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CARBOHYDRATES
 Carbohydrates
 Carbohydrates or sacchrides are polyhydroxy alcohols

( OH ) with potentially active carbonyl groups,which may either be aldehyde ( H-C=O ) OR

keto

( C=O ) groups.
Structure
 Continue…
 Carbohydrates are the chief and instant source of energy in all

most all the organisms.

 They are the most abundant of all three major classes of

biomolecules.
 Carbohydrates is the term derived from the French word hydrates

of carbon or Carbohydrates are also called Saccharides .

 Saccharides is a Greek term sákcharon, meaning “sugar “.

 Thus Carbohydrates are naturally occurring sugar made up of

Carbon and hydrogen

 Sources of Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are found in foods high in sugar or starch,

such as fruits, sweeteners like sugar and honey, breads,

grains and starchy vegetables like potatoes.

 Classification of carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are classified in to following major classes

on the basis of complexity and behavior on hydrolysis

1) Mono saccharides

2) Disaccharides

3) Oligo saccharides

4) Poly saccharides
 Classification of carboydrates

Monosacch Disacchrid Oligosachh Polysachhri

rides es arides des
( single ( on (On ( on
sugar hydrolysis hydrolysis hydrolysis
residues) yield 2 yield 3-10 yield more
monosacha monossacc than 10
rides) hrides) monosacch
rides)
 Mono saccharides
Simple sugars cannot be hydrolyzed into smaller units.

Depending upon no. of carbon in a unit, mono

saccharides are subdivided into a dioses to decoses.

 More common subclasses of mono saccharides are:

 If the carbonyl group is an aldehyde, the

monosaccharide is an aldose. If the carbonyl group is

a ketone, the monosaccharide is a ketose.
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 Aldoses:

Aldotrioses e.g. Glycerose,

Aldotertroses e.g. Erythrose,
Aldopentoses e.g. Ribose,
Aldohexoscs e.g. Glucose, Galactose
Aldoheptose e.g. Glucoheptose.
 Ketoses:

Ketotrioses e.g Dihydroxyacetone,

Ketotetroses e.g Erythrulose,
Ketopentoses e.g Ribulose,
Ketohexoses e.g. Fructose,
Ketoheptose e.g. Scdoheptulose.
 Monosaccharides
 They are classified according to the number of carbon atoms present.

 They are the simplest sugars.

 They can not be hydrolyzed further.

 They may be aldose.

 They may be ketose.

 All of the monosaccharides are reducing sugars.

 A reducing sugar is a sugar that has a free aldehyde or ketone that

can act as a reducing agent. A non-reducing sugar does not have a

free aldehyde or ketone, so it cannot act as a reducing agent.
Monosaccharides
 Glucose
 Glucose is a very common carbohydrate.
 The word itself is derived from the Greek word "glukus," which
means "sweet."
 It is also called dextrose.
 Glucose is also called blood sugar as it circulates in the blood
at a concentration of 65-110 mg/dL of blood.
 primary function is to provide energy for cellular activities, and if
there's shortage, there will be deficiency in body activities.
 The glucose that our body uses for energy comes from many
kinds of foods called carbohydrates, such as cereal, bread, rice,
pasta, and other grains.
 Glucose is a major source of energy for most cells of the body.
 Glucose

It is also known as
dextrose, because it is
dextrorotatory
(meaning that as an
optical isomer is rotates
to right plane and also
an origin for the D
designation.
dextrorotation refers to
clockwise or right-
handed rotation.
 Fructose
 It is also called levulose.

 and laevorotation refers to

counterclockwise or left-handed rotation.

 It is the sweetest of all sugars.

 Pure honey is made up of only fructose.

 Fructose is converted into glucose in the

liver.

 It does not need insulin for its entry into

the cell therefore diabetic patients can take

honey.


