is known
as face right condition.
vi). Swinging the Telescope: - It is the process of turning the telescope clockwise or
anticlockwise about its vertical axis. Clockwise rotation is called swing right and anticlockwise
rotation is called left swing left.
vii). Double sighting and double centering: - It is the operation of measuring an angle
twice, once with telescope in the normal condition and another in the reverse condition.
2.7 Starting Control (Traverse Requirements)
The purpose of traverse is to locate the unknown points relative to each other and to locate all
points within the traverse relative to a common grid. Three elements of starting data are
needed. They are the coordinates and height of a starting point and an azimuth to a visible
azimuth mark. (See Figure 5-3.) Starting data may be obtained from existing control data or
maps or may be assumed.
21
2.8 Azimuth And Bearing
Azimuth, are angle measured clockwise from any reference meridian.
Bearing: - Bearing of a line is measured from the north or south terminus of a reference
meridian and angles are measured clockwise 1 st and 3rd quadrant (NE) and (SW) of measured
anticlockwise 2nd and 4th quadrant (NW, SE).
Bearing Azimuth
Angle Varies from 00 - 900 Varies from 00 - 3600
Description It lies between of the four letters No letter is necessary

(N,S,E,W)
Measurement Both clockwise and anticlockwise. Measure only from the north
Measurement from North $ South
Quadrantal bearing
Bearing Azimuth/Whole C B
OA=N40E OA=400
OB=S25E OB=1800 - 250 =1550
OC=S30W OC=1800 + 250=2100
OD=N45W OD=3600 - 450 =3150
22
2.9. Plotting A Traverse Survey
There are two principal methods of traverse survey:
1. Angles and distance method: This method is of three types. (a) By protractor (b) By
the tangent of the angle (c) By the chord of the angle.
2. Co-ordinate method.
Traverse Computations
The distance and azimuth between points can be used to form and compute a right triangle.
The distance between points serves as the hypotenuse, and the azimuth can be used to
determine an angle. Three right triangles must be solved for each leg. Three trigonometric
functions are used to compute a traverse. These functions are the sine, cosine, and tangent.
The sine and cosine functions are used to compute the differences in easting and northing
coordinates. The tangent is used to compute the difference in height.
Traverse computations is the process of taking field measurement through a series of

