ARCHITECTURAL REPRESENTATION AND DETAILING

SEMESTER – 4

BARC 407

RIYA YOGESH PATIL

ROLL NO. 20

ACADEMIC YEAR 2020-2021

VIVA SCHOOL OF ARCHITECTURE

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1. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY LINEAR MEASUREMENTS?

LINEAR MEASUREMENTS:
o The determination of the distance between two points on the surface of the earth is one of
the basic operation of surveying. Measurement of horizontal distances or measuring linear
measurement is required in chain surveying, traverse surveying and other types of
surveying.
o Surveyors are concerned with the measurement of vertical and horizontal distances and
angles and, even more recently, with direct positioning. These, then, are used in a variety of
combinations in traversing, triangulation, trilateration, mixed-mode operations, mapping,
layout staking, leveling, etc.
o Attributes that are measured by linear measurement are length, height, width, and
distance. In surveying, Chaining is a term that is used to denote measuring distance either
with the help of a chain or a tape and is the most accurate method of making direct
measurements. For work of ordinary precision, a chain can be used, but for higher
precision, a tape or special bar can be used.
o Methods of making linear measurements:

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a. DIRECT METHOD:
In the direct method, the distance is actually measured during field work using a chain or a
tape. This is the most commonly used method for linear measurements.
b. OPTICAL METHOD:
In the optical methods, principles of optics are used. The distance is not actually measured in
field but it is computed indirectly. The instrument used for making observations is called
tachometer.
c. E.D.M METHOD:
Electronic Distance Measuring (E.D.M) instruments have been developed quite recently. These
are practically replacing the measurement of distances using chains or tapes. There is a large
variety of such instruments and depending upon the precision required the instruments should
be used.

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2. WRITE METHODS OF MAKING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS.

There are various methods of making linear measurements and their relative merit depends
upon the degree of precision required.
They can be mainly divided into three heads:
A) DIRECT MEASUREMENTS:
Distances are actually measured on the ground with help of a chain or a tape or any other
instrument.
Various methods coming under the direct method of linear measurement are:
a. Linear Measurement by Pacing: The pacing technique is mostly employed in
preliminary surveys and explorations. In this method, the surveyor is required to
conduct a rough survey quickly. This also roughly check the distance measured by other
means. In this method, the number of paces between the two points of the line is
counted. Knowing the average length of the pace helps to know the length of the line.
The length of the pace is dependent on the person who is measuring, the ground, the
speed of pacing and the slope of the country. By walking on an approximate level
ground over various lines of known lengths helps to determine the length of one’s
natural step. Performing pacing over rough ground or on slopes is a difficult process.

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b. Linear Measurement by Passometer: The passometer is a watch like instrument that is

carried on the person’s pocket or tied on the man’s leg. This instrument records the
paces when the man moves from one point to another. This technique hence
overcomes the monotony and strain in counting the paces by the surveyor. The distance
is calculated as the product of the number of paces and the average length of the pace.

c. Linear Measurement by Pedometer: Pedometer is a similar device like passometer that

automatically measures the distance. A pedometer is best in measuring the vertical
distances. It is adjusted to the length of the pace of the person carrying it. It registers
the total distance covered by any number of paces.

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d. Linear Measurement by Odometer and speedometer: Odometer is an instrument that

measures the number of revolutions of a wheel. The number of revolutions taken to
cover the length multiplied by the circumference of the wheel gives the value of the
distance covered. This instrument does not provide accurate results on an undulating
surface. When the surface is smooth, the speedometer used in the vehicles can be used.
If the route is smooth, the speedometer of an automobile can be used to measure the
distance approximately. The Speedometer of an automobile may be used to measure
distances approximately. It gives better results than pacing, provided the route is
smooth.

e. Linear Measurement by Chaining: Chaining method determines the distance by means

of a tape or a chain. This is one of the accurate methods to determine the linear
measurements. The chain is used for ordinary precision. Tape or a special bar is used to
measure distance with high precision. No matter how accurately angles may be
measured, the survey can be no more precise than the chaining. The various
instruments used for the determination of the length of line by chaining are Chain or
tape, Arrows, Pegs, Ranging, rods, Offset rods, Plumb bob.

