Sugar

Sugar is the generic name for sweet, soluble carbohydrates, many of which
are used in food. There are various types of sugar derived from different
sources. Sugar is used in prepared foods (e.g., cookies and cakes) and it is
added to some foods and beverages (e.g., coffee and tea). In the body,
sucrose is hydrolysed into the simple sugars fructose and glucose. Some
other chemical substances, such as glycerol may also have a sweet taste,
but are not classified as sugars. Diet food substitutes for sugar, include
aspartame and sucralose, a chlorinated derivative of sucrose.

Sugars are found in the tissues of most plants and are present in sugarcane
and sugar beet in sufficient concentrations for efficient commercial
extraction. The world production of sugar in 2011 was about 168 million
tonnes. The average person consumes about 24 kilograms (53 lb) of sugar
each year (33.1 kg in developed countries), equivalent to over 260 food
calories per person, per day. Since the latter part of the twentieth century, it
has been questioned whether a diet high in sugars, especially refined
sugars, is good for human health. Over-consumption of sugar has been
implicated in the occurrence of obesity, diabetes, cardiovascular disease,
dementia, and tooth decay. Numerous studies have been undertaken to try
to clarify the position, but with varying results, mainly because of the
difficulty of finding populations for use as controls that do not consume or
are largely free of any sugar consumption.

Chemistry
Scientifically, sugar loosely refers to a number of carbohydrates.
Carbohydrates are most abundant biomolecules on earth. Each year
photosynthesis converts more than 100 billion metric tons of CO2 and H2O
into cellulose and other plant products.

Funtions:
  dietary staple (sugar and starch) ,their oxidation is central
energy yielding pathway.
 Insoluble carbohydrates polymer act as structure and
protective elements in cell wall of bacteria , plants and in connective
tissues of animals.
 lubricant in skeletal joint.
Carbohydrates are polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or substance that
yield such compounds on hydrolysis.The names of typical sugars end with
-ose, as in "glucose" and "fructose". Sometimes such words may also refer
to any types of carbohydrates soluble in water. The acyclic mono- and
disaccharides contain either aldehyde groups or ketone groups. These
carbon-oxygen double bonds (C=O) are the reactive centers. All saccharides
with more than one ring in their structure result from two or more
monosaccharides joined by glycosidic bonds with the resultant loss of a
molecule of water (H2O) per bond.
Types:

Monosaccharides- These are also called "simple sugars", cannot be

hydrolysed to give a simpler sugar. The most abundant monosaccharide in
nature is 6-carbon sugar D-glucose, sometimes refers to as dextrose. Most
monosaccharides have a formula that conforms to CnH2nOn with n between
3 and 7 (deoxyribose being an exception). Glucose has the molecular
formula C6H12O6. These are classified as the number of carbons present in
them:

 trioses (have 3 carbons): Glyceraldehyde, Dihydroxyacetone

 tetroses (have 4 carbons): Erythrose, threose

 pentoses (have 5 carbons): Ribose, Arabinose, Xylose, Ribulose,

Xylulose, Deoxyribose

 hexoses (have 6 carbons): Glucose, Mannose, Galactose,

Fructose, Altrose, Sorbose
  heptoses (have 7 carbons): Sedoheptulose, Glucoheptose,
Galactoheptose

D-Glucose D-Fructose

Many pentoses and hexoses can form ring structures. In these closed-chain
forms, the aldehyde or ketone group remains non-free, so many of the
reactions typical of these groups cannot occur.
Fructose, galactose, and glucose are all simple sugars hexoses. They have
five hydroxyl groups (−OH) and a carbonyl group (C=O) and are cyclic when
dissolved in water. They each exist as several isomers with dextro- and
laevo-rotatory forms that cause polarized light to diverge to the right or the
left. Assigned by (+) and (-) sign respectively.

