Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups
FRED W. SCHENCK, Consultant (retired), Sun City, Arizona 85373–1113, United States
1. Introduction and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2. Properties of Glucose. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2. Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3. Chemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Raw Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. General Principles of Starch Hydrolysis . . . .
4.1. Production and Properties of Acid Glucose
Syrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. Production and Properties of Acid – Enzyme
Glucose Syrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.3. Production and Properties of Enzyme –
Enzyme Glucose Syrups. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Production of Solid Glucose. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1. Production of Total Sugars . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1. Introduction and History
The saccharides are among the most common
organic compounds found in nature and glucose
is by far the most abundant monosaccharide. D-
Glucose (D-glucopyranose) [50-99-7], C6H12O6,
Mr 180.159, is the primary six-carbon sugar (hex-
ose) found in the juice of most fruits and berries.
Starch (! Starch) and cellulose (! Cellulose,
Section 3.2) are composed of anhydroglucopyr-
anose units connected through a- and b-linkages,
respectively, to form long-chain polymers. Thus, a
considerable portion of the human diet is com-
posed of glucose in either the free or the poly-
merized state.
When a-linked polymers of glucose (starch)
are ingested, acid and enzymatic processes con-
vert these macromolecules to glucose in much
the same way that it is made commercially. The
digestive process begins in the mouth with the
action of salivary amylase. Final digestion is
accomplished by the action of numerous other
enzymes in the small intestine.
D-Glucose was probably known to early hu-
mans because it appears as granules in honey due
2012Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim
DOI: 10.1002/14356007.a12_457.pub2
45 5.2. Production of Pure Crystalline Products . . . . 56
48 6. Glucose – Fructose Syrups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
48 6.1. Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
48 6.2. Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
49 6.3. High-Fructose Syrups from Inulin. . . . . . . . . 60
49 7. Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
51 8. Legal Aspects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
9. Storage and Transportation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
53 10. Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
11. Economic Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
54 12. Physiological Properties and Toxicology of
Glucose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
54 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
56
56
to crystallization. However, despite the abun-
dance of glucose in nature, the disaccharide
sucrose has historically been the primary sweet-
ener for humans. Sucrose is sweeter than
glucose, and very pure crystals can be
recovered from syrups extracted from sugar
cane and sugar beets (! Sugar).
Most glucose, on the other hand, is bound up
as starch, requiring complicated manufacturing
processes to release its sweetness. The growth
of the glucose sweetener industry has been
based upon a classic response to market needs
for improved purity and functionality.
Pure glucose was first obtained from grape
juice by the German chemist A. S. M ARGGRAF in
1747 [1]. PROUST was one of the first to precipitate
a-D-glucose crystals from grape juice in 1801
[2]. The synonym for D-glucose, grape sugar,
owes its origin to this process.
The first sweetener created from starch was
the disaccharide maltose made in China about
1000 B.C. by the enzymatic hydrolysis of rice
[3]. By 1781, it was known in Europe that
starches could be treated with acids to produce
a soluble, sweet-flavored substance [4]. This
46 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups
knowledge was little more than a laboratory
curiosity until the Napoleonic Wars when the
blockade of cane sugar imports from the West
Indies provided incentive for the development
of alternative sweeteners.
In 1811, G. S. C. KIRCHOFF, who was looking
for a substitute for gum arabic (used in the
manufacture of porcelain), overcooked a
mixture of potato starch and sulfuric acid [5].
The sweet, syrupy substance that resulted
earned him a lifetime pension of 500 rubles per
year from the Russian Emperor.
KIRCHOFF recognized the commercial poten-
tial of his discovery and proceeded to improve
the process. He succeeded in preparing a syrup
that crystallized partially on standing, and from
which a solid product (impure D-glucose) could
be obtained by pressing the mass in cloth sacks.
This solid material contained large quantities of
uncrystallized syrup and was quite impure.
Nevertheless, serious attempts were made to
manufacture the product on a large scale. How-
ever, the defeat of Napoleon at Waterloo made
cane sugar available once again and the venture
was abandoned.
The French chemist SAUSSURE determined
that the acid conversion of starch was achieved
through a hydrolytic reaction that cleaved the
linkages between the anhydroglucopyranose
units in starch by adding one molecule of water
to each unit to produce the basic building
block, D-glucose. It was also recognized that
candies manufactured with glucose syrups were
not cloy-ingly sweet as were those made from
sucrose, thus allowing delicate flavors to reach
the palate. As a result, the ‘‘starch sugar’’
industry devel-oped in Europe (especially in
Germany) and in the United States [6].
Early efforts to improve the quality of ‘‘starch
sugars’’ were attempts to control the nonspecific
nature of the acid hydrolysis. The market needed
purer glucose, but early commercial production
(1880 – 1920) of crystalline glucose required
either repeated crystallization steps or crystalli-
zation from nonaqueous solvents. The only solid
form of glucose available in quantity at low price
at this time was a cast product; starch was acid
converted to as high a degree as possible, evapo-
rated to a thick syrup, and poured into molds
where it hardened into solid blocks. It was sub-
sequently removed from the molds, chipped into
small pieces, and sold.
Vol. 17
In the United States in 1923, WILLIAM B.
NEWKIRK (Corn Products Refining Company)
received a patent for developing a commercially
feasible process for the production of pure crys-
talline glucose [7]. By careful control of the
conditions during the crystallization step, large,
easily separable crystals could be produced
economically and an industry was born.
Although glucose and glucose-containing
syrups can have functional advantages over
sucrose (higher viscosity, greater solubility,
bland flavor, etc.) in certain applications, the
unmatched sweetness of sucrose prevented
glucose-containing syrups from capturing more
than about one-fifth of the caloric sweetener
market in the United States. In many of its uses,
sucrose in aqueous solution is treated with
either acid or enzymes to produce invert syrup
con-sisting of a 50 : 50 glucose – fructose
mixture (! Fructose, Section 2.1). Thus, in a
highly converted glucose syrup, isomerization
of half of the glucose to fructose would make
starch-based syrups about as sweet as those
made from sucrose.
Glucose isomerization under alkaline condi-
tions (see Section 2.3), which increases sweet-
ness somewhat, results in a highly colored
product with off-flavor. In 1957, a xylose isom-
erase enzyme was reported to convert glucose
to fructose [8], and a US patent was issued to
the Corn Products Refining Company in 1960
[9]. However, no industrial activity was imme-
diately pursued in the United States, and glucose
isomerase research shifted to Japan in the 1960s
[10].
Once the economical enzymatic conversion
of glucose to fructose had been demonstrated
by the Japanese, the technology moved back to
the United States. In 1965, the Clinton Corn
Proces-sing Company (United States) and the
Japanese Agency of Industrial Science and
Technology worked together to commercialize
fructose-con-taining syrups made in the United
States by enzymatic isomerization of glucose.
At about the same time, the first batchwise
production began in Japan.
The degree of enzymatic isomerization of
glucose to fructose depends on a number of
operating parameters. Because higher fructose
content is desired, higher operating temperature
and/or increased reaction time is required. How-
ever, both of these process conditions reduce
Vol. 17 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 47

the effective enzyme productivity. Although

enzymatic isomerization of glucose to fructose
in excess of 50 % db (dry basis) is possible,
conversion to a 42 % db fructose content was
chosen as the best balance between increased
sweetness and process economics. The first
com-mercial shipment of 42 % fructose syrup
in the United States was made in 1968.
This new sweetener began to replace sucrose
in many liquid applications (see Table 1), but it Figure 1. Per capita US sweetener consumption by type
was not sweet enough to satisfy the demands of 1965 – 2005
the most important U.S. soft drink producers.
By use of chromatographic separation techni-
ques, the 42 % fructose syrup was enriched to a The first large-scale production of 55 %
fructose content in excess of 90 % db. Blending fruc-tose syrup began in 1978; by 1984,
this enriched syrup with 42 % fructose syrup, fructose syrups derived from glucose had
the sweetness level of total invert syrup was replaced sucrose in nearly 100 % of the soft
matched at 55 % fructose content. More than 50 drinks pro-duced in the United States,
% fructose was required because the various substantially reducing sucrose consumption.
glucose polymers remaining in the syrup, due to Today, glucose-based sweeteners account for
incomplete starch hydrolysis have a lower more than half of the total caloric sweeteners
sweetening power. consumed in the United States (see Fig. 1)[12].
North America, led by the United States, is the
dominant leader in the production and consump-
tion of glucose – fructose syrups, consuming 74.1
% of the world production of 11.8 106 t (dry
Table 1. Distribution by industry of crystalline glucose, glucose – basis) today, followed by Asia and Oceania at
fructose, and glucose-containing syrups in the United States (in 103 14.8 %, with European consumers using 7.1 %
t, commercial basis) [11]
and Latin America and Africa accounting for the
Year Baking Beverage Canning Confectionery Dairy Total remaining 4 % [13]. This market dominance is
Crystalline glucose
expected to continue for the forseeable future the
1965 177 9 23 36 5 440 major market growth (on a percentage basis)
1970 172 9 23 50 7 515 expected in Asia [14] has not occurred, because
1975 159 18 14 63 7 515 genetically modified organism (GMO) regula-
1980 50 68 5 54 2 430
1985 57 82 2 59 1 460
tions have complicated maize procurement and
1990 75 100 4 75 1 500 low sugar prices have reduced substitution
1997 135 118 5 90 2 560 incentives [15]. Consumption of glucose –
2002 145 520 fructose syrups increased in the United States, on
Glucose – fructose syrups
average, by 19 % annually between 1980 and
1970 18 41 9 1 5 75
1975 127 281 63 5 36 700 1985 and grew much faster than population (4 %
1980 363 1093 236 14 141 2880 annually) between 1990 and 1995. The per capita
1985 424 4204 286 39 211 7180 nutritive sweetener consumption in the United
1990 440 5250 480 40 260 8270
States peaked about 1999; since then, per capita
1997 520 5270 660 45 360 10990
2002 660 5320 12060 consumption of glucose – fructose syrups has
Glucose-containing syrups fallen about 1 % per year [16]. Imports of sugar-
1965 209 36 104 408 159 1155 containing products may explain some of this
1970 222 95 100 440 213 1380 reduction but reasons may also include reduced
1975 313 204 172 417 277 1890
1980 195 385 127 444 240 1840
economic activity and a drop in the consumption
1985 142 356 141 467 274 1940 of baked goods and cereal products in the United
1990 180 365 165 480 275 2125 States [17].
1997 200 370 170 490 350 2955
2002 180 2780
Chromatographic enrichment to > 90 %
fructose syrups has allowed the economical
48 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups Vol. 17