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B) MEASUREMENTS BY OPTICAL MEANS:

Observations are taken through a telescope and calculations are done for the distances, such as
in tachometry or triangulation. Tachometer is a surveying method utilized to quickly determine
the horizontal distance to, and elevation of, a point. The apparent intercepted length between
the bottom and top wires is read onto a graduated rod held vertically in the desired stage.The
space from the telescope to a rod is seen by proportional relationships in similar triangles.
Accuracy of 1/500 of this distance is achieved with reasonable care.

C) ELECTRONIC METHODS:
Distances are measured with instruments that rely on propagation, reflection and subsequent
reception of either radio or light waves. The instruments used under the electronic methods are
Geodimetric, Tellurometer, and Decca Navigator, etc.
The main instrument for surveyors on site today is the ‘total station.’ It is an instrument that
combines the angle measurements that could be obtained with a traditional theodolite with
electronic distance measurements.

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3. ENLIST THE EQUIPMENT USED FOR CHAIN SURVEYING WITH

SKETCHES/IMAGES.

CHAIN SURVEYING:
Chain surveying is the branch of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in the
field. This is suitable for the survey of small areas with simple details and an area that is fairly
flat. It derives its name from the fact that the principle equipment commonly used is the chain.
Instruments used for chain surveying:
THE VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING ARE AS FOLLOWS:
o Chain
o Tapes
o Arrows
o Pegs
o Ranging rods
o Offset rods
o Plumb bob
1) CHAIN:
o Chains are used to measure horizontal distances.
o Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire called links.
o The ends of each link are bent into a loop hand connected together by means of three oval
rings which afford flexibility to the chain.
o The chains are made up of mild steel.
o The ends of the chin are provided with brass handles for dragging the chain on the ground.
o The outside of the handle is the zero point or the end point of the chain and the length of
the chain measured from the outside of one handle to the outside of the other.
o The length of a link is the distance between the centers of the two consecutive middle rings.
o The end links include the handles.

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o Metallic tags are indicators of the chain to facilitate quick reading of fraction of a chain in
surveying measurements.
o Metric survey chains are available in lengths of 20m and 30m.
o The 20m chain contains 100 links whereas 30m.
o Chain contains 150 links. One link of both the type of chain measure 20cm.

DETAILS OF METRIC CHAIN

THE MAJOR TYPES OF CHAINS ARE:

o Metric Chains
o Gunter's Chain or Surveyor's Chain
o Engineer's Chain
o Revenue Chain
o Steel Band or Band Chain

2) TAPES IN SURVEYING
Tapes are used for accurate measurement of distances. The major types of tapes used in
surveying are:
o Linen Tape
o Metallic Tape
o Steel Tape
o Invar Tape

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3) ARROWS:
o Arrows or making pins are made of tempered steel wire 4mm in diameter and generally 10
arrows are supplied with a chain.
o An arrow is inserted into the ground after the chain length is measured on the ground.
o Usually the length of an arrow is 40cm and one end of it is made sharp and the other end is
bent into a circle for facility of carrying.

ARROWS

4) PEGS IN CHAIN SURVEYING:

o Pegs are made out of timber as shown below with a cross-section of 2.5 x 2.5 or 3 x 3 cm.
o It has a length of 15cm, with flat end at one side and pointed at the other end.
o Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of stations or terminal points of a survey line.

PEGS

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5) RANGING RODS:
o Ranging rods are rods with length of 2m, 3m or 4m with a circular cross-section of 30 mm in
diameter.
o These rods are provided with a iron shoe at the bottom and are painted red , black and
white bands of 20 cm.
o It can be used for rough measurements of short length when necessary.
o For long distance ranging, we can make use of flags at the end.

RANGING RODS

6) OFFSET RODS:
o Offset rods are used to locate the measuring offsets.
o It is 3 m long that is made of seasoned wood and graduated in meters.
o One meter at each end is subdivided into alternate black and white bands of 5 cm each.

OFFSET RODS

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7) PLUMB BOB:
o While chaining along sloping ground, a plump is required to transfer the points to the
ground.
o It is also used for accurate centering of the theodolite compass, plane table etc over a
station mark and for testing the vertically of ranging poles.