Fructose, or fruit sugar, occurs naturally in fruits, some root vegetables,

cane sugar and honey and is the sweetest of the sugars. It is one of the
components of sucrose or table sugar. It is used as a high-fructose syrup,
which is manufactured from hydrolyzed corn starch that has been
processed to yield corn syrup, with enzymes then added to convert part of
the glucose into fructose.

In general, galactose does not occur in the free state. It is less sweet than
glucose. It is a component of the antigens found on the surface of red blood
cells that determine blood groups.
Glucose, dextrose or grape sugar, occurs naturally in fruits and plant juices
and is the primary product of photosynthesis. Most ingested carbohydrates
are converted into glucose during digestion and it is the form of sugar that
is transported around the bodies of animals in the bloodstream. Glucose
syrup is a liquid form of glucose that is widely used in the manufacture of
foodstuffs. It can be manufactured from starch by enzymatic hydrolysis..
Glucose in solution exists mostly in the ring form at equilibrium, with less
than 0.1% of the molecules in the open-chain form

Oligosaccharide- It is a saccharide polymer containing a small number

(typically 2-10) of simple sugars.

 disaccharide-maltose, sucrose, lactose.

 trisaccharide-raffinose

 tetrasaccharide- stachyose, scorbase

Sucrose (alpha-1,2 beta glycosidic bond)

Lactose, maltose, and sucrose are all compound sugars, disaccharides, with
the general formula C12H22O11. They are formed by the combination of two
monosaccharide molecules with the exclusion of a molecule of water.

Lactose is the naturally occurring sugar found in milk called as milk sugar. A
molecule of lactose is formed by the combination of a molecule of galactose
with a molecule of glucose. It is broken down when consumed into its
constituent parts by the enzyme lactase during digestion. Children have this
enzyme but some adults no longer form it and they are unable to digest
lactose.

Maltose is formed during the germination of certain grains, the most

notable being barley, which is converted into malt, the source of the sugar's
name. A molecule of maltose is formed by the combination of two
molecules of glucose. It is less sweet than glucose, fructose or sucrose. It is
formed in the body during the digestion of starch by the enzyme amylase
and is itself broken down during digestion by the enzyme maltase.

The "table sugar" or "granulated sugar" most customarily used as food is

sucrose, a disaccharide of glucose and fructose. Sucrose is found in the
stems of sugarcane and roots of sugar beet. It also occurs naturally
alongside fructose and glucose in other plants, in particular fruits and some
roots such as carrots. The different proportions of sugars found in these
foods determines the range of sweetness experienced when eating them. A
molecule of sucrose is formed by the combination of a molecule of glucose
with a molecule of fructose. After being eaten, sucrose is split into its
constituent parts during digestion by a number of enzymes known as
sucrases.

Polysaccharide (glycans)- Biopolymers of sugars are common in nature.

Through photosynthesis, plants produce glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P),
a phosphated 3-carbon sugar that is used by the cell to make
monosaccharides such as glucose (C6H12O6) or (as in cane and beet) sucrose
(C12H22O11).

Monosaccharides may be further converted into structural polysaccharides

such as cellulose and pectin for cell wall construction or into energy
reserves in the form of storage polysaccharides such as starch or inulin.
Starch, consisting of two different polymers of glucose, is a readily
degradable form of chemical energy stored by cells, and can be converted
to other types of energy. Another polymer of glucose is cellulose, which is a
linear chain composed of several hundred or thousand glucose units. It is
used by plants as a structural component in their cell walls. Humans can
digest cellulose only to a very limited extent, though ruminants can do so
with the help of symbiotic bacteria in their gut. DNA and RNA are built up of
the monosaccharides deoxyribose and ribose, respectively. Deoxyribose has
the formula C5H10O4 and ribose the formula C5H10O5.

Monosaccharides in a closed-chain form can form glycosidic bonds with

other monosaccharides, creating disaccharides (such as sucrose) and
polysaccharides (such as starch). Enzymes must hydrolyze or otherwise
break these glycosidic bonds before such compounds become metabolized.
After digestion and absorption the principal monosaccharides present in
the blood and internal tissues include glucose, fructose, and galactose.