 Disaccharides
 Any of a class of sugars whose molecules contain two

monosaccharide residues.
 Disaccharides are formed when two monosaccharides are

joined together and a molecule of water is removed. This is

known as “dehydration synthesis.
 Sucrose is a white, odorless crystalline powder with a sweet

taste.
 Sucrose is made up of glucose (monosaccharide) and

fructose (monosaccharide).
 Disaccharides

Maltose ( fruit sugar ) glucose + glucose

Lactose ( milk sugar ) glucose + galactose

Sucrose ( cane sugar ) glucose + fructose

Diasccharides
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 Lactose is formed from galactose and glucose.

 Lactose has a complex molecular structure, and so some people are unable

to digest it properly.
 Maltose is also known as malt sugar and is formed from bonding between

two units of glucose.

 It is used in the making of soft candies such as chocolates and fruit based-

treats.
 Too much of disaccharides causes spike in blood sugar and leads to a

disease called “Diabetes.

 Maltose is also produced in the body by the action of salivary and

pancreatic amylase on starch.

 Oligosaccharides
 An oligosaccharide is a saccharide polymer

containing a small number (typically three to

ten) of component sugars,also known as

simple sugars (monosaccharides).

 Source include
 Vegetables: white onions, garlic, green cabbage, &
broccoli.
 Fruit: watermelon, pears, blueberries,, raspberries, figs,
and bananas.
 Grains: wheat and rye.
 Polysaccharides
 It contain more than ten monosaccharides units.

 The three most common types of polysaccharides are

1. Starch

2. Glycogen

3. Cellulose
 Types of polysaccharides
If the polysaccharide is made up of same type of

monosaccharides, they are called homopolysaccharide or

homoglycan.
E.g : starch, amylose, amylopectin, cellulose, and glycogen.

if it is made up of different types of monosaccharides, they

are known as hetero-polysaccharides or heteroglycans.

E.g : mucopolysaccharides or mucilages & hemicellulose.
 Glycogen
Glycogen is a polysaccharide that is the principal storage

form of glucose in animal and human cells.

It is present in liver & muscles where it acts as storage

polysaccharides for glucose.

Liver glycogen maintains blood glucose level during

fasting conditions but muscle glycogen has no role in

maintaining blood glucose level instead it only provides
energy to the muscles.
Glycogen
 Glycogen
Muscle glycogen is the primary energy source during

exercise.
The glycogen store in human liver is about 90 g and is

involved in the hormonal control of the blood sugar.

 Starch
It is the main form of ingested carbohydrate.
It is of two types
1. Amylose
2. Amylopectin
Starch is hydrolyzed by amylase enzyme.
Amylase hydrolyze starch into maltose,maltoteriose &
dextrins.
Since our body needs glucose for energy 24 hours a day,
our diet has to include carbohydrates that our body turns
into energy.
grains and starchy vegetables such as rice, wheat,
potatoes, corn or yams make up half of their diet.
Amylose & amylopectin
Food pyramid
 Cellulose
Cellulose is a complex carbohydrate, or polysaccharide,

consisting of 3,000 or more glucose units.

Cellulose is nondigestible by man but it is a food for

herbivorous animals.
Humnas can not digest cellulose because we lack the

enzyme cellulase.
It is the main fibrous organic matter and present mainly in

plant kingdom.
Structure
 Heteropolysaccharides
Mucopolysaccharides combine with protein to form

mucoproteins and mucin.

Mucopolysaccharides are the acid containing carbohydrates.

Muscopolysaccharides are also known as GAG.

E.g

hayluronic acid

Chondrotin sulfate

Heparin


 Hayluronic acid
It is present in skin in high concentration.

It is present in the synovial fluid thus helps in the

lubrication of joints.
It is present in the vitrous humor of the eye.

It is hydrolyzed by the enzyme hayluronidase.

Many bacteria produce hayluronidase thus destroying the

cementing barrier and cause infection.

 Hyluronic acid
 Synovial fluid protects your joints because it is resistant

to compression, which helps to stop your bones from

grinding into one another.

 By helping to keep water within the synovial fluid,

hyaluronic acid is responsible for that resistance.

 For this reason, hyaluronic acid injections are often

used to treat osteoarthritis of the knee.

Hyluronic acid
THANKS