production of crystalline fructose (! Fructose,

Section 2.1) [18]. New drying and encapsulation
technology claims to be able to produce solid
glucose–fructose syrups [19], so that they can be
used in certain dry applications as well.

2. Properties of Glucose
2.1. Structure

At the end of the 19th century, the general

structure of glucose was elucidated by EMIL
FISCHER. He found that the six carbon atoms of
the glucose molecule are linked in a straight
chain. At first glucose was thought to be an
open polyhydroxy aldehyde. However, more
than 99 % of the molecules exist as a six-
membered cyclic hemiacetal which is formed
by reaction of the aldehyde group with the
Figure 3. Mutarotation and alkali isomerization of glucose
hydroxy group at C 5. As a result, glucose does
not undergo the specific addition reactions
(e.g., with ammonia or sodium bisulfite) that from one anomeric form to the other through
are typical for aldehydes. the open chain aldehyde form (see Fig. 3).
Glucose predominantly occurs in nature in Chemical structure and conformation have
the form of the D-enantiomer which is therefore been confirmed with the aid of high-field
important commercially. D-Glucose is generally nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometry using
believed to exist in three crystalline forms: super-conducting magnets, advanced pulsars,
and expanded computer capabilities to perform
anhydrous a and b-D-glucose crystals are both
one and two-dimensional Fourier transform
orthorhombic while a-D-glucose monohydrate
experi-ments [24].
crystals are monoclinic (see Fig. 2). However, a
fourth form, thought to be a hydrated form of
b-D-glucose, has been reported [22]. 2.2. Physical Properties

Conformation. In aqueous solution, D- Some important physical properties of crystal-

glucose exists as a mixture of the a and b 4C1
chair forms (approximately 62 % b and 38 % a
when equilibrated at 31 C [23]) that mutarotate
line D-glucose are shown in Table 2. The large
positive heat of solution of the crystalline
mono-hydrate form imparts a unique cooling
effect to the palate when incorporated into
candy and icing in the crystalline state.

Table 2. Physical properties of D-glucose

a-D-Glucose a-D-Glucose b-D-Glucose

hydrate
Formula C O CH O
½a&D20
H O
6 12 6
!
a C6H12O6 H2!
a 6 12 6 !
a

Optical rotation 112.2 52.7 112.2 52.7 18.7 52.7

Specific heat of þ 59.4 þ105.1 þ 26.0
solution (25 C),
kJ/kg
Figure 2. Crystal forms of glucose [20], [21] A) a – Mono-
hydrate; B) a – Anhydrous; C) b – Anhydrous * Rotation of an a/b equilibrium mixture
¼
52.7 .
Vol. 17
Figure 4. Phase diagram for glucose – water solutions
a) a-Glucose monohydrate and ice; b) Ice and solution;
c) Solubility of glucose in water; before mutarotation to a-
,b-equilibrium; d) Anhydrous a-glucose and solution (a-,
b-equilibrium); e) a-Monohydrate and solution (a-,b-
equilibrium); f) a-Glucose (monohydrate and anhy-drous);
g) b-Glucose and solution; h) Unsaturated solution
Solubility is an important property of glu-
cose since it is crystallized commercially from
aqueous solution and many of its commercial
uses involve water systems. The solubility of
glucose in water is shown in Figure 4 [25].
Below a temperature of ca. 100 C, the stable,
crystal-line form of D-glucose is the a-form,
which crystallizes as a monohydrate below ca.
50 C; above ca. 100 C, the b-anhydrous form is
most stable.
2.3. Chemical Properties
Above a pH of 6.3, the open aldehyde form of
glucose rearranges to keto-D-fructose (Lobry de
Bruyn–van Ekenstein rearrangement ! Carbo-
hydrates: Occurrence, Structures and
Chemistry, see Fig. 3).
Glucose is a reducing sugar, i.e., it reacts
with oxidizing agents such as cupric hydroxide.
Cupric hydroxide oxidizes reducing sugars
more rapidly if the copper is kept in solution by
the formation of a complex salt with tartrate ion
Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 49
Table 3. Fermentable extract values of glucose and glucose-contain-
ing syrups a
Substrate Fermentable extract,
wt % db
36 DE 34.8 [27]
42 DE 41.5 [27]
54 DE 53.4 [27]
62 DE 70.0 [27]
64 DE 76.0 [28]
68 DE 79.0 [28]
Glucose – fructose syrup 95.0 [27]
Crystalline glucose 100.0 [27]
a
DE ¼ dextrose equivalents; db ¼ dry basis.
(Fehling’s solution) or citrate ion (Benedict’s
solution) to form red cuprous oxide. Benedict’s
solution is the more stable and is not affected
by uric acid; hence it is preferred for detection
of glucose in urine.
The inherent reducing property of glucose
inhibits oxidative degradation in food; glucose
maintains the bright red color of tomato catsup,
red berry preserves, and red meats without the
need for artificial antioxidants.
Glucose is fermented rapidly and completely
by yeast and other organisms. The degree of
fermentation possible (or fermentable extract)
of glucose and glucose-bearing syrups is shown
in Table 3.
3. Raw Materials
Starch (! Starch) is, for all practical purposes,
the only raw material used for commercial pro-
duction of glucose-containing syrups today,
although efforts have been made to utilize the
other natural glucose polymer, cellulose, as
well (! Ethanol, Section 5.4.3.).
All starches are polymers consisting of a-
linked anhydroglucopyranose units (Fig. 5 A).
Two types must be distinguished: Amylose (Fig. 5
B) is an essentially linear molecule in which the
anhydroglucopyranose units are linked almost
exclusively via a-1,4-bonds. Amylopec-tin (see
Fig. 5 C) is a much larger, highly branched
molecule (the molecular mass of amy-lopectin is
ca. 1000 times that of amylose [29]); a-1,4
linkages predominate but there are a significant
number of a-1,6-linkages which lead to
branching. The proportion and structure of these
fractions in starch granules vary, depending
50 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups Vol. 17

Figure 5. A) Anhydroglucopyranose unit. Shown as a 5-membered pyranose ring structure with each carbon identified by
number
B) Linear molecular structure from Amylose; normally a molecule consists of 200 – 6200 units linked together with a-1,4
bonds
C) Amylopectin. Each ‘‘bead’’ represents an anhydroglucopyranose unit.
D) A branch point is detailed to show an a-1,6 bond

on the botanical source of the starch (Table 4). In sources is higher (ranging from 1000 to 6200).
general, amylose from grain sources has a lower The amylopectin fractions have a much greater
degree of polymerization (DP), ranging from 200 DP, averaging about 2 106 with no major
to 1800, the DP of amylose from root or tuber difference between starch sources.