Flammability- Because sugars burn easily when exposed to flame, the

handling of sugars risks dust explosion. The 2008 Georgia sugar refinery
explosion, which killed 14 persons and injured 40, and destroyed most of
the refinery, was caused by the ignition of sugar dust. In its culinary use,
sugar that is exposed to a heat source causes caramelization to take place.
As the process occurs, volatile chemicals such as diacetyl are released,
producing the characteristic caramel flavor.

Sugar producing crops- There are two major sugar crops: sugar beets and
sugar cane. However, sugar and syrups are also produced from the sap of
certain species of maple trees like sugar maple (Acer saccharum), from
sweet sorghum (Sorghum saccharatum) when cultivated explicitly for
making syrup and from sugar palm (Arenga saccharifera), palmyra palm
(Borassus flabellifer), toddy palm (Caryota urens), date palm (Phoenix
dactylifera).

List of sugar crops that are major sources of various types of sugar:

COMMON NAME - SCIENTIFIC NAME - FAMILY NAME

 Sources of Sucrose

Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum Poaceae

Sugarbeet Beta vulgaris Chenopodiaceae

Sugar maple Acer saccharum Aceraceae

Black sugar maple Acer nigrum Aceraceae

Sweet sorghum Sorghum bicolor Poaceae

Palms various species Arecaeae

[ Cocos nucifera (Coconut), Borrasus (Palmyra Palm), Pheonix sylvesris (Date

palm), Arenga saccharifera (Sugar palm), Nypa fruticans (Nipa palm) ]

 Sources of Glucose(from starch)

Corn Zea mays Poaceae

Potato Solanum tuberosum Solanaceae

 Sources of Fructose

Dahlia (from inulin) Dahlia pinnata Asteraceae

Sunchoke (from inulin) Helianthus tuberosus Asteraceae

Agave Agave sp. Asparagaceae

Corn( from starch) Zea mays Poaceae

 Sources of Galactose

Linseed Linum usitassitimum Linaceae

 Sources of Mannose

Ivory nut palm Phytelephas macrocarpa Arecaceae

Flowering ash Fraxinus ornus Oleaceae

 Sources of Maltose

Barley Hordeum vulgare Poaceae

Rice Oryza sativa Poaceae

Two major sugar crops:-

1. Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) Family- Poaceae

Plant is a vigorous perennial grass which grows in clumps. The stems
(culms) are solid and jointed, attaining a height of 2-3 m and diameter of 3-
6 cm.The culms contain about 80% juice which has 12-17% sugar contents.
The colour of the culms ranges from aimost white through yellow to deep
green, purple red or violet. The culm is supported by slit roots arising from
the lower nodes. The leaf blade is long, thin and flat, 0.9-1.5 m long and
2.5-10 cm wide. The stem bears a large terminal infloresence. The
cultivated varieties are mostly heterozygous and hence are propagated
vegetatively.

Cultivation-The crop needs a hot and humid climate with high rainfall (200-
225 cm per annum), an average temperature of 26 degree C, a dry sunny
and frost free ripening period. The crop grows on a wide variety of soils,
ranging from sandy soils to heavy loams but clay loams with good drainage
are ideally suited for this crop.

Sugarcane is usually propagated by cuttings of varying lengths made from

the upper joints of old canes. These cuttings are called seed, seed piece or
seed sett. Sometimes it is propagated by ratooning, where dormant buds on
the part of the culm left underground after harvesting sprout and produces
a new crop. In India, sugarcane is generally planted during January to
March. The seed setts are planted either in furrows or in trenches at
distance varying from 0.5-1.5 m.