PLUMB BOB
8) CROSS STAFF:
o This is the instrument used for setting out right angles to a chain line.
o It consists of either a frame or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on a pole
shod for fixing in the ground
a. Open cross staff
b. French cross staff
c. Adjustable cross staff

Open cross staff French cross staff Adjustable cross staff

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9) MALLET:
Wooden mallets are used for driving the wooden pegs into the ground.

PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING:

The rectangle is the simplest fig that can be plotted from the lengths of its sided. Based on this,
the principle of chain surveying is to divide the area to be surveyed into a network of connected
triangles. Hence chain surveying is some times called chain triangulation. The exact
arrangement of triangles to be adopted depends upon the shape and configuration of the
ground and obstacles met with. When it contains no angle smaller than 30degree greater than
120 degree.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CHAIN SURVEYING ADVANTAGES:

ADVANTAGES:
o Chain surveying is suitable for fairly level ground
o It does not require costly equipments
o It is used for preparing plans of smaller area
o It is simple

DISADVANTAGES:
o It is cannot used for large areas
o It is not always accurate

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4. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY RANGING? EXPLAIN DIRECT RANGING.

RANGING:
o The process of fixing or establishing intermediate points to facilitate measurement of the
survey lines are called as Ranging. The intermediate points are located by means of ranging
rodes, offset rods and ranging poles.
o While measuring the survey lines, the chain or the tape has to be stretched along the survey
line along that joins two terminal stations.
o When the line to be measured has a smaller length compared to the chain, then the
measurement goes smooth.
o If the length of the line is greater, the survey lines have to be divided by certain
intermediate points, before conducting the chaining process. This process is called ranging.

RANGING

THE PROCESS OF RANGING CAN BE DONE BY TWO METHODS:

a. Direct Ranging
b. Indirect Ranging

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DIRECT RANGING:
o Direct ranging is the ranging conducted when the intermediate points are intervisible.
o Direct ranging can be performed by eye or with the help of an eye instrument.

DIRECT RANGING
(A) RANGING BY EYE
o It is the type of method of direct ranging that is done simply by the aid of the eyes of the
surveyor.
o As shown in figure-1 below, let A and B are the two intervisible points at the ends of the
survey line.
o The surveyor stands with a ranging rod at the point A by keeping the ranging rod at the
point B.
o The ranging rod is held at about half meter length.
o The assistant then takes the ranging rod and establishes at a point in between AB, almost in
line with AB.
o This is fixed at a distance not greater than one chain length from point A.
o The surveyor can give signals to the assistant to move traverse till the rod is in line with A
and B. In this way, other intermediate points are determined.

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RANGING BY EYE

(B) RANGING BY LINE RANGER:

o Ranging by Line Ranger is the type of direct ranging method in which the intermediate
points are fixed directly utilizing an instrument known as line ranger.
o The line ranger is an instrument that has either two plane mirror arrangement or two
isosceles prisms that are placed one over the other.
o The arrangement and silvering of the diagonals of the prism are done such that they reflect
incident rays.
o The figure-2 below shows a line ranger that has either two plane mirror arrangement or two
isosceles prisms that are placed one over the other.
o The diagonals of the prism are arranged and silvered such that they reflect incident rays.
o In order to handle the instrument in hand a handle with hook is provided. The hook is to
enable a plumb- bob to help transfer the point to the ground.
o In order to range the point ‘P’, initially two rods are fixed at points A and B. By eye
judgment, the surveyor holds the ranging rod at P almost in line with AB.
o The lower prism a-b-c receives the rays coming from A which is then reflected by the
diagonal ac towards the observer.

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o The upper prism d-b-c receives the rays from B which is then reflected by the diagonal b-d
towards the observer.
o Hence the observer can see the images of the ranging rods A and B, which might not be in
the same vertical line as shown in figure-2(c).
o The surveyor moves the instrument till the two images come in the same vertical line as
shown in figure-2(d).
o With the help of a plumb bob, the point P is then transferred to the ground. This instrument
can be used to locate the intermediate points without going to the other end of the survey
line.
o This method only requires one person to hold the line ranger.

RANGING BY LINE RANGER

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5. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF SURVEYING

CHAINS.