mathematical calculations to determine final traverse size and configuration. These calculations
include error compensation as well as reformation to determine quantities not directly
measured.
Traditional traverse computation steps are:
1. Balance (adjust) angles
2. Determine line directions
3. Compute latitudes and departures
4. Adjust the traverse misclosure
5. Determine adjusted line lengths and directions
6. Compute coordinates
7. Compute area
In the figure, the latitude and the departure of the line AB of length l and reduced bearing q are
given by: L = + l cosq and D= + l sinq
23
To calculate the latitude and departure of the traverse lines, it is first essential to reduce the
bearing in the quadrant system. The signs of latitude and departures will depended upon the
reduced bearing of the line. The following table gives signs of latitudes and departures.
Table
W.C.B R.B and quadrant Sign of
Latitude Departure
0° to 90° NqE; I + +
90° to 180° SqE;II - +
180° to 270° SqW;III - -
270° to 360° NqW;IV + -
Thus, latitude and departure co-ordinates pf any point with reference to the preceding point are
equal to the latitude and departure of the line joining the preceding point to the point under
consideration. Such co-ordinates are also known as consecutive co-ordinates or dependent co-
ordinates.
Sources Of Errors
The errors for which traverse adjustment compensates are not those errors commonly known
as mistakes or blunders but are errors that fall into one of the classes discussed below.
24
a. Instrumental Errors. These are errors that arise from imperfections in, or faulty
adjustment of, the instruments with which the measurements are taken. For example, a tape
could be too long or the optical plumb might be out of adjustment.
b. Personnel Errors. These are errors that arise from the limitations of the human senses of
sight and touch. For example, an error might be made in estimating the tension applied to a
steel tape or in plumbing a plumb bob over a point.
c. Natural Errors. Natural errors arise from variation in the phenomena of nature, such as
temperature, humidity, wind, gravity, and refraction. For example, the length of a tape varies
directly with the temperature. The tape becomes longer as the temperature increases and
shorter as the temperature decreases.
Sources of error in traversing
Some sources of error in running a traverse are:
1. Poor selection of stations, resulting in bad sighting conditions caused by (a) alternate sun
and shadow, (b) visibility of only the rod’s top, (c) line of sight passing too close to the ground,
(d) lines that are too short, and (e) sighting into the sun.
2. Errors in observations of angles and distances.
3. Failure to observe angles an equal number of times direct and reversed.
Mistakes In Traversing
Some mistakes in traversing are:
1. Occupying or sighting on the wrong station.
2. Incorrect orientation.
3. Confusing angles to the right and left.
4. Mistakes in note taking.
5. Misidentification of the sighted station.
25
Methods Of Traverse Adjustments
Before a traverse can be plotted, its closing error should be made zero. This is known as
traverse adjustments. A traverse involves two types of measurements: (i) Measurement of
length and (ii) Measurement of angles.
We can have the following three basic conditions:
1. The angular accuracy is higher than the linear accuracy. Such a case may occur in
traversing in a hilly terrain if we measure angle by means of a theodolite which is
expected to be accurate but meansures distances horizontally by means of tapes. The
accuracy of linear measurement will be low.
2. The angular accuracy is the same as the linear accuracy. This is likely to occur when the
angles are measured by maeans of theodolite but distances are measured with an EDM.
3. The angular accuracy is lower than the linear accuracy . This is the condition when the
angles are measured with compass which gives less accurate values whereas lengths
are measured by means of EDMs.
Depending on which category the traverse belongs appropriate methods should be applied
for adjustment of the traverse.
Five basic methods of traverse adjustments are: (i) Arbitrary method (ii) Transit rule (iii)
Compass or Bowditch rule (iv) Crandall method (v) Least square method
(i) Arbitrary method
As the name suggests in this method there is no fixed rule for distributing the closing error in
latitude and departure. However, engineering judgment is used. If there is reason to believe
that because of field conditions or types of instruments used measurement of one line is less
reliable than others, it would be reasonable to adjust only the latitude and departure of that line
so that algebraic sums of latitudes and departures is zero.
(ii) Transit rule

In the transit rule the correction to latitude of a line in proportion to the magnitude of latitude
and departure correction is in proportion to the departure of the line. Symbolically,
26
Adjustment in latitude of AB = Latitude of AB x Latitude misclosure

Absolute sum of latitudes
Adjustment in latitude of AB = Latitude of AB x Latitude misclosure

Absolute sum of latitudes
Theoretically, the transit rule should be used to balance a traverse where the angular
measurements are more precise than the linear measurements. However, as different results
are obtained for different meridians, this rule is seldom used.
(iii) Compass or Bowditch Method
Bowditch rule is used most frequently as this applicable when the linear and angular
measurements are equally precise. The probable error in linear measurement is taken to be
equal to √l. Correction are made by the following rules:
Adjustment in latitude AB = Length of AB x Latitude misclosure
Perimeter of traverse
Adjustment in departure AB = Length of AB x Departure misclosure