Table 4. Starch type, composition, and production [29–33]

Botanical Amylose Amylopectin World Principal

starch content, content, production, countries of
source wt % db* wt % db* 106 t/a production
Arrowroot 20 80 Brazil, China
Barley 19 – 23 77 – 81 Europe
Maize
Normal 26 – 28 72 – 74 27.6 United States, Japan,
Europe, former states of USSR
Waxy 0– 2 98 – 100 United States
High-amylose 55 – 85 15 – 45 United States, Australia
Potato 20 – 24 76 – 80 2.7 The Netherlands, Japan,
Poland, former states of USSR
Rice 14 – 26 74 – 86 Asia, South America
Sago 27 73 < 0.1 Indonesia, South America
Sorghum 22 – 27 73 – 78 Asia, United States
Tapioca 17 – 22 78 – 83 3.65 Thailand, Brazil
Wheat 19 – 27 73 – 81 2.92 Australia, Europe,
United States

* db ¼ dry basis
Vol. 17
Maize has become the leading source of starch
for conversion to sweeteners [34], although starch
from barley, sago, sorghum, wheat, rice, potato,
tapioca, and other starch-bearing grains and roots
serves as the raw material for the production of
glucose-containing syrups around the world.
About 70 % of the world production of maize
starch is converted to glucose-containing
sweeteners; nearly 100 % of the glucose-based
sweeteners produced in the United States and 84
% of the production in Japan are from maize. In
Japan it is required by law that one part potato
starch is used for every 12 parts corn starch for
fructose syrup production. Although the use of
wheat starch (as a coproduct of vital gluten
production) is increasing in Europe, glucose-
containing sweeteners produced there also
originate from maize starch. In Australia, how-
ever, all glucose-bearing syrups are produced
from wheat starch.
In Asia, factories often use sago, tapioca, or
maize (corn) starch for glucose production,
depending on the availability and price of each
ingredient. The starch source and purity have a
strong influence on manufacturing require-
ments, but a variety of starches can be used
successfully.
Figure 6. Hydrolysis of anhydroglucopyranose polymers
Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 51
In Thailand, for example, a syrup called
‘‘Chinese Maltose’’ is produced from wheat and
glutinous rice. In Pakistan, broken rice is used to
produce 42 % fructose and enzyme – enzyme
glucose syrups having qualities comparable to
products made from maize starch.
4. General Principles of Starch
Hydrolysis
Hydrolysis of starch occurs when linkages
between the anhydroglucopyranose units are
broken catalytically (by using either acid or
enzymatic catalysts in the presence of heat)
with the addition of water. The formation of the
monomer (D-glucose) and of dimers having a
1,4-(maltose) or 1,6-(isomaltose) configuration
are shown in Figure 6.
Mutarotation, (see Section 2.1), isomeriza-
tion reactions (see Section 2.3), and possible
repolymerization reactions, coupled with the
complex chemical structures of amylose and
amylopectin (which offer a number of possible
hydrolysis sites), provide the potential for the
creation of molecules having a nearly infinite
number of combinations of ketohexose units
52 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups
(! Carbohydrates: Occurrence, Structures and
Chemistry).
A simplified flow diagram illustrating the
process steps used to manufacture sweeteners
from starch is shown in Figure 7. Starch hydro-
lysis is catalyzed by both acids and enzymes.
Irrespective of the catalyst used, all processes
begin with a water slurry of starch granules. After
hydrolysis, insoluble protein, lipid material, and
some of the inorganic components present
initially in the starch are separated by either
centrifugation or filtration (or both). The pres-
ence of free starch due to incomplete hydrolysis
Figure 7. Simplified process flow for the production of sweeteners from starch
* HFS ¼ High-fructose syrup
Vol. 17
(detected by blue or purple hue with iodine
staining) leads to difficult separation and must
be avoided.
Additional impurities are removed by refin-ing
with activated carbon, decolorizing resins, or ion-
exchange resins, either singly or in com-bination,
before evaporation to final product solids
concentration. Because color-forming bodies are
ionic in nature and are efficiently removed by
resins, the total demineralization of syrups, with
or without carbon treatment, provides a product
with improved color removal and color stability
[83]. And, the removal of
Vol. 17
Table 5. Classification of glucose-containing syrups according to
dextrose equivalents (DE)
Degree of hydrolysis Accepted terminology
< 20 DE maltodextrins
20 – 38 DE type I syrup
38 – 58 DE type II syrup
58 – 73 DE type III syrup
73 DE type IV syrup
ionic material, notably chloride ions, reduces
the corrosives tendencies of syrups allowing
the use of less expensive materials of construc-
tion in process equipment located after ion
exchange.
Glucose-containing syrups are generally
categorized by their degree of conversion as
measured by the amount of reducing sugars
present. Although it is becoming more common
for customers to specify a range of saccharide
distribution to obtain desired functionality,
glucose syrups can be divided into groups on
the basis of their dextrose equivalent (DE) as
shown in Table 5.
Most glucose-bearing syrups are sold in liquid
form usually containing between 70 and 85 % dry
substance, but they can also be dried to form
granular, semicrystalline, or amorphous pro-ducts.
These ‘‘solid syrups’’ range in degree of
conversion from low-DE maltodextrins to highly
converted (> 96 % DE) ‘‘total sugars’’ [84].
4.1. Production and Properties of Acid
Glucose Syrups
In the acid conversion process, a starch slurry
usually having a dry substance content between
30 and 40 wt % is acidified to pH 2 or lower
and subjected to a combination of time,
tempera-ture, and pressure to effect hydrolysis.
Higher temperature, permitted by operation
under pressure, reduces the reaction time
consider-ably. KIRCHOFF’s conversion at
atmospheric pressure, for example, lasted 36 h,
early starch converters that were limited to
pressures of 35 kPa took 6 h to complete the
reaction. At 415 – 620 kPa and up to 160 C,
modern converters accomplish the conversion
within minutes. Acid conversion can be
accomplished by using either batch or
continuous equipment although continuous
conversion is used almost universally today.
Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 53
Table 6. Saccharide composition of acid-hydrolyzed glucose syrups
Dextrose equivalent (DE) of glucose syrup
Degree of
polymerization 27 – 30 34 – 36 42 – 43 55
DP 1 (glucose) 9 – 10 13 – 14 19 – 20 31
DP 2 (maltose) 8–9 11 – 12 14 18
DP 3 (maltotriose) 9 – 10 10 12 12 – 13
DP 4 (maltotetrose) 7–8 8– 9 9 – 10 10
DP 5 (maltopentose) 7 8 8 7
DP 6 (maltohexose) 6 6– 7 7 5
DP 7 (higher sugars) 50 – 54 40 – 42 29 – 31 16 – 17
When the desired degree of conversion is
achieved, temperature and pressure are reduced
and the reaction is stopped by addition of a
neutralizing agent (usually sodium carbonate),
raising the pH to 4 – 5.5. Insoluble compounds
are then removed, and the syrup is refined and
evaporated to the desired final concentration.
While acid conversion is a random-action
mechanism, it results in remarkably reproducible
saccharide composition for any given degree of
hydrolysis. Typical compositions of acid glucose
syrups are shown in Table 6. This reproducible
composition is actually a limitation of the acid
process because the manufacturer cannot influ-
ence the saccharide distribution for a given degree
of conversion, which is important in some
applications of glucose syrups.
Additionally, acid syrups having a DE value
below ca. 30 will tend to cloud upon standing
due to precipitation (retrogradation) of the lon-
gest chain linear polymers. Also, although acid
hydrolysis to DE values in the high 80s is
possible, the extreme conditions required to
produce DE values greater than ca. 55 promote
the formation of excessive amounts of glucose
degradation products (e.g., 5-hydroxymethyl-
furfural see Section 2.3) which are difficult to
remove during refining. These color precursors
cause the product to yellow eventually. The
most common acid glucose product has a DE
value of about 40 – 45 % because of these
upper and lower conversion limitations.
The limitations at both the low and the high
ends of the conversion spectrum, coupled with
the inflexible saccharide distribution resulting
from acid hydrolysis, led manufacturers to
investigate enzymatic hydrolysis as a means of
making improved glucose-containing syrups.
54 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups
4.2. Production and Properties of
Acid – Enzyme Glucose Syrups
Coupling a secondary enzymatic hydrolysis to
a preliminary acid cleavage allows expansion
of the range of DE values both up and down. It
also permits control over the saccharide
distribution by enzyme selection.
After acid hydrolysis, the temperature is low-
ered and the pH is raised to levels compatible
with the enzyme to be used; a pH between 4 and
6, and a temperature in the range of 60 – 70 C are
usually employed. Additionally, the degree of
acid hydrolysis is usually (but not always) lower
when making acid-enzyme syrups (see also !
Enzymes, 3. Food Application, Section 3.2.).
If the goal is a high glucose content, control
of the acid hydrolysis step to produce a DE of
10 – 20 is important. Higher DE levels result in
reduced glucose yield during subsequent enzy-
matic hydrolysis due to the presence of acid-
polymerization products that resist enzymatic
conversion; conversely, starch retrogradation
can occur with a DE less than 10, resulting in
problems during clarification.
If maximum glucose content is not the aim, a
higher DE value is usually chosen and the syrup
can be clarified immediately after acid hydrolysis
or the insoluble substances can be allowed to
remain during enzymatic conversion.
If the insoluble compounds are removed, the
acid hydrolysate can be enzymatically
converted continuously, by using immobilized
enzymes; otherwise, a batch treatment (with
single use of the enzymes) must be employed.
When the desired level of enzymatic conver-
sion is achieved by batch conversion, residual
enzymes are deactivated with heat or pH adjust-
ment, or are removed by refining. With immobi-
Table 7. Saccharide composition of various acid – enzyme glucose syrups
High maltose
DE DE 42 – 43 DE 48 – 50
DP1 (glucose) 6–8% 9 – 10 %
DP2 (maltose) 40 – 45 % 50 – 53 %
DP3 (maltotriose) 12 – 15 % 14 – 15 %
DP4 (maltotetrose) 3–7% 1–2%
DP5 (maltopentose) 2% 2%
DP6 (maltohexose) 2% 2%
DP7þ (higher polymers) 26 – 30 % 18 – 20 %
DP ¼ Degree of polymerization.
Vol. 17
lized enzyme treatment, the degree of conversion
is controlled by the flow rate through a bed of
insoluble enzymes; because the enzymes remain
in the converter, their removal from the syrup is
unnecessary. Refining and evaporation follow as
in acid glucose syrup manufacture.
Bacterial a-amylases (E.C. 3.2.1.1) [9000-
90-2] cleave a-1,4-linkages in a random
fashion whereas b-amylases (E.C. 3.2.1.2)
[9000-91-3] (and to a lesser degree, fungal a-
amylases) mainly produce maltose, again only
cleaving a-1,4-linkages. Glucoamylase (E.C.
3.2.1.3) [9032-08-0], on the other hand, splits
off one glucose molecule at a time from the
non-reducing end of the polymer by
hydrolyzing a-1,4-linkages; glucoamylase also
has the capability of splitting a-1,6 linkages but
at a much slower rate. Pull-ulanase (E.C.
3.2.1.41) [9075-68-7] can split a-1,6-linkages,
and addition of this enzyme in combination
with another enzyme(s) increases the capability
of tailoring saccharide distributions [30].
At first, enzyme conversion was used to
extend the degree of conversion upward,
primar-ily to maximize glucose production for
the manufacture of crystalline glucose as well
as for the production of sweeter, less viscous
glucose-containing syrups. However, it also
enabled selective production of either more
maltose or more glucose, depending upon the
enzyme chosen. This is illustrated by the
compositional data shown in Table 7.
4.3. Production and Properties of
Enzyme – Enzyme Glucose Syrups
The development of a-amylase from bacterial
sources capable of withstanding the high
High glucose
DE 60 – 63 DE 70 DE 95
31 – 36 % 43 – 47 % 92 %
31 – 36 % 27 – 30 % 4%
10 – 13 % 5–7% 1%
(DP4þ ¼ 20 – 23 %) 4–5% 1%
3–4% (DP5þ ¼ 2 %)
2–3%
9 – 10 %
Vol. 17 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 55