Chains are the measuring instrument used in surveying formed by the 100 links of 4mm
galvanized mild steel wire. These links are joined by 3 circular or oval wire rings. These rings
provide the flexibility to the chains.

PARTS OF CHAINS USED IN SURVEYING:

The chain consists of many small parts used for handling or reading the measurements.
o At the ends chain is provided with brass handle with swivel joint so that it can be easy to roll
or unroll the chain without twisting and knots.
o At every 10th link is provided with a tally of one teeth, 20th link with a tally of two teeth
and so on till 40th link. This is provided for the easy reading of measurements.
o At the center of the chain is provided with a circular tally used for easy reading.

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TYPES OF CHAINS USED IN SURVEYING:

Depending upon the length of the chain, these are divide into following types,
a) Metric chains
b) Steel band or Band chain
c) Gunter’s chain or surveyor’s chain
d) Engineer’s chain
e) Revenue chain

a) METRIC CHAINS
o Metric chains are the most commonly used chain in India. These types of chains comes in
many lengths such as 5, 10, 20 and 30 meters.
o Most commonly used is 20m chain. Tallies are provided at every 2m of the chain for quick
reading. Every link of this type of chain is 0.2m. The total length of the chain is marked on
the brass handle at the ends.

METRIC CHAIN BAND CHAIN

b) STEEL BAND OR BAND CHAIN

o These types of chain consist of a long narrow strip of steel of uniform width of 12 to 16 mm
and thickness of 0.3 to 0.6 mm. this chain is divides by brass studs at every 20cm or instead
of brass studs, band chain may have graduated engraving as centimeter.
o For easy use and workability band chains are wound on steel crosses or metal reels from
which they can be easily unrolled. These steel bands are available in 20m and 30m length
and the width of about 12-16mm.

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c) GUNTER’S CHAIN OR SURVEYOR’S CHAIN:

Gunter chain comes in standard 66ft. These chain consists of 100links, each link being 0.66ft or
7.92inches. The length 66ft is selected because it is convenient in land measurements.
10 square Gunter’s chains = 1 Acre
10 Gunter chains = 1 Furlong
80 Gunter chains = 1 mile

GUNTER CHAIN ENGINEER’S CHAIN

d) ENGINEER’S CHAIN:
This chain comes in 100ft length. Its consist of 100 links each link being 1ft long. At every 10
links a brass ring or tags are provided for indication of 10 links. Readings are taken in feet and
decimal.

e) REVENUE CHAIN:
The standard size of this type of chain is 33ft. The number of links are 16, each link being 2 ft.
This chain is commonly used in cadastral survey.

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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CHAINS IN SURVEYING:

ADVANTAGES OF CHAINS IN SURVEYING:

o Chain survey is simplest and commonest method used in surveying exercises
o The equipment used to conduct chain survey are simple to use,
o The equipment used in chain survey can easily be replaced. For example measuring rods can
be replaced with measuring tape.
o This method does not involve complicated mathematical calculation. I know this is the relief
to those who are afraid of mathematics
o In chain survey few people are needed to conduct the survey. Normally chain survey team
has three people Booker, leader and follower.

DISADVANTAGES OF CHAINS IN SURVEYING:

o Simple chain survey cannot be conducted in built up areas and large areas.
o Simple chain survey is subject to several chances of errors of accumulation which may cause
by problem of chain. The chain linkage may fail to stretch up properly and result in
inaccurate data. Also clogging of chain may read to error in reading.
o It is time consuming
o It may not be conducted in areas with steep slopes or water logged areas. Chain survey is
usually conducted in dry areas with gentle slopes. It becomes more complicated when
survey is conducted in areas that are too wet.
o Chain survey becomes more complicated method when there are raised points (obstacles)
in between areas to be surveyed,

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6. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEASURING TAPES.