Perimeter of traverse
The bearing of each of the traverse will be altered after applying the Bowditch’s rule. The
method is most suitable for compass survey where the probable error of angular measurements
and linear measurements tally. However, the method is most commonly used for an average
engineering survey (i) it is easy to apply, and (ii) The corrections do not alter the plotting
significantly.
(iv) Crandall method
This is assumed that linear measurements contain larger random errors than the angular
measurements. Initially, the angle misclosure is distributed equally amongst all angles. The
angles then remain unchanged. The linear measurements are then corrected by weighted least
square procedure.
(v) Least square method
This adjustment is based on the principle of making the sum of the squares of the weighted
residuals.
27
After the adjusted latitude and departure of a line has been determined, the new length and
bearing can be determined from the relation.
Area Calculations
Surveyors calculate areas for a number of applications including cadastral surveying e.g. for
land parcels and lots. We deal here with the calculation of area of figures that have regular (i.e.
straight line) boundaries. Area to irregular boundaries (e.g. creeks and rivers) is dealt with
elsewhere.
We have: - (i) Area by Cross Coordinate
(ii) Area by Double Latitude and Departure
1. The Cross Coordinates method.
Given
STATIONS N E
A a1 b1
B a2 b2
C a3 b3
Solution
STATIONS N E NIX EIX
A a1 b1
B a2 b2 a1 X b2 b1 X a2
C a3 b3 a2 X b3 b2 X a3
A A1 B1 a3X B1 b 3 X A1
Sum K1 K2
Double Area (2A) = Difference between K1 and K2
Area = A = Am2
2
28
= A Hectares
10,000
Examples:
STATIONS N E
X 667.802 121.284
Y 703.548 272.906
Z 667.325 328.610
Find the area by using the cross coordinates method

Solution
STATIONS N E
X 667.802(a1) 121.284(b1)
(a1 x b2) (b1 x a2)
Y
703.548(a2) 272.906(b2) 182247.173 85329.117
(a2 x b3) (b2 x a3)
Z
667.325(a3) 328.610(b3) 231192.908 181298.279
(a3 x B1) (b3 x A1)
X
667.802(A1) 121.284(B1) 80571.993 219446.415
494012.071 486073.811
-
2A = 7938.263
A = 7938.263
2
A = 3969.132m2
A = 3969.132 Hectares
10,000
A= 0.3969 Hect.
29
Let us use latitude and double departure

Latitude Departure
Stn. Bearing Distance(m) ∆N ∆E N E Stn.
667.802 121.284 X
X 760 44’ 03” 155.779 35.746 151.622 703.548 272.906 Y
Y 1250 09’ 02” 68.128 -39.223 55.704 664.325 328.610 Z
Z 2700 57’ 39” 207.355 3.477 -207.326 667.802 121.284 X
35.746 x 151.622 = 5419.880

35.746
71.492
- 39.223
32.269 x 55.622 = 1797.512
- 39.223
- 06.964
03.477
- 03.477 x 207.326 = 720.873
2A = 7,938.265
A = 7,938.265
2
A = 3969.132500m2
3969.132500 = 0.3969 Hect.

10,000
30
3.0 Purpose of Traversing
1. To determine the position of existing boundary pillar or beacons.
2. To establish the position of boundary lines.
3. To determine the area enclosed within the confines of a boundary.
4. To establish a system of control points for surveying detail.
5. To establish which provides data regarding earth constructional works.
6. To establish ground control points for photogrammetric mapping.
31
Exercises
1. A five-sided closed field traverse have the following angles. A = 103 003’30”, B = 113044’00”,
C = 88021’30”, D = 110053’30”, E = 123055’00”. Determine the angular error of closure and
balance the angles by applying equal correction to each angle.
2. Given the following notes for a closed-loop traverse, the coordinate of which for station A are
XA =1,984,400.612m, YA = 518,430.033m. Compute the error of closure and coordinate for
each traverse station adjusted according to the compass rule.
3. Given the following adjusted azimuths and measured distance for a close traverse that starts
at C and closed on D. Compute
a) The error of closure
b) The coordinates for each traverse station, adjusted
by the compass rule;
c) Adjusted azimuths and distance for each line
32
CHAPTER THREE
3.0. Definitions In Levelling
An elevation is the vertical distance above or below a reference datum.
A vertical line is a line from the surface of the earth to the earth’s centre. It also referred to
as a plumb line or a line of gravity.
A level line is a line from the surface.
A level surface is a curve surface parallel to the mean surface of the earth. A level surface is
best visualized as the surface of a large body of water at rest.
A horizontal line is a straight line perpendicular to a vertical line.
Datum surface: This is an arbitrary surface with reference to which the elevation of points are
measured and compared.
Reduced level or elevation of a point: This is the vertical distance above or below the
datum, this may be positive or negative according as the point is above or below the datum.
Line of collimation: the line of collimation or the line of sight is the line joining the
intersection of cross hairs to the optical centre of the object glass and its continuation.
Back sight: This is the first staff reading taken on a point of known reduce level after setting
up the instrument in any position.
Fore sight: This is the last staff reading taken on a point whose reduced level is to be
determined before moving the instrument.
Intermediate sight: An intermediate sight is any staff reading taken on of unknown elevation
after the back sight and before the fore sight.
Change point: A change point indicates the staff position at which the instrument position is
shifted. Both back sight and fore sight readings are taken at a change point.
Height of instrument: Is the elevation of the plane of collimation when the instrument is
levelled.
33
Bench mark (BM): This is a fixed reference point with a precisely determined published
elevation. It is the reference point of known elevation. It may be classified into the following
types:
(i) Temporary bench mark (TBM) is the reference point that established when there is a
break in the whole levelling work which cannot complete at a stretch. Levelling: accounting for
slopes. These are established temporarily whenever required. These are generally chosen to
close the day’s work and to start the next days. Points on roofs, walls, basements, etc.
Unlike chain surveys, levelling surveys account directly for slope and incorporate this data into
the whole measurement exercised.
(ii) G.T.S Bench Mark: The great trigonometrical survey (G.T.S) bench marks are established
by the survey of India throughout the country. The levels of this bench marks are established
very accurately at a large interval with respect to the mean sea level at Bombay port.
(iii) Permanent Bench Mark: These are established by different Government departments
like PWD, Railways, Irrigation etc,. The RL of these points are determined with reference to the
G.T.S Bench Marks. Points on rocks, culvert, gate pillars, etc,.
(iv) Arbitrary Bench Mark: When the RL of some fixed points are assumed, they are termed
arbitrary benchmark.
3.1 Leveling Computations
Aims:
How to determine relative elevations
• to determine height differences between two points