temperature needed to gelatinize starch Table 8. Effect of conversion method on composition of filtered
unrefined highly converted glucose-containing syrup
completely allowed the development of totally
enzymatic processes that further expanded Conversion method
control of saccharide range and distribution. A
total enzymatic conversion process eliminates Acid Acid – enzyme Enzyme – enzyme
the need for preliminary acid hydrolysis. Glucose content, % 86 93 97
Thermostable a-amylases are added to a Ash content, % 1.6 0.4 0.1
starch slurry (containing calcium as an enzyme HMF content, ppm* 3000 80 30
Color (relative) 10 0.3 0.2
stabilizer) that has been adjusted to a pH of 6 –
6.5. A pH lower than 6.3 is preferable to *
HMF ¼ 5-hydroxymethylfurfural.
prevent the formation of maltulose (4–O-a-D-
glucopyr-anosyl-D-fructose) [35]. Maltulose
This higher glucose yield is produced at the
cannot be converted enzymatically to glucose
expense of increased evaporation cost and risk of
and its formation reduces glucose yield.
microbial contamination, and is seldom used
The recent introduction of a novel a-amylase
commercially because chromatographic separa-
capable of liquefying starch at pH 4.5 without the tion technology has become available and allows
need for calcium ion addition has the potential to the increase of the glucose content of syrups to be
reduce chemical and refining costs as well as
> 99 wt % db. Nanofiltration has also been
possibly eliminate the formation of maltulose. used to enrich glucose content [37].
This enzyme’s action pattern reportedly can
Total enzymatic conversion also affects the
increase the production of saccharides with low
characteristics (via saccharide distribution) of
DP (1 – 4) while practically eliminating the higher less highly converted glucose-bearing syrups,
saccharides (DP 8þ). This characteristic allows as shown in Table 9. Syrup viscosity is an
higher solids levels during liquefaction important property that can be affected by
[36]. While presently employed for the shifting saccha-ride distribution.
manufac-ture of ethanol from starch and whole The viscosity is increased mainly by the
grains, the application in the manufacture of longer chain polysaccharides. Thus, at a con-
starch sugars holds interest. stant DE value, solids content, and temperature,
The slurry is heated, usually by direct steam an acid-hydrolyzed syrup would have the high-
injection, to ca. 103 – 107 C and held for 5 – 10 est viscosity, an acid – enzyme syrup would be
min to liquefy the starch completely. A sub- intermediate, and an enzyme – enzyme syrup
sequent holding period of 1 – 2 h at about 95 C would have the lowest viscosity. Viscosity
allows continued enzymatic activity to raise the affects the handling and storage temperature as
DE to a value between 10 and 15. The tempera- well as the application properties. Many desir-
ture and pH are then adjusted to levels compati- able results occur from lowering the viscosity,
ble with the enzyme used for the secondary including improved flavor release in sweets,
conversion. From this point, the process is lowering of boiling temperature in candy man-
similar to the acid – enzyme process. ufacture, faster operation of candy production
On the high end of the glucose conversion lines, and better ‘‘set’’ in jellies and jams.
scale, a totally enzymatic conversion greatly
increases the yield of glucose while decreasing Table 9. Saccharide distribution of 42DE syrups produced by differ-
the refining requirements. The composition of ent conversion methods
highly converted syrups produced by acid, acid
– enzyme, and totally enzymatic hydrolysis Conversion method
Degree of
with respect to glucose concentration and polymerization Acid Acid – enzyme Enzyme – enzyme
impurity content is shown in Table 8.
DP 1 19 6 2.5
Maximum glucose content during glucoamy- DP 2 14 45 56.0
lase saccharification is also determined by solids DP 3 12 12 16.0
content in the slurry; at 30 wt %, a glucose level DP 4 10 3 0.7
of 96 wt % db is usually achieved. Decreasing the DP 5 8 2 0.4
solids content to 10 – 12 wt % allows glu-cose DP 6 7 2 0.7