Soaking of seed setts in water for 36-48 h before harvesting result in better
germination. Trenches or furrows are covered with soil after planting and
sprouting begins in about two weeks. On an avegage the crop requires
nitrogen120-250 kg/ha, P2O5 75 kg/ha and K2O 75-135 kg/ha. Frequent
-irrigation in early phase of crop is important. Constant weeding is essential
since sugarcane cannot withstand competition from weeds.

The crop is ready for harvesting after 10-15 months of planting. Harvesting
is usually done by hand by chopping the stem at base with a cane knife but
cutting machines are also used for mechanical harvesting. Withering of
lower leaves is the indication of ripening of crops. Harvested canes is
brought to factories immeadiately for extraction of juice as rapid
deterioration starts as cane loses 1-2% water daily in first week of harvest.

Processing of sugarcane

[1] Extraction of juice

In sugar mills, canes are first carried to crushers where they are torn into
small pieces and then passed through heavy, grooved steel rollers to squeez
out the juice. Several successive expressions are required to ensure
complete extraction of juice. To facilitate complete recovery, water or thin
juice is sprayed on the blanket of bagasse. The final bagasse left out after
extraction of juice contains unextracted sugar, woody fibre and 45-55% of
water. This is used to manufacture paper or as a fuel.

The expressed juice is turbid, dark-greyish, sweet liquid containing sucrose

and other sugars, proteins, gums, organic acids, minerals, colouring
materials, dirt and other extraneous materials.

[2] Purification of juice

The juice is immediately processed to prevent fermentation. It involves

following steps :

1. Clarification. In this process, both soluble and insoluble impurities

are removed. The juice is first strained to remove the insoluble and
suspended particles. The clarifying agents are applied. By the process of
sulphitation (treatment with milk of lime and sulphur dioxide) and
carbonation (tretment by carbon dioxide), most of the free organic acids
and phosphates are removed as insoluble calcium salts. Proteins and
colloidal colouring matter are removed from the solution as a thick scum
appearing on the surface. Precipitated calcium salts and scum are removed
by filteration. The juice is now clear and dark coloured.

2. Evaporation. The clarified juice contain about 85% of water. It is

now lead to evaporators where it is boiled under reduced pressure until it
becomes a thick syrup. Partial vacuum bioling prevents darkening and
decomposition of sugars. Now the juice contains about 65% solids and 35%
water.

3.Crystallisation. Juice is finally concentrated in vacuum to a density

that causes sugar to crystallize from thick syrup (massecuite). The
centrifuge separates molasses from sugar crystals. The raw sugar thus
obtained is brown in colour and is about 96% pure.

4.Refining.In this process, adhering film of molasses is removed from

the surface of raw sugar crystals. It is done by repeated washing,
recrystallization and decolorization with carbon. The clear syrup, after
vacuum concentration, is centrifuged so that pure sparkling white crystals
of sugar separate out. The sugar crystals are then dried in large rotary
driers. The refined sugar is packed in loaf, lump, granular or powdered form.

Uses- Cane sugar (sucrose,C12H22O11) is a sweet, crystalline substance and is

an important source of energy in human diet. It is widely used in
manufacture of soft drinks, chocolates, confectionery, ice-creams and in
canning industry. Sugarcane juice is also used for preparing gur and jaggery,
vacuum pan sugar and open pan sugar or khandsari.

2. Sugar Beet (Beta vulgaris) Family- Chenopodiaceae

The plant is a biennial with swollen, rounded or tapering roots and dark red
or yellow-green leaves arising in cluster from a shortened stem. Flowers,
which are produced in the second year of growth, are usually borne in
axillary clusters. They are small, bracteate, bisexual, actinomorphic and
perigynous. The fruit is one seeded utricle.

Cultivation-Sugar beet grows best in regions where summer temperature is

around 31 degrees- 35 degrees celsius and soil is well-drained friable loam.
It needs heavy manuring and is sensitive to soil activity.