• to determine elevations for sections
The elevation of a station can be established by:
• inclined line of sight from chain survey stations

• levelling from another point of known height
• by inclined tacheometry
Levelling is more accurate method but is also the slower. Modern instruments are
capable of cm accuracy under normal conditions over distances of 100’s meters.
34
The keys to successful levelling lie in the setting up of the instrument, in the closure of
the traverses and in the careful recording (booking) of the results.
Inclined tacheometry relies on the combined measurement, by theodolite, of the slant

distance to the new station and the angle relative to the horizontal.
The elevation change and horizontal distance can then be found by simple trigonometry.
Direct levelling
Most typical form used relies upon:
• a horizontal line of sight, also termed “the line of collimation”

• a fixed datum level
Measurements to be taken in levelling are:
• Backsight
• Foresight
• Intermediate sights.
Booking your results in levelling

The “rise and fall” method
This method records the relative change in level between successive stations
The changes are converted to the reduced level of each station
The reduced level is relative to the local datum
The method relies on recording your results in a survey book in a standard format
This allows you to check your work and to identify any errors systematically
Reduced levels
The absolute (datum) level of point A is 100.522m
The change of level is 2.312m - 2.533m = -0.221m
The reduced level of point B is 100.301m
Diagram
B A
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
2.53 2.312
IP 1
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
35
Datum line: 100.522m
(From OS Bench mark)

Rise and fall booking
BACK INTERMIDIATE FORE RISE FALL REDUCE DISTANCE REMARKS

SIGHT SIGHT LEVEL
2.312 - 100.522 POINT A
2.533 0.221 100.301 POINT B
Transfer Of Level
At the next stage, B becomes the backsight and C is the new foresight
The new change of level is 1.674m - 1.631m = + 0.043m
The absolute level of point C is 100.344m
C 1.631m B 1.674m
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
IP 2
Rise and fall booking continue
BACK INTERIM FORE RISE FALL REDUCE DISTANCE REMARKS

SIGHT SIGHT LEVEL
2.312 - 100.522 POINT A
1.674 2.533 -0.221 100.301 POINT B
1.631 +0.043 100.344 POINT C
We continue this process, suppose we end up with a result as follows:
This will enable us to check our result.
36
Rise and fall booking continue