levels of 98 – 99 wt % db to be reached. DP 7þ 30 30 23.7

56 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups
Enzymatic conversion also allows the pro-
duction of syrups with reduced glucose content.
In the presence of protein, glucose undergoes
non-enzymatic browning due to the Maillard
reaction more readily than polymers of glucose.
Syrups with higher concentrations of glucose
polymers are more color stable.
5. Production of Solid Glucose
Whereas most glucose is sold as glucose-
containing syrups, a portion is sold as granular
free-flowing solids. In this form it can be incor-
porated into dry mix products and shipped
without the added cost of transporting water.
Bagged product accommodates smaller-scale
users. Solid products include total sugars and
pure crystalline forms of glucose (dextrose).
Total sugars are solidified hydrolysates that can
either be in glassy (amorphous) or crystalline
states. Pure glucose crystals are grown from
aqueous solution to form a slurry of pure
crystals in mother liquor (massecuite), the crys-
tals are separated from the mother liquor by
centrifugation and dried in hot air dryers.
5.1. Production of Total Sugars
When the entire starch hydrolysate is solidified, it
is called a total sugar. A variety of processes have
been developed to produce total sugars [84]. Dry
maltodextrins have a DE of less than 20 while
corn syrup solids have higher DE values, com-
monly between 24 and 48. Highly converted total
sugars usually contain between 95 and 99 % db
glucose although processes have been patented
for the production of fructose-bearing total sugars
and solid starch sugars that incorporate other
ingredients such as intense sweeteners.
About 40 % of the crystalline glucose sold
in Japan is a solidified hydrolysate (total sugar
form) of monohydrate glucose distantly related
to the cast product produced early this century
(but of much higher purity due to enzymatic
starch hydrolysis, modern refining methods,
and evaporation under high vacuum).
More than half of the crystalline glucose sold
in Korea is also a monohydrate total sugar that is
used as a carrier in many dry foods. These total
sugars are produced by using a modern, continu-
Vol. 17
ous solidification process that employs spray
drying of a partially crystallized, refined hydro-
lysate [38], [39].
However, with the exception of a relatively
small amount of spray-dried hydrolysate
products (a monohydrate product with the trade
name Cantab produced by Penford Products
Products Co., United States and an anhydrous
product manufactured by Cargill, United
Kingdom/ United States), total sugars have not
been the large market successes in the West
that they have in the Orient; in Europe and the
Americas, pure glucose crystals (in either the
monohydrate or the anhydrous form) are the
more universally accepted product.
5.2. Production of Pure Crystalline
Products
Initially, crystalline glucose was produced from
acid-converted starch hydrolysates. Because of
degradation products formed during
conversion, the maximum glucose content
achievable in the hydrolysate was limited to
about 88 % db. By 1938, enzymatic conversion
processes were being developed that provided
much purer sources from which crystalline
glucose could be manufactured.
Either continuous or batch crystallization
can be used to produce the desired crystals. In
con-tinuous crystallization, supply liquor is
either mixed with recycled seed crystals or new
crystals are formed by spontaneous nucleation.
In batch crystallization, a portion (usually 15 –
30 %) of the finished batch is retained in the
crystallizer and mixed with the supply liquor.
Supersaturation to promote crystal growth
can be achieved by either cooling or
evaporation [40], [41]. When continuous
crystallization is employed for the production
of monohydrate dextrose crystals that form
below 50 C, great care must be taken to prevent
microorganisms, primarily yeast, from acting
on the glucose solution. Yeast fermentation is
only a problem at the lower temperature and
solids levels, that occur at high crystal content
at the final crys-tallization conditions.
When producing glucose monohydrate, batch
crystallization has the advantage that the operat-
ing conditions at the beginning of the cycle
(highest temperatures and solids content) are
Vol. 17
hostile to yeast. Thus, when hot supply liquor is
mixed with a portion of the previous batch, any
yeasts that might be present are killed.
Because a conventional batch crystallizer
process retains a portion of the finished product to
be mixed with supply liquor for the next batch, a
more efficient process for the production of
glucose monohydrate has been proposed [42]. By
continuously producing a lean phase massecuite
in a continuous crystallizer, that is operated at
temperature and solids level hostile to yeast, and
then supplying this material to a batch crystal-
lizer to produce a high-crystal-content masse-
cuite suitable for centrifuging, the full operating
volume of the batch crystallizer is used for
production; the batch crystallizer is completely
emptied at the end of the crystallization cycle, and
the processing time devoted to seed mixing is
eliminated.
Since anhydrous glucose crystals form above
50 C, yeast fermentation is not an issue and
either batch or continuous crystallization can be
used.
Production of Glucose Monohydrate Crys-
tals. The a-D-glucose monohydrate crystals,
usually produced by batch crystallization, have
the largest share of the world market. Starting
material for the manufacture of glucose crystals
is a syrup with a glucose content of 95 – 96 wt
% db produced by enzymatic hydrolysis of
starch to the highest practical degree. This
syrup is produced and refined by using the
process described previously for the production
of enzyme – enzyme glucose syrups.
In a typical batch crystallization process, the
syrup is evaporated to a solids content of 74 – 79
wt %. Higher solids content results in in-creased
crystallizer productivity [43]. The supply is cooled
to about 46 – 50 C, and mixed with seed crystals
(left behind from the previous batch) in
crystallizers (see Fig. 8). As mentioned
previously, an alternative process having greater
productivity would utilize continuous crystalli-
zation to produce a lean massecuite that would be
supplied to the batch crystallizer, thus allowing
complete emptying of the batch unit at the end of
the cycle. Alternatively, continuous crystalliza-
tion could be used entirely.
The resulting mixture is cooled slowly,
usually by indirect heat transfer to a final tem-
perature between 20 and 40 C over 2 – 5 d
Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 57
Figure 8. Batch monohydrate glucose crystallizer A) Cut-
away view showing internals a) Motor and Speed reducer
which drives coil; b) Cooling water connections; c)
Rotating coil – agitator; d) External vessel shell
B) External side view a) Supply liquor inlet; b) Inspection
hatch; c) Bearing; d) Cooling water connections; e) Support
saddle; f) Massecuite discharge valve
during which about 60 % of the glucose is crys-
tallized in the a-monohydrate form, yielding a
viscous magma of crystals and mother liquor.
Exact values of the solids concentration, the
initial and final temperatures and the rate of
cooling depend on the glucose content of the
crystallizer supply [44–46].
The resulting magma is routed to perforated
screen centrifuges (usually batch machines) to
separate most of the mother liquor from the
crystals; most of the remaining mother liquor is
then removed by washing the crystals with a
spray of water.
The crystals are spun as dry as possible (about
14 wt % moisture content) and then transferred
to continuous rotary dryers (! Drying of Solid
Materials) where they are dried in a stream of
warm, filtered air to 8.5 – 9.0 wt % moisture
content, slightly below the theoretical moisture
content of the monohydrate (9.08 wt %).
Because crystallization of glucose monohy-
drate occurs satisfactorily despite the presence of
large quantities of impurities [4], [47], the mother
liquor can be reconcentrated and a second crop of
crystals can be recovered. The presence of
impurities alters the crystal size and shape; purer
liquors produce longer, narrower crystals than
those produced from less pure solutions [48].
Otherwise, a portion of the mother liquor can
be recycled and combined with the incoming
hydrolysate as supply to a single crystallization
step. Either process increases the yield of glucose
crystals from a given amount of hydrolysate.
58 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups
Recovery of as much as 87.5 % of the glucose
from the incoming hydrolysate as monohydrate
crystals has been reported [49]. By
reconverting the mother liquor, yields
approaching 100 % have been reported [85].
Production of Anhydrous Crystalline Glu-
cose. Anhydrous crystalline glucose is pro-duced
in evaporative crystallizers operated in either a
batch or a continuous mode. Anhydrous a-D-
glucose is usually produced in batch vacuum pan
evaporative crystallizers operated at 60 –
65 C. The crystallization cycles are much shorter
than those needed for monohydrate production,
usually only 6 – 8 h [4]. The crystals are separa-
ted from the mother liquor, washed, and dried in a
manner similar to monohydrate crystals, but the
final product moisture is less than 0.1 wt %.
Production of anhydrous glucose crystals is
more demanding than that of their monohydrate
relatives and they can only be successfully crys-
tallized from relatively pure solutions [4]. The
purest grades (U.S.P.) are produced from very
pure glucose syrups made by dissolving mono-
hydrate glucose crystals in water.
Anhydrous b-D-glucose can be produced by
operating the crystallization step slightly above
100 C [4]. Another commercial method of pre-
paring a crystalline glucose total sugar rich in the
b-anomer consists of spraying a hot, concentrat-
ed glucose syrup onto a moving bed of previously
made product at high temperatures (85 –
105 C) in a rotary dryer to yield a granular,
pearl-shaped crystal [50].
The b-anhydrous glucose is much more solu-
ble than the a-form (72 wt % vs. 30 wt % at
25 C, the solubility of the equilibrium a-b-
mixture is 51 wt % at 25 C).
6. Glucose – Fructose Syrups
6.1. Properties
Isomerization of glucose to fructose significantly
increases the sweetness of starch-based sweet-
eners. This single property propelled the market
share of starch sweeteners from 20 to over 50 %
in the United States. More than half of the starch-
based sweeteners sold in Japan and about two-
thirds of those sold in the United States are 42 and
55 % fructose syrups.
Vol. 17
Sweetening Power. Sweetening power
cannot be measured quantitatively in absolute
terms but can be determined subjectively by
using trained taste panels. Many factors includ-
ing stereochemical configuration influence the
perception of sweetness: a-glucose is definitely
sweeter than the b-form [51]. Stereochemistry
can explain the wide variation in reported
sweetness of fructose, whose crystalline form
b-D-fructopyranose undergoes rapid tautomer-
ization in solution to five forms: a and b-D-
fructopyranose as well as a and b-D-fructofur-
anose and open chained keto-D-fructose. Thus,
although crystalline fructose is reportedly 1.8
times as sweet as sucrose, solutions of fructose
are much less sweet than crystalline fructose
because of the tautomeric distribution in water
[52].
Concentration [51], temperature, and pH
[53] affect the perception of sweetness too. To
elimi-nate the possibility of enzymatic
hydrolysis in the taster’s mouth, rapid and
consistent evaluation procedures are required,
especially when tasting low-DE syrups.
In general terms, however, as the glucose
content of glucose-containing syrups increases,
sweetness increases; as glucose is isomerized to
fructose, sweetness increases further. The
sweet-ness of glucose-containing syrups,
relative to sucrose, in solutions of about 10 wt
% solids concentration is shown in Figure 9.
Most glucose–fructose syrups are usually
pro-duced from enzymatically converted high
glu-cose (95 – 96 % db) hydrolysates which are
the fructose–glucose syrups shown in Figure 9.
However, lower DE syrups that have been
isom-erized slightly to 10 wt % fructose
content to increase sweetness are sold in the
European Union. Syrups isomerized to this low
level do not violate fructose production quotas
that have been established to protect domestic
sucrose production.
Chemical Properties. Fructose reacts with
amino groups (Maillard reaction) much more
readily than glucose does (! Fructose) [62].
Therefore, glucose – fructose syrups must be
refined to a greater degree and are inherently
less stable. Fortunately the higher water solu-
bility of fructose (! Fructose) allows lower
storage temperatures without crystallization
(see Chap. 9).
Vol. 17
Figure 9. The relative sweetness of glucose-containing and fructose – glucose syrups vs. composition
All data at about 10 wt % solids water solutions, except [54] & [55]; [56]; * [51]; ~ [54]; ! [53]; & [57]; þ [58]; ~ [59]; !
[60]; ¤ [61];
6.2. Production
The clarified, refined, and ion-exchanged high-
glucose-content syrup is evaporated to a 40 –
50 wt % solids level. Magnesium(II) ions
(usually as MgSO4) are added as a cofactor to
activate and stabilize the isomerase enzyme, as
well as to overcome the inhibitory effect of
residual calcium not removed by ion exchange.
This feedstock is then passed through reactors
containing immobilized glucose isomerase (E.C.
5.3.1.18). Process conditions vary depend-ing
upon the supplier of the enzyme but most systems
operate at 55 – 65 C and with pH of 7.5 – 8.5. The
flow rate is adjusted to yield a product having a
minimum of 42 % of the dry substance converted
to fructose.
Enzymatic activity decreases during the
effective life of the reactors due to thermal
inactivation and the presence of trace impurities in
the feed liquor. Fructose content is maintained at
the desired 42 % level by reducing the flow rate
through the columns. The effective life of a
reactor is several months; during this period, the
nominal retention time in the reactor may in-
crease typically from 0.5 to as much as 4 h.
Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 59
Immediately after isomerization, the pH is
lowered to 4 – 5, the syrup is refined and
evapo-rated to the final concentration.
Chromatographic Enrichment. Although 42
% db fructose syrups are nearly as sweet as
sucrose, the fructose content had to be
increased to 55 % db to provide the exact
sweetness match demanded by the soft-drink
market. This is accomplished by employing
chromatographic separation techniques to
separate 42 % fructose syrups into fructose-
enriched and glucose-enriched streams.
Separation is accomplished by passing the 42
% fructose syrup through an adsorbent resin
containing calcium ions. Fructose is bound to the
adsorbent to a greater extent than glucose (and
polymers of glucose). Elution with water pro-
duces a discharge stream initially rich in the
loosely bound glucose and glucose polymer
fraction, followed by a fraction rich in the more
tightly bound fructose. A continuous (simulated
moving bed) process is used commercially, in
which 42 % fructose supply liquor and elution
water enter the columns at different points, while
glucose-rich and fructose-rich product streams
60 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups Vol. 17