The crop is propagated by seeds which are sown in rows in early spring, in
carefully prepared seed beds. Seed germinate in about 10 days. Plants are
thinned so that they remain 20-25 cm apart. Thorough weeding and deep
cultivation are necessary. The crop is ready for harvest in 90 days. Mature
beets are pulled from ground and tops are removed to prevent any sugar
utilization.

Processing of Sugar Beet

In beet roots sugar is stored in the enlarged tap root and hypocotyl in the
form of sucrose. Sugar contents of roots vary from 5 to over 20%. The roots
are first thoroughly washed and then cut into thin slices. The sugar is
extracted by diffusion in a series of tanks containing hot water. It is possible
to extract up to 97% of sugar by this process.

Insoluble impurities present in the raw juice are precipitated out by

carbonation. In this process, raw juice is treated with lime which coagulates
some of the non-sugars. Then carbon dioxide is passed which precipitates
calcium carbonate. The juice is filtered and the filerate which is now a clear
liquid is concentrated. A massecuite (dense syrup) thus obtained is reboiled
several times, crystallizes and centrifuged. The sugar thus obtained is as
good as cane sugar.

Analysis of sugar beet pulp gave (dry basis): cellulose, 22.9; hemicellulose,
49.3; lignin, 1.2; protein, 8.2; fat, 1.0; carbohydrates and pectin, 13.6; and
ash, 3.8%. The pulp being high in hemicellulose and cellulose and low in
lignin, is well suited to enzymatic degradation.

Sugar products-

1. Agave nectar – very high in fructose and sweeter than honey. It is

commercially produced from several species of Agave (A. tequilana, A.
salmiana)
2. Barley malt syrup – around 65% maltose and 30% complex carbohydrate.
An unrefined sweetener processed by extraction from sprouted and dreid
i.e., malted barley. Syrup is dark brown, thick and sticky, and possesses a
strong flavour as malty.

3. Barley sugar (or barley sugar candy) – similar to hard caramel. A

traditional variety of boiled sweet (hard candy) often yellow or orange with
sometimes an extract of barley added as flavouring.

4. Birch syrup – around 42-54% fructose, 45% glucose, plus a small amount
of sucrose. Savory mineral tasting syrup made from the sap of birch trees
(Betula) and produced in much the same way as maple syrup.

5. Coconut sugar (coco sgar) – 70-79% sucrose and 3-9% glucose and
fructose. Produced from sap of cut flower buds.

6. Corn syrup (glucose syrup) – made from maize starch, made of varying
quantities of maltose and higher oligosaccharides.

7. High fructose corn syrup – roughly 50% glucose and 50% fructose. Made
from corn starch that has been processed by glucose isomerase to convert
some of its glucose into fructose.

8. High maltose corn syrup – mainly maltose, not as sweet as high fructose
corn syrup. It is used as sweetener and preservative.

9. Date sugar- made from dried dates. It does not melt like like granulated
sugar. Healthier alternative of brown sugar.

10. Honey – consists of fructose and glucose. Produced and stored by

certain social hymenopterian insects. It is produced from sugary from
sugary secretions of plants or insects such as floral nectar or aphid
honeydew, through regurgitation, enzymatic activity, and water
evaporation.

11. Jaggery – made from date, cane juice, or palm sap, contains 50%
sucrose, up to 20% invert sugars, and a maximum of 20% moisture, with
remainder made of other insoluble matter, such as wood ash, proteins, and
bagasse fibres. Traditional non- centrifugal cane sugar, without separation
of the molasses and crystals.

12. Maple syrup – around 90% sucrose. Made from the xylem sap of sugar
maple, or black maple trees.

13. Palm sugar- produced by tapping the sap from the infloresence of the
tree and boiling it down to produce a syrup, which is then sold as is, or
allowed to crystallize into various shapes and size.

14. Xylose- first sugar isolated from wood. Derived from hemicellulose. It is
classified as a monosaccharide of the aldopentose type.