BACK SIGHT INTERIM FORE SIGHT RISE FALL REDUCE DISTANCE REMARKS
LEVEL
2.312 - 100.522 POINT A
1.674 2.533 - -0.221 100.301 POINT B
2.504 1.631 +0.043 - 100.344 POINT C
3.010 0.956 +1.548 - 101.892
2.413 2.016 +0.944 - 102.836
-- 2.718 - -0.305 102.531
11.913 9.854 2.585 -0.526 102.581
9.854 -0.526 100.522
2.059 2.059 2.059 Check ok
Arithmetic check = Ʃ FS – Ʃ BS = Ʃ FALL – Ʃ RISE = First R. L- Last R. L
Using an intermediate sight
Sometimes we wish to include a specific feature but it is not convenient to set up a new
instrument position for this, the solution is to take a sighting onto the staff when it is placed on
this feature - this is called an intermediate sight
The intermediate sight is taken at the base of the channel between B and C
The new change of level is 1.674m - 2.988m = -1.314m
The absolute level of the intermediate point C is 98.987m
C Intermediate sight B
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1.674m
2.988m IP 2=8
37
Rise and fall booking (intermediate sight)

Back sight Intermediate Fore sight Rise Fall R.L Distance Remark
2.312 - - 100.522 POINT A
1.674 - 2.533 -0.221 100.301 POINT B
2.988 -1.314 98.987 CHANNEL
Next FS 1.631 +0.043 100.344 POINT C
3.2 PRATICAL SKILL
Level Instrument
A level is an instrument employed to determining the relative heights of different points on the
earth’s surface.
Types of level
a. Digital level
b. Automatic level
c. Tilting level
d. Dumpy level
Levelling Staff: the levelling staff is used for measuring distance vertically above or below
point on which it is held relative to a line of collimation as defined by the level.
Require equipment for levelling operation
i. Digital level or Automatic level

ii. Levelling staff
iii. Steel band/tape
iv. Field book
Procedure to follow:-
1. The level is set up and leveled.

2. The telescope is pointed so that its vertical crosswire is just off to the levelling staff and
the level is clamped.
3. The objective is focused and the parallax removed.
4. The level bubble is checked for centering and adjusted if necessary.
5. The levelling staff is read at focusing backsight and the value recorded.
38
6. The bubble is rechecked for centering. If it’s off centre, it must be recentered and the
reading repeated.
7. The level is set up and leveled.
8. The telescope is pointed so that its vertical crosswire is just off to the levelling staff and
the level is clamped.
9. The objective is focused and the parallax removed.
10.The level bubble is checked for centering and adjusted if necessary.
11.The levelling staff is read at focusing backsight and the value recorded.
12.The bubble is rechecked for centering. If it’s off centre, it must be recentered and the
reading repeated.
Example 1
BOOKING AND REDUCE LEVEL CALCULATION

RISE AND FALL METHOD
BS IS FS RISE FALL RL REMARKS
2.091 50.00 BM A( 50.00)
2.405 0.314 49.686 A
2.225 0.180 49.866 B
2.919 1.396 0.829 50.695 C(CP)
2.413 0.506 51.201 D
1.652 2.711 0.298 50.903 E(CP)
3.724 2.072 48.831 TBM A
Arithmetic check = Ʃ FS –Ʃ BS =Ʃ FALL – Ʃ RISE = RL 1ST – RL Last

Arithmetic check = 7.831 – 6.662 = 2.684 – 1.515 = 50.000 – 48.831
= 1.169 = 1.169 = 1.169 CHECK OK
39
HEIGHT OF INSTRUMENT METHOD
BS IS FS HI RL REMARKS
2.091 52.091 50.00 BM A( 50.00)
2.405 49.686 A
2.225 49.866 B
2.919 1.396 53.614 50.695 C(CP)
2.413 51.201 D
1.652 2.711 52.555 50.903 E(CP)
3.724 48.831 TBM A
Arithmetic check = Ʃ FS –Ʃ BS = RL 1ST – RL Last