are withdrawn at others. The points of addition

and withdrawal are moved along the bed
period-ically to correspond to changes in
composition within the column [63], [64].
Typical operation uses 50 wt % solids feed-
stock (42 % fructose). The separation produces a
glucose- and glucose-polymer-rich byproduct
stream that is recycled either to the isomerization
step (to convert additional glucose to fructose) or
back to the hydrolysis step (to convert the glucose
polymers to glucose). A fructose-rich stream
containing 80 – 95 % db fructose is the primary
product (the composition depends on the
equipment and operating conditions). This fruc-
tose-rich stream is blended with 42 % fructose
syrup to produce a 55 % fructose syrup that is
refined and evaporated to the final concentration.
The fructose-rich stream can also be refined
and evaporated to about 80 wt % solids for
customers requiring a very high fructose-
content product. At the highest fructose levels,
it can supply a crystallization process to
produce fruc-tose crystals.
In 1987 more than 80 commercial factories
on almost every continent were reported to Figure 10. Growth of glucose – fructose syrup production,
produce more than 6.6 106 t (dry basis) per year 1968 – 2005
of glucose–fructose syrups [65]. Worldwide
pro-duction increased to 10.1 106 t (dry basis)
per year in 1995 and is estimated to have grown been described [67]. The pH of extracts is raised
to nearly 12.5 106 t (dry basis) in 2002 before to > 11 using lime, to precipitate impurities.
dropping to 11.8 106 t (dry basis) per year in Under these conditions, inulin is not precipitated
2005 [14]. The phenomenal growth of glucose by high levels of calcium (as is fructose) and can
– fructose syrup (called high fructose corn be recovered by filtration [68].
syrup or HFCS in the United States) production The lack of commercial interest in high-fruc-
is shown in Figure 10. tose syrup production from inulin is probably due
to the high quality of fructose syrups produced by
isomerization of glucose followed by chro-
6.3. High-Fructose Syrups from Inulin matographic separation, and to lack of the large
crop production industry needed to produce inu-
Inulin is a naturally occurring polymer of fruc- lin. While the Jerusalem artichoke is reported to
tose which replaces starch as the food reserve produce tuber yields as high as 100t/ha [86],
in many plants of the family Compositae (e.g., present commercial sources of inulin are primar-
Jerusalem artichoke, chicory, salsify, cardoon ily obtained from chicory [87]. While some
elecampane, burdock, dahlia, and ti plants). fructose is being produced, much of the inulin is
The mature inulin molecule has an Mr of partially enzymatically hydrolyzed to make a
3000 – 5000 and consists of 17 – 30 anhydro- range of nondigestible oligofructose ingredients
fructose units and a terminal glucose unit (see that are finding use as fat mimetics. Only the
Fig. 11). The chain length varies during the European Union is a substantial producer of
growing season, and consequently, the glucose fructose-containing inulin syrup that originally
– fructose ratio is not constant [66]. was not limited by production controls as was
A process for the production of high-purity glucose-derived fructose syrups. Inulin syrups
fructose syrup from inulin-containing roots has have now been brought under control by the EU.
Vol. 17
Figure 11. Part of an inulin chain
7. Analysis
Solids concentration of glucose-containing syrups
is usually measured by refractive index or density.
This measurement can be related to dry substance
or the more traditional Baume or specific gravity
values by using established mathematical models
and conversion factors that compensate for syrup
composition. Glucose-containing syrups are sold
at concentrations usu-ally varying between 75 and
85 wt % solids. Glucose–fructose syrups are
usually produced at 71 – 75 wt % solids for the 42
% fructose syrup and 75 – 77 wt % solids for the
55 % fructose product. The moisture content of
dry products (crystalline glucose and solid glucose
syrups) is usually measured by weight loss under
vacuum drying or by Karl Fischer titration.
The carbohydrate composition of glucose and
glucose–fructose syrups is almost always mea-
sured by high performance liquid chromatogra-
phy (HPLC). The carbohydrate composition can
be related to the traditional dextrose equivalent
(DE) by calculation [69]. However, direct
Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 61
measurement is still practiced by using copper
reduction (the Lane and Eynon method) [70].
The color of syrups is generally measured by
the amount of light transmitted through (or
absorbed by) a fixed depth of syrup. The wave-
length of the light beam is chosen to be most
sensitive to soluble impurities such as ash. Most
syrups are referred to as ‘‘water white’’; their
color content is so low that it is difficult to
distinguish (visually) between syrups and water.
8. Legal Aspects
The legal aspects of glucose-containing pro-
ducts are governed by a number of regulations
defined, in part, by such references as the U.S.
Code of Federal Regulations, the Codex
Alimentarius Commission, and the U.S. and
British Pharmacopeia. In the United States,
glucose syrups and monohydrate and
anhydrous crystalline glucose are considered
standardized foods by the U.S. Food and Drug
Administra-tion, while fructose syrups derived
from glucose are considered as GRAS
(generally regarded as safe) with specifications
defined by the Food Chemicals Codex of the
National Academy of Sciences.
Solid Concentration. The Codex Alimen-
tarius Commission recommends that the solids
content of glucose-containing syrups be no less
than 70 wt %. The U.S. Code of Federal
Regulations (CFR) specifies that anhydrous
crystalline glucose contain no less than 98 wt %
dry substance (in practice, the commercial
prod-uct usually contains < 0.1 wt % water) and
that monohydrate crystalline glucose contain no
less than 90 wt % dry substance (in commercial
practice, dry substance ranges between 91 and
92 wt %).
Carbohydrate Composition. The Codex
Alimentarius recommends that glucose syrups
have a DE value not lower than 20 (below this
level they are defined as maltodextrins). The
CFR requires that crystalline glucose have a DE
value no less than 99.5 [66].
Impurity Content. Ash content limits of 1 wt
% for syrups (Codex Alimentarius) and 0.25 wt
% for food-grade crystalline glucose
62 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups Vol. 17

Table 10. Storage conditions of glucose-containing syrups

(CFR) are met easily by modern ion-exchange
refining. The U.S. Pharmacopeia places much Solids content,
stricter specifications (including specific rota- Syrup type wt % Temperature, C Limiting condition
tion, acidity, residue after ignition, and content
42 DE 80 38 viscosity
of chloride, sulfate, arsenic or other heavy 83 49 viscosity
metals, and other components) on pharmaceuti- 60 DE 82 32 viscosity
cal-grade glucose [72]. 84 41 viscosity
95 DE 71 49 crystallization
42 HFCS 71 32 crystallization
55 HFCS 77 27 crystallization
9. Storage and Transportation 90 HFCS 80 16 crystallization
Liquid glucose 71 52 crystallization
(99.5 DE)
Storage temperatures of glucose-containing
syrups are a compromise between low tempera-
tures to minimize color development with time
(see Fig. 12) and high temperatures either to
reduce the viscosity of low-DE syrups below temperatures of solid products should be lower
15.0 Pa s (to allow handling with lobe or vane than 40 C and rapid temperature changes
pumps) or to prevent crystallization of glucose should be avoided to minimize product caking.
in higher DE syrups. Suggested temperatures Crystalline glucose is shipped in vapor-
for various syrups are shown in Table 10. resistant bags usually containing 50 or 100
Shipping containers for syrups range in size pounds (or the approximate metric equivalent
from 200 L drums to jumbo railcars holding sizes of 20, 25, and 40 kg) and in bulk trucks
90 t. Trucks carrying 25 t are also used. Alter- and railcars (jumbo railcars can hold as much
natives to drums include 1000 L disposable as 82 t). Reusable containers holding about 1 t
containers consisting of reinforced corrugated of crystalline material are used for customers
board outer containers holding a heavy-duty who do not require bulk delivery and who do
plastic bag. not want the bother and expense of bag opening
Bags for storage of crystalline glucose and and disposal.
solid syrups must be protected against atmo-
spheric moisture pickup by incorporation of a
vapor barrier in the bag construction. Storage 10. Uses