15. Arabinose- is an inhibitor of enzyme sucrase. Usually used for diabetic

patients. It is a potential prebiotic, because it cannot be absorbed by human
intestine and could be utilized by probiotics such as bifidobacteria.

16. Caramel – made of a variety of sugars. It is a medium to dark-brown

confectionery product made by heating a variety of sugars. The process of
caramelization consists of heating sugar slowly to around 170 degree
celsius.

17. Toffee – confection made by caramelized sugar or molasses (creating

inverted sugar) along wiith butter, and occasionally flour. The mixture is
heated until its temperature reaches the hard crack stage of 149 to 154 o C.
Sometimes mixed with nuts or raisins.

Forms and uses of sugars-

1. Brown sugars are consists of a minimum 88% sucrose and invert sugar. It
is either an unrefined or partially refined soft sugar consisting of sugar
crystals with some residual molasses content (natural brown sugar) or it is
produced by the addition of molasses to refined white sugar (commercial
brown sugar).
Commercial brown sugar contains from 4.5% molasses (light brown sugar)
to 6.5% molasses (dark brown sugar) based on total volume. Based on total
weight, regular commercial brown sugar contains up to 10% molasses.They
are used in baked goods, confectionery, and toffees.

2. Granulated sugars are used at the table, to sprinkle on foods and to

sweeten hot drinks (coffee and tea), and in home baking to add sweetness
and texture to baked products (cookies and cakes) and desserts (pudding
and ice cream). They are also used as a preservative to prevent micro-
organisms from growing and perishable food from spoiling, as in candied
fruits, jams, and marmalades.

3. Invert sugars and syrup are mixture of glucose and fructose; obtained by
splitting the diasaccharide sucrose. C12H22O11 (sucrose, Specific rotation =
+66.5o) + H2O (water, no rotation) =C6H12O6 (glucose, Specific rotation =
+52.7o) + C6H12O6 (fructose, Specific rotation = -92o), net : +66.5o converts to
-19.65o (half of the sum of the specefic rotation of fructose and glucose.
Used in breads, cakes, and beverages for adjusting sweetness, aiding
moisture retention and avoiding crystallization of sugars.

4. Liquid sugars are strong syrups consisting of 67% granulated sugar

dissolved in water. They are used in the food processing of a wide range of
products including beverages, hard candy, ice cream, and jams.

5. Low-calorie sugars and artificial sweeteners are often made of

maltodextrin with added sweeteners. Maltodextrin is an easily digestible
synthetic polysaccharide consisting of short chains of glucose molecules and
is made by the partial hydrolysis of starch. The added sweeteners are often
aspartame, saccharin, stevia, or sucralose.

6. Milled sugars (known as confectioner's sugar and powdered sugar) are

ground to a fine powder roughly 50% glucose and 50% fructose. Contains a
small amount of anti caking agent. . They are used as powdered sugar (also
known as icing sugar or confectionary sugar), for dusting foods and in
baking and confectionery.
7. Polyols are sugar alcohols and are used in chewing gums where a sweet
flavor is required that lasts for a prolonged time in the mouth e.g inositol.

8. Screened sugars are crystalline products separated according to the size

of the grains. They are used for decorative table sugars, for blending in dry
mixes and in baking and confectionery.

9. Sugar cubes (sometimes called sugar lumps) are white or brown

granulated sugars lightly steamed and pressed together in block shape.
They are used to sweeten drinks.

10. Sugarloaf was the usual cone-form in which refined sugar was produced
and sold until the late 19th century. This shape is still in use in Germany (for
preparation of Feuerzangenbowle), in Iran and Morocco.

11. Syrups and treacles are dissolved invert sugars heated to develop the
characteristic flavors. (Treacles have added molasses). Treacle is any
uncrystallised syrup made during the refining of sugar They are used in a
range of baked goods and confectionery including toffees and licorice.