Arithmetic check = 7.831 – 6.662 = 50.000 – 48.831
= 1.169 = 1.169 CHECK OK
Example 2
Rod
HI =165.136 Rod
--FS=0.540---------------------------------------------BS = 1.977-------------------
HI
Level location 2 HI = 164.141 Rod
------- FS = 0.982--------------------BS = 2.868---

BM 501 Level location 1
(164.596)
TP 01 (163.159)
BM 500
Elevation = 161.273
Height of instrument computation
Level location 1 = HI (1)

161.273---Elevation of BM 500
+2.868---BS to BM 500
=164.141---Height of instrument
-0.982---FS on TP01
=163.159---Elevation of TP 1
Level location 2 = HI (2)

163.15--- Elevation of TP 1
+1.977---BS to TP 01
=165.136---Height of instrument
-0.540---FS to BM 501
164.596---Elevation of BM 501
40
Example 3
The following readings were taken with a level and a 4m staff on a continuously sloping ground
at a common interval of 20m meters 0.855, 1.545, 2.335, 3.115, 3.835, 0.455, 1.380, 2.055,
2.855, 3.455, 0.585, 1.015, 1.850, 2.755 and 3.845. The position of the instrument was
changed after 5th and 10th readings. Draw out the form of a level book and enter the above
readings properly. Assumed the R. level of the first point was 99.454m. calculate the gradient of
the level line and apply usual check.
Chainage Backsight Intermediat Fore Rise Fall Height of Reduced Remarks

e sight instrument level
Sight
0 0.855 100.309 99.454
20 1.545 0.690 98.764
40 2.335 0.790 97.974
60 3.115 0.780 97.194
80 0.455 3.825 0.710 96.939 96.484
100 1.380 0.925 95.559
120 2.055 0.675 94.884
140 2.855 0.800 94.084
160 0.585 3.455 0.600 94.069 93.484
180 1.015 0.430 93.054
200 1.850 0.835 92.219
220 2.755 0.905 91.314
240 3.845 1.090 90.224
∑BS 1.895 - ∑FS 11.125=-9.230 Last Reduced level – 1st R.L= -9.230
Gradient = Difference in level = -9.230

Total Distance 240
41
= 1:26.002 (fall)
3.3 Summary Of The Two Methods
Rise & Fall method involves more arithmetical calculation but checks all the reduced level
calculations, meanwhile collimation /height method could not check intermediate reduce
level.
The collimation method is quicker where a lot of intermediate observation have been taken
since fewer calculations are required.
It is a good method to adopt when setting out levels that involve many reading taken from
instrument position.
Errors In Levelling
The mistake in levelling can be detected by performing arithmetic checks and by closing on the
starting BM or any other BM whose elevation is known.
i. Mistake in rod reading that do not form part of the loop.

ii. Misreading the foot (meter)value
iii. Transposing figures
iv. Not holding the staff in correct location
v. Resting the hands on tripod while reading the rod.
vi. Instrument get off leveled while reading.
vii. Entering the rod readings incorrectly in levelling field book (i.e. switching BS and FS or
IS).
viii. Giving a correct rod reading wrong station identification
ix. Mistake in note reduction (i.e. arithmetical reduction).
All crew member should be constantly alert to the possible occurrence of mistake and
should try to develop rigid routines for doing their work so that when mistake occur it
will be easily noticed.
42
Chapter Four
4.0 Triangulation
A triangulation system consists of a series of joined or overlapping triangles in which an

occasional side is measured and remaining sides are calculated from angles measured at the
vertices of the triangles. The vertices of the triangles are known as triangulation stations. The
side of the triangle whose length is predetermined, is called the base line. The lines of
triangulation system form a network that ties together all the triangulation stations. The
method of surveying called triangulation is based on the trigonometric proposition that if one
side and two angles of a triangle are known, the remaining sides can be computed.
Furthermore, if the direction of one side is known, the directions of the remaining sides can be
determined.
4.1 Objective Of Triangulation Surveys