Glucose-containing syrups and glucose are

Figure 12. Glucose-containing syrup color as a function of
time and temperature a) 54 C; b) 49 C; c) 38 C; d) 27 C
used in a variety of food and nonfood applica-
tions. The manufacturing flexibility provided
by enzymatic conversion techniques, coupled
with modern refining and concentrating tech-
nology, provides a wide range of properties
useful to the food formulator. Table 1 illus-
trates the relative volumes of usage in major
food industries in the United States. The impact
of the introduction of glucose–fructose syrups
on other glucose applications can also be seen
from this table. The rapid and complete
fermen-tation of glucose is a valuable property
in the fermentation and baking industries. In
countries where its use is permitted by law,
glucose is used by the brewing industry.
Glucose also serves as a raw material for the
manufacture of food-grade acids (citric, lactic,
acetic, etc.), enzymes, amino acids, vitamin C,
and a variety of antibiotics.
Vol. 17
The largest nonfood use of unrefined
glucose-containing syrups is as a carbohydrate
source for the production of fuel-grade ethanol
(! Ethanol, Section 5.1.2.). In 1986, the annual
production capability in the United States was
reported to be ca. 2.7 109 L [73] and a 1988
article indicated a capacity of 3.9 10 9 L annu-
ally [74]. Annual U.S. production capacity in
2006 was reported as 1.68 1010 L [75]
In other applications, the dehydration of
glucose to 5-hydroxymethylfurfural allows the
incorporation of glucose-containing syrups into
phenolic and urea – formaldehyde-based plas-
tics [76]. Heating glucose and methanol in the
presence of anhydrous hydrogen chloride yields
a-methyl-D-glucoside which is used for insulat-
ing foams. Catalytic hydrogenation of glucose
yields sorbitol.
Glucose-bearing syrups are also added to
adhesives to improve stability and flow control,
used as humectant in wallboard and tobacco
manufacture, added to tiles and bricks to
prevent cracking during manufacture, used to
retard setting in concrete, are applied in resin
and dye manufacture and leather tanning to
name but a few of their nonfood uses.
11. Economic Aspects
The economics of starch-based sweeteners are
related to the economics of sucrose (cane and beet
sugar) except for uses in which production costs
and unique functionality allow higher prices (such
as high-purity crystalline glucose for intravenous
injection) or significant compe-tition causes price
reduction (such as glucose syrups in the United
States). In countries where no protective tariff
exists and sucrose is sold essentially at world
prices, the domestic con-sumption volume of
starch-based sweeteners depends on sucrose
pricing. For non tariff nations, consumption and
pricing figures can vary significantly from year to
year. The produc-tion and pricing of starch-based
sweeteners around the world are shown in Table
11.
Raw material (starch) pricing is also an
important factor. Competition of markets for
starch-based products, primarily used for the
production of high-fructose syrups and fermen-
tation to fuel-grade ethanol has become impor-
tant in recent years. The impact of these
Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 63
two products on the growth of the corn wet
milling industry in the United States is shown
in Figure 13. In 2004, corn (maize)
consumption for ethanol production amounted
to more than half of that consumed by all food
and industrial uses in the United States. While
the food and industrial use of maize in the
United States has grown substantially since the
1970s, farm production has more than kept up.
The price of maize during this period has
trended downward (see Fig. 14).
But the real cost of maize to starch-based
sweetener manufacturers is the cost of maize
(corn) minus the income from the sale of
coproducts of the wet milling process (corn
gluten feed, corn gluten meal, and corn oil), i.e.,
the net corn cost. Year-to-year, net corn cost
has followed corn price in the USA since the
1970s but the trendlines for corn and net corn
cost are converging, indicating an average
reduction in coproduct credit of 37 cents per
bushel over the past 30 years (see Fig. 14.). The
rapid growth in starch use in non-sweetener
applications and the impact on raw material
cost and the price of glucose-bearing products
has been analyzed [77], [78]. To date, it appears
that agricultural productivity increases have
more than kept up with expanding food and
industrial use of maize in the United States,
keeping maize cost stable. For wet millers in
the USA, increased volumes of coproduct have
negatively impacted their prices, primarily for
corn oil and corn gluten feed. Since fuel ethanol
production is expected to nearly double by
2012, net corn cost must be watched.
12. Physiological Properties and
Toxicology of Glucose
Glucose is absorbed into the bloodstream and
used by the body (via the glycolytic cycle) for
energy production or converted into other
metabolic intermediates required for growth or
maintenance of body tissues. By polymerization
into glycogen (a highly branched macromole-
cule referred to as body starch), it is also stored
in the liver for future use.
Glucose (and other sugars) acts as a dietary
chelating agent under certain conditions, bind-
ing iron and several other di- and trivalent
metals [79]. Simultaneous ingestion of glucose
64 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups Vol. 17

Table 11. Production and pricing of starch-based sweeteners by country (all production values in 103 t of dry substance per year, 1996 values
used except where noted.)

Crystalline glucose Fructose-glu-

cose syrup

Country Glucose syrups Maltose syrups Monohydrate Anhydrous Total sugar 42 % 55 %

United States
Production 3200 645 25 68 2300 5000
Price, US$/kg d.s. 0.30 0.62 1.25 0.88 0.41 0.45
Europe (EU 15)
Production 2200ab 320a,b 45 330a,b
Price, US$/kg d.s. 0.73c 0.96a 0.88 0.69c
Canada
Production 118d 300e
People’s Republic of China
Production 250 100 250f 50 100e
Price, RMBf/kg d.s. 4 4 6 3 6h
Japan
Production 440a,i 35dd 39dd 44dd 845a,e
Price, Yen/kg d.s. 34a 46a 95a 126a 113d 48a 54a
Latin Americad
Production 285 9 36 155
Price, US$/kg d.s. 0.30 2.86 0.17 0.40
Korea
Production 200j 33d,k 3d,k 55d,k 250e,l
Price, Won/kg d.s. 384l 420l 420l 390m 390l
South Africa
Production 175i 3
Price, US$/kg d.s. 0.43n 0.68
Australiao
Production 57 4.3
Malaysiao
Production 3.8 2.4
Price, US$/kg d.s. 0.57 0.59
Bangladeshp
Production 3.5 1.0
Price, US$/kg d.s. 0.54 0.64
a
1995 data.
b
90þ% of the volume shown is sold within the EU15; less than 10% is sold in other European countries.
c
1983 data.
d 1986 data.
e Combined production of 42 % db and 55 % db fructose-bearing syrups shown.
f Most crystalline (pure) dextrose is monohydrate, some is anhydrous. Main uses are medical in nature.
g
J. At the time of the preparation of this chart, US$1.00 ¼ 8.5 RMB.
h
Price for 42 % db fructose syrup shown; only one known producer of 55 % fructose syrup in the P.R.C.
i Combined production data for glucose and maltose syrups.
j 1992 data.
k
Totals for the production of these three products in 1992 virtually unchanged from 1986, individual product data not available in 1992
so 1986 values are shown.
l
1994 data.
m
1991 data.
n 1987 data.
o 1996 list price for 43 DE glucose syrup.
p 2005 data.

and a calcium supplement is reported to boost beginning a high-glucose, lipid-free diet,