12. Molasses (black treacle) are viscous by product of refining sugarcane or

sugar beet into sugar.Molasses is commonly used to make rum, and sugar
byproducts are used to make ethanol for fuel.

13. Golden syrup (light treacle) is thick, amber-coloured form of inverted

sugar syrup. It is made in process of refining sugar cane or sugar beet juice
into sugar, or treatment of a sugar solution with acid.

In winemaking, fruit sugars are converted into alcohol by a fermentation

process. If the must formed by pressing the fruit has a low sugar content,
additional sugar may be added to raise the alcohol content of the wine in a
process called chaptalization. In the production of sweet wines,
fermentation may be halted before it has run its full course, leaving behind
some residual sugar that gives the wine its sweet taste.
 Nutrition and flavor
Brown and white granulated sugar are 97% to nearly 100% carbohydrates,
respectively, with 2% or no water, and no dietary fiber, protein or fat
(tables). While brown sugar contains a moderate amount of iron (15% of
the Reference Daily Intake in a 100 gram amount), both sugars are devoid of
essential nutrients (table). In a typical serving size of 4 grams (one
teaspoon), sugar supplies 15 calories.
Because brown sugar contains a small amount (5–10%) of molasses
reintroduced during processing, its value to some consumers is a richer
flavor than white sugar.

Sugar (sucrose), brown (with molasses)

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,576 kJ (377 kcal)
Carbohydrates 97.33 g
Sugars 96.21 g
Dietary fiber 0g
Fat 0g
Protein 0g

Vitamins
Thiamine (B1) 0.008 mg (1%)
Riboflavin (B2) 0.007 mg (1%)
Niacin (B3) 0.082 mg (1%)
Vitamin B6 0.026 mg (2%)
Folate (B9) 1 μg (0%)

Minerals
 Calcium 85 mg (9%)
Iron 1.91 mg (15%)
Magnesium 29 mg (8%)
Phosphorus 22 mg (3%)
Potassium 133 mg (3%)
Sodium 39 mg (3%)
Zinc 0.18 mg (2%)

Other constituents
Water 1.77 g
Units

μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

Sugar (sucrose), granulated

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy 1,619 kJ (387 kcal)
Carbohydrates 99.98 g
Sugars 99.91 g
Dietary fiber 0g
Fat 0g
Protein 0g
Vitamins
Riboflavin (B2) 0.019 mg (2%)
Minerals
Calcium 1 mg (0%)
Iron 0.01 mg (0%)
Potassium 2 mg (0%)
Other constituents
Water 0.03
Units

μg = micrograms • mg = milligrams

IU = International units

Percentages are roughly approximated using US recommendations for adults.

Health effect

Studies examining the health impact of sugars are inconclusive. The United
Nations meta-analyses and WHO studies showed contrasting impacts of
sugar in refined and unrefined forms. Other studies indicated variable
results between health effects, particularly on obesity, and whether the
research was funded by the sugar industry or those by independent
sponsors. The 'empty calories' argument is that a diet high in added sugar
will reduce consumption of foods that contain essential nutrients. Various
effects are:

1. Addiction - Sugar addiction is the term for the relationship between

sugar and the various aspects of food addiction including "bingeing,
withdrawal, craving and cross-sensitization". Some scientists assert that
consumption of sweets or sugar could have a heroin addiction-like effect,
but recent reviews suggest that sugar addiction does not occur in humans.

2. Alzheimer's disease - Claims have been made of a sugar–Alzheimer's

disease connection, but debate continues over whether cognitive decline is
attributable to dietary fructose or to overall energy intake.

3. Blood glucose levels - Carbohydrates are classified according to their

glycemic index, a system for measuring how quickly a food that is eaten
raises blood sugar levels, and glycemic load, which takes into account both
the glycemic index and the amount of carbohydrate in the food. This has led
to carbohydrate counting, a method used by diabetics for planning their
meals.