The main objective of triangulation or trilateration surveys is to provide a number of stations
whose relative and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical, are accurately established.
More detailed location or engineering survey are then carried out from these stations.
The triangulation surveys are carried out
I. to establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas, by terrestrial
methods,
II. to establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of large areas,
III. to assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making observations
for latitude, longitude and gravity, and
IV. to determine accurate locations of points in engineering works such as :
(a) Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large rivers.
(b) Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
(c) Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water bodies,
etc.
(d) Detection of crustal movements, etc.
(e) Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.
4.2 Classification Of Triangulation System
43
Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of accuracy
desired, triangulation surveys are classified as first-order or primary, second-order or
secondary, and third-order or tertiary. First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape
and size of the earth or to cover a vast area like a whole country with control points to which a
second-order triangulation system can be connected. A second-order triangulation system
consists of a network within a first-order triangulation. It is used to cover areas of the order of
a region, small country, or province. A third-order triangulation is a framework fixed within and
connected to a second-order triangulation system. It serves the purpose of furnishing the
immediate control for detailed engineering and location surveys.
Table 4.1: General Specifications for the Three Types of Triangulation Systems.
S/N. Characteristics First-order Second-order Third-order
triangulation triangulation triangulation
1. Length of base lines 8 to 12 km 2 to 5 km 100 to 500 m
2. Lengths of sides 16 to 150 km 10 to 25 km 2 to 10 km
3. Average triangular error less than 1" 3" 12"

(after correction for
spherical excess)
4. Maximum station closure not more than 3" 8" 15"
5. Actual error of base 1 in 50,000 1 in 25,000 1 in 10,000
6. Probable error of base 1 in 10,00,000 1 in 500,000 1 in 250,000
7. Discrepancy between two 5 √k mm 10 √k mm 25 √k mm

measures (k is distance in
kilometer)
8. Probable error of the 1 in 50,000 to 1 1 in 20,000 to 1 1 in 5,000 to 1

computed distances in 250,000 in 50,000 in 20,000
9. Probable error in 0.5" 5" 10"

astronomical azimuth
4.3 Triangulation Figures And Layouts

The basic figures used in triangulation networks are the triangle, braced or geodetic
quadrilateral, and the polygon with a central station.
44
Polygon with central station Triangle

Braced quadrilateral
The triangles in a triangulation system can be arranged in a number of ways. Some of the
commonly used arrangements, also called layouts, are as follows:
I. Single chain of triangles
II. Double chain of triangles
III. Braced quadrilaterals
IV. Centered triangles and polygons
V. A combination of above systems.
i. Single chain of triangles

When the control points are required to be established in a narrow strip of terrain such as a
valley in between ridges, a layout consisting of single chain of triangles is generally used as
shown in Fig. 1.4. This system is rapid and economical due to its simplicity of sighting only four
other stations, and does not involve observations of long diagonals. On the other hand, simple
triangles of a triangulation system provide only one route through which distances can be
computed, and hence, this system does not provide any check on the accuracy of observations.
Check base lines and astronomical observations for azimuths have to be provided at frequent
intervals to avoid excessive accumulation of errors in this layout.
Single Chain of Triangle
ii. Double chain of triangles
45
A layout of double chain of triangles is shown in Fig. 1.5. This arrangement is used for covering
the larger width of a belt. This system also has disadvantages of single chain of triangles
system.
Double Chain of Triangle
iii. Braced quadrilaterals

A triangulation system consisting of figures containing four corner stations and observed
diagonals shown in Fig. 1.6, is known as a layout of braced quadrilaterals. In fact, braced
quadrilateral consists of overlapping triangles. This system is treated to be the strongest and
the best arrangement of triangles, and it provides a means of computing the lengths of the
sides using different combinations of sides and angles. Most of the triangulation systems use
this arrangement.
Example: E C
C,
C
dN
Fin 468
Me .13m
asu
re
dis
tan
c e
cen
sta
ea 6m
di
Solve for
re
M 4.5
su
B
33
angle A
NB, EB
1125.00, 1250.00
A
NA, EA
800.00, 650.00
C
Alternative
solution for
location of C
46
i. Calculate angles A, B and C