the body’s uptake of that mineral by 25 % [80]. whereas single doses of glucose syrup may be
Blood serum cholesterol and phospholipid responsible for improved intellectual perfor-
levels are reportedly lowered within days of mance [81].
Vol. 17
Figure 13. Growth of corn wet miller’s shipments in the
United States 1929-2005, comprising starch, refinery pro-
ducts, fuel ethanol and coproducts
Figure 14. Average annual corn and net corn price 1 bushel
corn ¼ 25.4 kg
The lethal dose of glucose has been reported
as 20 g/kg of body weight when administered
orally to rabbits (the lethal intravenous dose for
the rabbit is 15 – 35 g/kg). The lethal oral dose
for dogs is ca. 8 – 12 g/kg [82].
References
1 E. Martin: Dextrose Therapy in Everyday Practice,
Harper, New York 1937, p. 5.
2 H. Wichelhaus: Der Starkezucker€, Akademische
Verlagsgesellschaft, Leipzig 1913.
3 Lie-Tien Chang: Starch/Starke€ 44 1992 no. 3, 117.
4 G. R. Dean, J. B. Gottfried: ‘‘The Commercial Produc-
tion of Crystalline Dextrose,’’ in C. S. Hudson and S.
M. Cantor (eds.): Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry,
Vol. 5, Academic Press, New York 1950, pp. 127 – 143.
5 G. S. C. Kirchoff, Academic Imperiale des Sciences de
St. Petersbourg, Memoires, 4 (1811) 27.
6 C. E. G. Porst, La. Plant. Sugar Manuf. 67 (1921, Jul. 2)
1921, 14 – 15.
7 Corn Products Refining Co., US 1 471 347, 1923 (W.
B. Newkirk).
Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups 65
8 R. O. Marshall, E. R. Kooi, Science 125 (1957) 468 –
469.
9 CPC International, US 2 950 228, 1960 (R. O. Marshall).
10 J. P. Casey, Starke€ 29 (1977) no. 6, 196 – 204.
11 1965 – 1980 individual industry data reproduced with
permission from: Cereal Foods World 31 (1986) no. 12,
859 and updated with 1985, 1990 1997 and 2002
industry data estimates. Total volumes from USDA
ERS data.
12 United States Dept. of Agriculture (USDA) Sugar and
Sweetener Situation and Outlook Report SSRV 12 N 1,
Mar., 1987.
13 ‘‘Annual Review of the World HFCS Industry’’ in
Sweet-ener Analysis November, 2005, p. 2, LMC
International Ltd, Oxford 2005.
14 S. Vuilleumier: Int Sugar Jnl. 98 (1996) no. 1173, 467–
478.
15 J. Cropley: ‘‘The Global Market Outlook for Corn
Refiners’’, 2002 Corn Utilization Technology
Conference Proceedings, p. 128–130.
16 USDA-ERS: Sugar and Sweetener Situation and
Outlook Yearbook, July, 2004, Table 50.
17 S. Haley: ‘‘Measuring the Effect of Imports of Sugar-
Containing Products on U.S. Sugar Deliveries’’, USDA
Publication SSS-237-01, September, 2003.
18 P. A. Meyer, Milling & Baking News 65 (1986, Aug.
26) no. 26, 58.
19 ‘‘Dry HFCS: Problem Solved, ’’ Food Eng. 59 (1987)
no. 4, 112.
20 W. B. Newkirk, Ind. Eng. Chem. (1924, Nov.) 1173.
21 G. R. Dean, Anal. Chem. 45 (1973, Dec.) no. 14, 2441.
22 G. R. Dean, Carbohydr. Res. 34 (1974) 315 – 322.
23 W. Pigman, E. F. L. J. Anet in W. Pigman, D. Horton
(eds): The Carbohydrates: Chemistry and Biochemistry,
2nd ed. IA, Academic Press, New York 1972, p. 170.
24 Paper presented by CPC International at Detmold
(Germany) Conference, April 23 – 25, 1986.
25 see also F. E. Young, J. Phys. Chem. 61 (1957) 616 – 619.
26 J. C. Speck, Adv. Carbohydr. Chem. 13 (1958) 63 – 103.
27 Data source: American Maize Products Co. (1963).
28 Data source: A. E. Staley Mfg. Co. (undated).
29 J. J. M. Swinkels, Starch/Starke€ 37 (1985) no. 1, 3.
30 G. M. A. van Beynum, J. A. Roels (eds.): Starch
Conver-sion Technology, Marcel Dekker, New York –
Basel 1985.
31 Private Communication Dr. H. F. Zobel (ABCV Starch
Assoc., 1105 Belair Dr. Darien, Il. USA 60559).
32 C. A. Brautlecht: Starch: Its Sources, Production and
Uses, Reinhold, New York 1953, p. 276.
33 Fachverband der St€arke-Industrie e.V., Starke€
Fortschritt durch Tradition 1946 – 1996, p. 48 – 49.
34 D. Howling in G. C. Birch, K. J. Parker (eds.): Sugar:
Science and Technology Applied Science, Publ.,
London 1979, p. 260.
35 R. C. W. Berkeley, G. W. Gooday, D. C. Ellwood
(eds.): Microbial Polysaccharides and Polysaccharases,
Academic Press 1979, p. 361.
66 Glucose and Glucose-Containing Syrups
36 J. M. Segraves, W. G. Allen, J. Harris, K. L. Pratt: ‘‘Valley
‘‘Ultra-Thin’’ – A novel alpha-amylase for true pH 4.5
liquefaction’’, Int. Sugar J. 107 (2005) no. 1283, 616–621.
37 Archer Daniels Midland Company, 5 869 297, 1999 (T.
P. Binder, D. K. Hadden, L. J. Sievers).
38 Y. Komai, Starke€ 17 (1965) no. 11, 346 – 350.
39 Nippon Shiryo Kogyo Co., Ltd., US 3 540 927, 1970
(N. Masahiro, T. Furukawa, H. Masada).
40 Corn Products Company, US 3 257 665, 1966 (L. R.
Idaszak).
41 Struthers Scientific and International Corporation, US 3
506 486, 1970 (N. Geniaris).
42 CPC International, US 4 357 172, 1982 (L. W. Edwards).
43 A. F. M. Mahbubar Rahman, F. W. Schenck: ‘‘Supply
solids level and monohydrate dextrose productivity’’,
Int. Sugar J. 101 (1999) no. 1207, 379, 380.
44 Corn Products Refining Co., US 1 508 569, 1924 (W.
B. Newkirk).
45 Corn Products Refining Co., US 1 890 913, 1932 (W.
B. Newkirk).
46 Corn Products Refining Co., US 2 152 874, 1939 (C. J.
Copland).
47 P. Elankovan et al, AIChE J. 33 (1987, Nov.) no. 11, 1844.
48 [4] pp. 133, 134.
49 R. V. MacAllister in R. S. Tipson, D. Horton (eds.):
Advances in Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biochemistry,
vol. 36, Academic Press, New York 1979, p. 41.
50 Corn Products Refining Co., US 2 369 231, 1945 (A. T.
Harding).
51 C. Nieman, Manuf. Confect. XL (1960) no. 8, 19 – 24,
43 – 46.
52 S. A. Watson, P. E. Ramstad (eds.): Corn: Chemistry
and Technology, Am. Assoc. of Cereal Chem., St Paul,
Minn. 1987, p. 523.
53 L. Hyvonen, et al., Lebensm.-Wiss. Technol. 11 (1978)
no. 1, 11 – 14.
54 M. W. Kearsley et al., Lebensm.-Wiss. Technol 11
(1978) no. 1, 23 – 25.
55 L. M. Hanover in G. Charlambous, G. Inglett (eds.):
Chemistry of Foods and Beverages: Recent Develop-ments,
Academic Press, New York 1982, pp. 211 – 233..
56 A. Rapaille et al., Bios, 8 (1977) no. 10, 19 – 22.
57 S. Yamaguchi et al., Agric. Biol. Chem. 34 (1970) no.
2, 181 – 186.
58 A. C. Dahlberg et al., New York State Ag. Exp. Station
Bulletin, No. 258, Apr., 1941.
59 R. Whymper, Manuf. Confect. 35 (1955) no. 6, 15, 16,
19, 20, 22.
60 N. Deerr: Int. Sugar J. 24 (1922) 481.
61 Kirk-Othmer, 3rd ed., 22, p. 508.
62 L. C. Maillard, Compt. Rend. 154 (1912) 66.
63 H. W. Keller et al., Starch/Starke€ 33 (1981) no. 2, 55 – 57.
64 J. R. Teague et al., Sugar/Azucar 78 (1983) no. 8, 18 – 23.
65 M. Ruffolo: ‘‘Starch and Chemical Sweeteners in the
Changing Sweetener World’’ 3rd Conference of World
Sugar Farmers – World Association of Beet and Cane
Growers, Gold Coast, Australia, July 21, 1987.
66 J. S. Bacon et al., Biochem. J. 51 (1952) 208.
Vol. 17
67 M. Kierstan, Process Biochem. 15 (1980) no. 4, 4.
68 M. Kierstan, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 20 (1978) 447.
69 D. L. Kiser et al. in G. Charalambous (ed.): Symposium
on the Analysis of Foods and Beverages by HPLC,
Academic Press, New York 1979, pp. 363 – 378.
70 Approved Methods of the American Association of Cereal
Chemists (AACC), 8th ed., AACC, St. Paul, Minn., 1983.
71 Code of Federal Regulations effective April 1, 1987
Title 21 – Part 168 – Section 168.111.
72 U.S.P., 21st ed., 300.
73 A. S. Greditor: Research Report, CPC International,
Drexel Burnham Lambert, New York Nov. 10 1986 13.
74 J. G. Joyce, Investor News 10 (1988) no. 3, 1, 4.
75 Renewable Fuels Association, From Niche to Nation:
Ethanol Industry Outlook 2006 available at http://www.
ethanolrfa.org.
76 H. Koch, J. Pein, Polym. Bull. 13 (1985) 525 – 532.
77 F. W. Schenck: ‘‘The impact of growth on the US corn
wet milling industry’’, Int. Sugar J. 101 (1999) no.
1210, 510– 516.
78 F. W. Schenck: ‘‘Factors influencing the price of head
products of the corn wet milling industry’’, Int. Sugar J.
103 (2001) no. 1234, 462–466.
79 P. Saltman: ‘‘Role of Simple Carbohydrates in Metal
Absorption,’’ Proc. Corn Refiners Association
Scientific Conference, 1988.
80 Insight 4 (1988) no. 9, 52.
81 G. G. Birch, M. W. Kearsley, Starke€ 29 (1977) no. 10,
348 – 352.
82 W. S. Spector (ed.): Handbook of Toxicology, vol. I,
Saunders, Philadelphia – London 1956, pp. 150 – 151.
83 F. W. Schenck, R. E. Hebeda: Starch Hydolysis
Products, VCH Publ., 1992, p. 288.
84 F. W. Schenck, Starch/St€arke 48 (1996) no. 5, 188 – 190.
85 A. F. M. Mahbubar Rahman, F. W. Schenck, ‘‘Improving
monohydrate dextrose economics with enzymatic recon-
version’’, Int. Sugar J. 100 (1998) no. 1197, 457–461.
86 M. Parameswaran, Food Australia 46 (1994) no. 10,
473 – 475.
87 P. Coussement, Food Ingredients and Analysis Interna-
tional 18 (1996) no. 5, 25 – 27.
Further Reading
J. N. BeMiller, R. L. Whistler (eds.): Starch - Chemistry and
Technology, 3rd ed., Academic Press, London 2009.
A. C. Bertolini (ed.): Starches, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
2010.
S. W. Cui (ed.): Food Carbohydrates - Chemistry, Physical
Properties, and Applications, CRC Press, Boca Raton,
FL 2005.
P. Hull: Glucose Syrups - Technology and Applications,
Wiley-Blackwell, Ames, IA 2010.
R. V. Stick, S. J. Williams: Carbohydrates, 2nd ed.,
Elsevier, Amsterdam 2009.
K. J. Yarema (ed.): Handbook of Carbohydrate
Engineering, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL 2005.