Tapes are used in surveying to take linear measurements. They are available in different lengths
and can be made of different materials.
TYPES OF TAPES USED IN SURVEYING
There are 5 types of tapes available in surveying for linear measurements and they are as
follows :
a. LINEN TAPE
b. WOVEN METALLIC TAPE
c. STEEL TAPE
d. SYNTHETIC TAPE
e. INVAR TAPE

a. LINEN TAPE:
o Linen tape, also known as cloth tape is a varnished strip made of closely woven linen. The
width of the strip is about 12 to 16 mm.
o It is available in different lengths such as 10m, 20m, 30m, and 50m. Both ends of the linen
tape are provided with metallic handles and the whole tape is wounded in leather or metal
case.
o Linen tapes are light in weight and easy to handle. These tapes may shrink when exposed
to water and also elongate when pulled.
o Hence, these tapes are not suitable for accurate surveying measurements. These are
generally used for measuring offsets and for ordinary works.

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b. WOVEN METALLIC TAPE:

o The metallic woven tape is an improved version of linen tape. Brass or copper made wires
are used as reinforcement for the linen material. Hence, it is more durable than normal
linen tape.
o A brass ring is provided at the end of the tape which is included in the length of the tape.
o These tapes are available in different lengths of 2m, 10m, 15m, 20m, 30m, and 50m. These
are used for survey works such as topographical survey works where minor errors are not
taken into consideration.

WOVEN METALLIC TAPE STEEL TAPE

c. STEEL TAPE
o A steel tape is made of steel or stainless steel. It consists of a steel strip of 6mm to 16mm
wide.
o Meters, decimeters, and centimeters are graduated in the steel strip. Steel tapes generally
came up with the metal case with automatic winding device.
o The tape is withdrawn from the case by using a hand during measuring and it is rewound
into the case by just pressing button provided on the case.
o Steel tapes are not flexible and are suitable for measuring leveled surfaces only. They may
corrode easily when exposed to moisture and to prevent this tape, it should be cleaned and
oiled after every use.
o These tapes are generally used for standardizing chains, measurements of constriction
works, etc.

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d. SYNTHETIC TAPE:
o Synthetic tapes are made of glass fibers coated with PVC. These are light in weight and
flexible. They are available in lengths of 5m, 10m, 20m, 30m, and 50m. Synthetic tapes may
stretch when subjected to tension.
o Hence, these are not suitable for accurate surveying works. However, synthetic tapes are
recommended in place of steel tapes where it is essential to take measurements in the
vicinity of electric fences and railway lines, etc.

SYNTHETIC TAPE INVAR TAPE

e. INVAR TAPE:
o Invar tapes are made of an alloy which consists of 36% of nickel and 64% of steel. Invar tape
contains a 6mm wide strip and is available in different lengths of 30m, 50m, 100m.
o The coefficient of thermal expansion of invar alloy is very low. It is not affected by changes
in temperature. Hence, these tapes are used for high precision works in surveying such as
baseline measurement, triangulation surveys, etc. Invar tapes are expensive than all the
other types of tapes. These tapes should be handled with care otherwise bends or kinks
may be formed.

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7. WRITE AND EXPLAIN PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING.

PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING:

o The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area to be surveyed is
divided into a number of small triangles which should be well conditioned.
o In chain surveying the sides of the triangles which should be well conditioned.
o In chain surveying the sides of the triangles are measured directly on the field by chain or
tape. and no angular measurements are taken.
o Here, the tie lines and check lines control the accuracy of work. It should be noted that
plotting triangles requires no angular measurements to be made, if the three sides are
known.

CHAIN SURVEYING IS RECOMMENDED WHEN:

i. The ground surface is more or less level
ii. A small area is to be surveyed
iii. A small-scale map is to be prepared
iv. The formation of well-conditioned triangles is easy

CHAIN SURVEYING IS UNSUITABLE WHEN:

i. The area is crowded with many details.
ii. The area consists of too many undulations.
iii. The area is very large.
iv. The formation of well-conditioned triangles becomes difficult due to obstacles.

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A) LARGE-SCALE AND SMALL-SCALE MAPS:

o When 1 cm of a map represents a small distance, it is said to be a large-scale map.
For example,
1 cm = 1m i.e. RF = 1/100
o When 1 cm of the map represents a large distance, it is called a small-scale map.
For example,
1 cm = 100 m i.e. RF = 1/0000
o A map having an RF of less than 1/500 is considered to be large-scale. A map of RF more
than 1/500 is said to be small-scale.

