PHARMNACOGNOSY ASSIGNMENT

HIRAN SAHA ID NO 1130900046 COURSE FACULTY: DR MD. SAIFUL ISLAM

Glucose
C6H12O6, also known as D-glucose, dextrose, or grape sugar) is a simple sugar (monosaccharide) and an important carbohydrate in biology. Cells use it as the primary source of energy[1] and a metabolic intermediate. Glucose is one of the main products of photosynthesis and fuels for cellular respiration. Glucose exists in several different molecular structures, but all of these structures can be divided into two families of mirror-images (stereoisomers). Only one set of these isomers exists in nature, The name "glucose" comes from the Greek word glukus (), meaning "sweet", and is the preferred name. The suffix "-ose" denotes a sugar.

Function
Scientists can speculate on the reasons that glucose, and not another monosaccharide such as fructose, is so widely used in organisms. One reason might be that glucose has a lower tendency, relative to other hexose sugars, to react nonspecifically with the amino groups of proteins. This reaction (glycation) reduces or destroys the function of many enzymes. The low rate of glycation is due to glucose's preference for the less reactive cyclic isomer. Nevertheless, many of the long-term complications of diabetes (e.g., blindness, renal failure, and peripheral neuropathy) are probably due to the glycation of proteins or lipids.[3] In contrast, enzyme-regulated addition of glucose to proteins by glycosylation is often essential to their function

-D-Glucose

Hexokinase

-D-Glucose-6-phosphate

Open-chain form

Physical properties
Solutions All forms of glucose are colorless and easily soluble in water, acetic acid, and several other solvents. They are only sparingly soluble in methanol and ethanol. The open-chain form is thermodynamically unstable, and it spontaneously tautomerizes to the cyclic forms. (Although the ring closure reaction could in theory create four- or three-atom rings, these would be highly strained and are not observed.) In solutions at room temperature, the four cyclic isomers interconvert over a timescale of hours, in a process called mutarotation.[12] Starting from any proportions, the mixture converges stable ratio of : 36:64. The ratio would be : 11:89 if it were not for the influence of the anomeric effect.[13] Mutarotation is considerably slower at temperatures close to 0 C. Solid state Depending on conditions, three major solid forms of glucose can be crystallised from water solutions: -glucopyranose, -glucopyranose, and -glucopyranose hydrate.[ Optical activity
Whether in water or in the solid form, D-glucose is dextrorotatory, meaning that it will rotate the direction of polarized light clockwise. The effect is due to the chirality of the molecules, and indeed the mirror-image isomer, L-glucose, is levorotatory (rotates polarized light counterclockwise) by the same amount. The strength of the effect is different for each of the five tautomers.

Production
Biosynthesis In plants and some prokaryotes, glucose is a product of photosynthesis. In animals and fungi, glucose results from the breakdown of glycogen, a process known as glycogenolysis. In plants the breakdown substrate is starch. In animals, glucose is synthesized in the liver and kidneys from non-carbohydrate intermediates, such as pyruvate and glycerol, by a process known as gluconeogenesis. In some deep-sea bacteria glucose is produced by chemosynthesis. Commercial Glucose is produced commercially via the enzymatic hydrolysis of starch. Many crops can be used as the source of starch. Maize, rice, wheat, cassava, corn husk and sago are all used in various parts of the world. In the United States, cornstarch (from maize) is used almost exclusively. Most commercial glucose occurs as a component of invert sugar, an approximately 1:1 mixture of glucose and fructose. In principle, cellulose could be hydrolysed to glucose, but this process is not yet commercially practical.[14]

Sucrose
Sucrose is the organic compound commonly known as table sugar and sometimes called saccharose. A white, odorless, crystalline powder with a sweet taste, it is best known for its nutritional role. The molecule is a disaccharide composed of the monosaccharides glucose and fructose with the molecular formula C12H22O11. The world produced about 168 million tonnes of table sugar in 2011

Synthesis and biosynthesis of sucrose

The biosynthesis of sucrose proceeds via the precursors UDPglucose and fructose 6-phosphate, catalyzed by the enzyme sucrose6-phosphate synthase. The energy for the reaction is gained by the cleavage of Uridine diphosphate (UDP). Sucrose is formed by plants and cyanobacteria but not by other organisms. Sucrose is found naturally in many food plants along with the monosaccharide fructose. In many fruits, such as pineapple and apricot, sucrose is the main sugar. In others, such as grapes and pears, fructose is the main sugar.

Chemical synthesis
Model of sucrose molecule. Although sucrose is invariably isolated from natural sources, its chemical synthesis was first achieved in 1953 by Raymond Lemieux

As a food
Refined sugar was a luxury before the 18th century. It became widely popular in 18th century, then graduated to becoming a necessary food in the 19th century. This evolution of taste and demand for sugar as an essential food ingredient unleashed major economic and social changes.[7] Eventually, table sugar became sufficiently cheap and common enough to influence standard cuisine and flavored drinks. Sucrose forms a major element in confectionery and desserts. Cooks use it for sweetening its fructose component, which has almost double the sweetness of glucose, makes sucrose distinctively sweet in comparison to other carbohydrate foods.[8] It can also act as a food preservative when used in sufficient concentrations. Sucrose is important to the structure of many foods, including biscuits and cookies, cakes and pies, candy, and ice cream and sorbets. It is a common ingredient in many processed and so-called "junk foods."

Current trends in sucrose production

Table sugar (sucrose) comes from plant sources. Two important sugar crops predominate: sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) and sugar beets (Beta vulgaris), in which sugar can account for 12% to 20% of the plant's dry weight. Minor commercial sugar crops include the date palm (Phoenix dactylifera), sorghum (Sorghum vulgare), and the sugar maple (Acer saccharum). Sucrose is obtained by extraction of these crops with hot water, concentration of the extract gives syrups, from which solid sucrose can be crystallized. In 2011, worldwide production of table sugar amounted to 168 million tonnes.[2] Most cane sugar comes from countries with warm climates, because sugar cane crop does not tolerate frost. Sugar beets, on the other hand, grow only in cooler temperate regions and do not tolerate extreme heat. About 80 percent of sucrose is derived from sugar cane, the rest almost all from sugar beet.