4. Cardiovascular disease - Studies in animals have suggested that chronic

consumption of refined sugars can contribute to metabolic and
cardiovascular dysfunction. Some experts have suggested that refined
fructose is more damaging than refined glucose in terms of cardiovascular
risk. Cardiac performance has been shown to be impaired by switching from
a carbohydrate diet including fiber to a high-carbohydrate diet. Switching
from saturated fatty acids to carbohydrates with high glycemic index values
shows a statistically-significant increase in the risk of myocardial infarction.
Other studies have shown that the risk of developing coronary heart
disease is decreased by adopting a diet high in polyunsaturated fatty acids
but low in sugar, whereas a low-fat, high-carbohydrate diet brings no
reduction. This suggests that consuming a diet with a high glycemic load
typical of the "junk food" diet is strongly associated with an increased risk
of developing coronary heart disease.

The consumption of added sugars has been positively associated with

multiple measures known to increase cardiovascular disease risk amongst
adolescents as well as adults. Studies are suggesting that the impact of
refined carbohydrates or high glycemic load carbohydrates are more
significant than the impact of saturated fatty acids on cardiovascular
disease. A high dietary intake of sugar (in this case, sucrose or disaccharide)
can substantially increase the risk of heart and vascular diseases. According
to a Swedish study of 4301 people undertaken by Lund University and
Malmö University College, sugar was associated with higher levels of bad
blood lipids, causing a high level of small and medium low-density
lipoprotein (LDL) and reduced high-density lipoprotein (HDL). In contrast,
the amount of fat eaten did not affect the level of blood fats. Incidentally
quantities of alcohol and protein were linked to an increase in the good HDL
blood fat.

5. Hyperactivity - There is a common notion that sugar leads to

hyperactivity, in particular in children, but studies and meta-studies
question or address this issue. Some articles and studies do refer to the
increasing evidence supporting the links between refined sugar and
hyperactivity. The WHO FAO meta-study suggests that such inconclusive
results are to be expected when some studies do not effectively segregate
or control for free sugars as opposed to sugars still in their natural form
(entirely unrefined) while others do. One study followed thirty-five 5-to-7-
year-old boys who were reported by their mothers to be behaviorally
"sugar-sensitive." They were randomly assigned to experimental and
control groups. In the experimental group, mothers were told that their
children were fed sugar, and, in the control group, mothers were told that
their children received a placebo. In fact, all children received the placebo,
but mothers in the sugar expectancy condition rated their children as
significantly more hyperactive. This result suggests that the real effect of
sugar is that it increases worrying among parents with preconceived
notions.

6. Obesity and diabetes - Controlled trials have now shown unequivocally

that consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages increases body weight and
body fat, and that replacement of sugar by artificial sweeteners reduces
weight. Studies on the link between sugars and diabetes are inconclusive,
with some suggesting that eating excessive amounts of sugar does not
increase the risk of diabetes, although the extra calories from consuming
large amounts of sugar can lead to obesity, which may itself increase the
risk of developing this metabolic disease. Other studies show correlation
between refined sugar (also called "free sugar") consumption and the onset
of diabetes, and negative correlation with the consumption of fiber.These
included a 2010 meta-analysis of eleven studies involving 310,819
participants and 15,043 cases of type 2 diabetes.

7. Tooth decay - In regard to contributions to tooth decay, the role of free

sugars is also recommended to be below an absolute maximum of 10% of
energy intake, with a minimum of zero. There is "convincing evidence from
human intervention studies, epidemiological studies, animal studies and
experimental studies, for an association between the amount and
frequency of free sugars intake and dental caries" while other sugars
(complex carbohydrate) consumption is normally associated with a lower
rate of dental caries. Lower rates of tooth decay have been seen in
individuals with hereditary fructose intolerance. Also, studies have shown
that the consumption of sugar and starch have different impacts on oral
health with the ingestion of starchy foods and fresh fruit being associated
with low levels of dental caries.