B) WELL-CONDITIONED AND ILL-CONDITIONED TRIANGLES:

o A triangle is said to be well-conditioned when no angle in it is less than 30 degree or
greater than 120 degree.
o An equilateral triangle is considered to be the best-condition or ideal triangle Well-
conditioned triangles are preferred because their apex points are very sharp and can be
located by a single 'dot”.
o In such a case, there is no possibility of relative displacement of the plotted point.
o A triangle in which an angle is less than 30 degree or more than 120 degree is said to be
ill-conditioned Well - conditioned triangles are not used in chain surveying.
o This is because their apex points are not sharp and well defined which is why a slight
displacement of these points may cause considerable error in plotting.

C) RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY AND INDEX SKETCH:

o Before the commencement of any survey work, the area to be surveyed is thoroughly
examined by the surveyor, who then thinks about the possible arrangement of the
framework of survey.
o This primary investigation of the area is termed as reconnaissance survey or
reconnoiter.

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o During reconnaissance survey, the surveyor should walk over the area and note the
various obstacles and whether or not the selected stations are intervisible.
o The main stations should be so selected that they enclose the whole area.
o The surveyor should also take care that.
o The neat hand sketch of the area which is prepared during reconnaissance survey is
known as the 'index sketch' or 'key plan'.
o The index sketch shows the skeleton of the survey work. It indicates the main survey
stations, sub-stations, tie stations, base line, arrangement for framework of triangles
and the approximate positions of different objects.
o This sketch is an important document for the surveyor and for the person who will plot
the map.
o It should be attached to the starting page of the field book.

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8. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON OPERATIONS IN CHAIN SURVEYING.

OPERATIONS IN CHAIN SURVEYING:

In these process, we take linear measurement between stations or between station and points
of any important structure like buildings etc.
IT INVOLVES THREE STEPS:
A) CHAINING
B) RANGING
C) OFFSETTING

A) CHAINING:
o For chain surveying, at least two men are required, but frequently three people are
employed.
o They are:
(1) The surveyor, who does the reading and booking,
(2) The leader, and
(3) The follower.
o Leader who present at forward end and drag chain forward and Follower who follow the
leader and present at rear end of chain.
o The leader insert arrow in ground while Follower collect the arrow from ground.
o If two points are present at lesser distance than the length of chain by estimation then
person directly mesured the distance with chain or tape.
o But if the distance between the station are larger then they took the help of arrows and
ranging rod.
o Firstly the Follower help the Leader to range the rod. After ranging the rod, the leader mark
the point and then stretch the chain toward the marked point.
o The leader insert an arrow at outer edge of chain which represent a full chain length. Then
the leader and follower repeat the same process till the end station reached.

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o The follower collected the previous arrows and give it to leader after stock out.
o If chaining is at slope ground, then we need only horizontal distance for plotting.
o The slope of any surface upto 3 taken as level surface. It involves following parts:
a. DIRECT METHOD (STEPPING METHOD):

b. INDIRECT METHOD:

B) RANGING:
It involves establishing the intermediate ranging rods in a line with the help of ranging rods in
order to make a straight path for chaining between stations. It can be done either by an
instrument or simply by eye.
The instrument may be a line ranger or a theodolite. Ranging can be classified into two
categories:
a) DIRECT RANGING
b) INDIRECT RANGING

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a. DIRECT RANGING:
It is used when we perform whole process on plain ground such that we can see other station
clearly. It can be done with by eye or by line ranger.
 Line Ranger: It is a small reflecting instrument consist of two rectangular prism placed
one above on another. It is used for ranging long lines when there is difficulty to reach
one end of line. The Observer take approximate intermediate position between the
stations. Then the ray from A enter from one side of ranger and ray from B enter from
another end present at opposite side of ranger. The images from both stations are seen
directly in upper and lower prism. The observer continuously change the instrument
position forward or backward until the images of both station coincide with each other.
The centre of instrument give the required position on ground.