ii. Calculate Bearings AC and BC
iii. Calculate the coordinates of C from line AC and BC
Step I
Compute the bearing and distance AB
Bearing AB = 61° 33’ 25.46”
Distance AB =
Step II
Using cosine formula, compute angles <A, <B and <C
<A =
<A =
<B =
<B =
<C = 180 – ( )
<C = 115 ° 26’ 22.28”
Step III
Compute the Bearing AC and BC
Bearing AC=Bearing AB - <A
= (61° 38’ 25.46” - 38° 16’ 51.12”)
= 23°21’34.34
Bearing BC = Bearing BA+<B
=241°38’25.46” + 26°16’ 46.6”
= 267°55’12.06”
Step IV
Compute the coordinate of C
47
From line AC
NC= NA+DACCosBrgAC
EC=EA+DACSinBrgAC
NC=800+334.56Cos23°21’34.34”
EC=650+334.56Sin23°21’34.34”
NC=800+307.138 =1107.138mN
EC=650+132.653=782.653Me
From line BC
NC=NB+DBCCosBrgBC
EC=EB+DBCSinBrgBC
NC=1125-16.991=1108.009Mn
EC=1250-467.822=782.178Me
Sum
NC=1107.57Mn
EC=782.42mE
48

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THE FEDERAL POLYTECHNIC ADO EKITI

DEPARTMENT OF SURVYING AND GEOINFORMATICS

BASIC PRINCIPLES IN SURVEYING II

1.0 Distance Measurement

Distance is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying. Although frequently measured

1.1. Types of Distance Measurement

1.2. Methods of Linear Surveying

Linear surveying methods can be broadly divided into two heads:

1.3. Measure Distances Using of Theodolite as Tacheometer

Tacheometry Definition:- Tacheometry or tachemetry or telemetry is a branch of angular

Differences between theodolite and tacheometer.

II. Levelling or stadia rod.

Types of Telescope in Tacheometry.

Advantages of anallatic lens.

Essential characteristics of Tacheometer.

Horizontal Distance D = (f/i) S Cos2θ+ (f+c) Cosθ

Systems of Tachometric Measurement

1.4. Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM)

D 3.240, 3.047, 2.853 020 21’ 07” 560 49’31”

L 2.458, 2.230, 2.002 020 21’36” 980 07’ 18”

Figure 1.2 tacheometric Exercise.

The tacheometer at every time has two constants namely;

Table 1.0: Stadia readings

Horizontal distance Reading on staff.

Lower wire Upper wire

Find the values of these constant.

Using equation (iv)

Subtracting equation (1) from (2)

Substituting the value of K into equation (1)

1.6. Principle Of Subtense Bar Tachometry

SOURCES OF ERRORS IN SUBSTENSE TACHEOMETRY.

i). Incorrect length of bar.

iv). Errors in measured substense angle.

SOLUTION b). H2 = b/2 tan-1 0/2

c). H3 = b/2 tan-1 0/2 d). H4 = b/2 tan-1 0/2

= 3/2 tan-1 040 20’

You are required to find θ

2.1. Types of traverses

2.3. Types of Measured Angles

2.4. Field procedures of Traverse Survey

iii. Station marking

iii. STATION MARKING

iv. MEASUREMENT OR FIELDWORK

2.6. Terms used in Theodolite Traversing

2.7 Starting Control (Traverse Requirements)

2.8 Azimuth And Bearing

Azimuth, are angle measured clockwise from any reference meridian.

Angle Varies from 00 - 900 Varies from 00 - 3600

Description It lies between of the four letters No letter is necessary

Measurement from North $ South

OB=S25E OB=1800 - 250 =1550

OC=S30W OC=1800 + 250=2100

OD=N45W OD=3600 - 450 =3150

2.9. Plotting A Traverse Survey

There are two principal methods of traverse survey:

Traverse computations is the process of taking field measurement through a series of

Traditional traverse computation steps are:

1. Balance (adjust) angles

2. Determine line directions

3. Compute latitudes and departures

4. Adjust the traverse misclosure

5. Determine adjusted line lengths and directions