DIRECT RANGING

b. INDIRECT RANGING:
When there is depression or high ground between the stations then it is difficult for ranging
betwen the station. It is also known as Reciprocal Ranging.
Suppose if there is hill between two stations then we perform ranging as picture below:
Firstly we take two intermediate stations by
approximation. We range A, M1, N1 by moving
the rod at M1 which give new point M2 and then
range N1 with M2, B give new point N2. These
process continuous till all point come in a straight
line.
INDIRECT RANGING

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C) OFFSETTING:
The method of measuring the distance of any object from chain line is known as Offset. The
offset can taken on either side of chain line. It is perform to get idea of how far an object locate
fron chain and plotted on sheet. The offsets are classified according to direction and length.

ACCORDING TO DIRECTION:
a. PERPENDICULAR OFFSET:
The measurement of distance at right angle from chain line. The offset are generally taken
at peripendicular direction in surveying. So an offset mean perpendicular offset in strict
case.
b. OBLIQUE OFFSET:
The measuring of distance at angle execpt 90 is called Oblique Offset. It is also know as Tie
Line offset. It is taken when distance is larger or when there is need of plotting corner of any
building.
In above image, Ab is chain line. P1P is perpendicular offset and QP is Oblique Offset.

ACCORDING TO LENGTH:
a. LONG OFFSET: The offsets greater than 15 m.
b. SHORT OFFSET: The offset lesser than 15m.

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9. DEFINE OFFSET. EXPLAIN PERPENDICULAR AND OBLIQUE OFFSET.

OFFSET:
The lateral measurement taken from an object to the chain line is known as ‘offset’. Offsets are
taken to locate objects with reference to the chain line. The lateral measurement taken from an
object to the chain line is known as ‘offset’. Offsets are taken to locate objects with reference
to the chain line. The second meaning of offset is used to locate objects at a 90 degree angle to
the centerline.
THEY MAY BE OF TWO KINDS:
o Perpendicular offset and
o Oblique offset.
A) PERPENDICULAR OFFSET: The offsets which are taken perpendicular to the chain line are
termed as perpendicular offsets. These offsets are taken by holding zero end of the tape at
the object and swinging the tape on the chain line. The shortest distance measured from
object to the chain line is usually the perpendicular offset.
o By setting a perpendicular by swinging a tape from the object to the chain line. The
point of minimum reading on the tape will be the base of the perpendicular (Fig. 11.a)
o By setting a right angle in the ratio 3:4:5 or 5:12:13 (Fig. 11.b)
o By setting a right angle with the help of builder’s square or tri-square (Fig. 11.c)

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B) OBLIQUE OFFSET: Oblique distance is always greater than perpendicular distance. All the
offsets which are not taken at the right angle to chain line are known as oblique offsets. Any
offset not perpendicular to the chain line is said to be oblique offset. Oblique offset taken
when the objects are at the long distance from the chain line or when it is not possible to
set up a right angle.Suppose AB is a chain line and p is the corner of a building. Two points
‘a’ and ‘b’ are taken on the chain line. The chain ages of ‘a’ and ‘b’ are noted. The distance
‘ap’ and ‘bp’ are measured and noted in the field book. Then ‘ap’ and ‘bp’ are the oblique
offsets (Fig. 12). When the triangle ‘abp’ is plotted, the apex point ‘p’ will represent the
position of the corner of the building.

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10. EXPLAIN 3-4-5 METHOD OF SETTING A PERPENDICULAR OFFSET.

One of the most important procedure used in setting out is the process of ensuring that all right
angle corners are properly aligned. One of the simplest ways is to use the method known as
3:4:5 triangle method.

PROCEDURE:
o A peg with a nail is fixed exactly at 3m from the corner peg on the fixed line.
o A measuring tape is the hooked to the nail on the corner peg and another tape is hooked to
the nail of the peg on the front line.
o Both the tapes are pulled towards the end wall and with distance of 4m showing on one
tape and 5m on the other tape. Where they cross third peg will be fixed.
o This will establish a line at 90 degree to the front line.

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AB is the chain line it is required to erect a perpendicular at C of the chain line. Establish a pt D
at 3 m distance. 5m & 6m marks are brought to gather to form a loop .The tape is stretched
tight by fastening the end D and C. The point D is established such that DE = 5 m and CE= 4 m
and CD = 3 m and DE2 = CD2 + DE2 • i.e. 5 2 = 3 2 + 4 2 = 25 thus Angle DCE = 90 0 • i.e. CE is
perpendicular to chain line at C.

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