o Biological molecules can be classified into two main types:

◾ Inorganic molecule
o Contain either carbon or hydrogen or neither of them
o Relatively small and simple compound
o E.g. minerals and water
◾ Organic molecules
o Always contain both carbon and hydrogen
o The main structural component of living cell
o Regulate metabolic reaction and provide energy for life process
o Includes lipids, carbohydrates, proteins and nucleic acids
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◾ Carbohydrates are organic molecules that are made up of
elements like
o Carbon,
o Oxygen and
o Hydrogen
◾ There needs to be at least three carbons f o r a
molecule to be carbohydrate.

◾ They generally vary from simple sugars containing three-

carbon atom to very complex polymers.
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▪ Carbohydrates are called carbohydrates because th ey
are essentially hydrates of carbon
o i.e. they are composed of carbon and water and have a
composition of (CH2O)n.
▪ The major nutritional role of carbohydrates is t o
provide energy and digestible carbohydrates provide 4
kilocalories per gram.

▪ No single carbohydrate is essential, but carbohydrates do

participate in many required functions in the body.
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CONT…
◾ Only the hexoes (six carbon sugars) and pentoses (five
carbon sugars) and their polymers play an important role in
nutrition.

◾ In their simplest form, the general formula is CnH2nOn.

◾ The different elements of carbohydrate are brought
together by the machinery of plants called chlorophyll
through the process of photosynthesis.

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 CONT…
◾ To accomplish this process, the chlorophyll in plants uses the
solar energy, carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and water
from the soil.

◾ Starch is the main end product of the process of

photosynthesis and hence it is the most abundant form of
carbohydrate and it is the storage form of carbohydrate in
plants.

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 PLANTS ARE THE ONLY PRODUCERS OF CARBOHYDRATES FOR
ANIMAL KINGDOM

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◾ Simple classification of CHOs that are important in nutrition is
based on the number of single CHO molecules found in each
chemical structure.

◾ Based on the number of single carbohydrate unit they contain

and their functions in the body, carbohydrates are classif ied in
to different categories.

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◾ Monosaccharides and Disaccharides are
Soluble in water,
Have crystalline structure and
Have sweet taste; they are called sugars and

◾
All have the same suffix-ose.
Polysaccharides are
Insoluble in water,
They do not form crystals and
Don’t taste sweet;
No characteristic suffix.
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A. Monosaccharides
Three common sugars share the same molecular formula: C6H12O6.
Because of their six carbon atoms, each is a hexose.
They are:
▪ Glucose, "blood sugar", the immediate source of energy for cellular
respiration.
o Also called as dextrose or grape sugar.
o It is the end product of digestion of starch, sucrose, maltose and
lactose.
o It is a major source for energy.
o After meal glucose is converted to glycogen and excess is
converted to triacyl glycerol and stored.
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▪ Galactose - a sugar in milk (and yogurt),
o It is not found free in nature
o Produced in the body during digestion of lactose
o Also called as milk sugar
▪ Fructose - a sugar found in fruits and honey.
o It is the sweetest of all sugars and also known as levulose or
fruit sugars.
o It is produced during digestion of sucrose and is found in nectar
of flowers, honey and molasses.

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 B. Disaccharides
Three common disaccharides:
▪ Sucrose — common table sugar = glucose + fructose
o Is made up of one glucose unit and one fructose unit.
o Also called as table sugar and used at home in daily diet.
o White and Brown sugars are almost 100% sucrose.
o Also found in Maple syrup. Molasses, sorghum and corn syrup.
▪ Lactose — major sugar in milk = glucose + galactose
o Only found in milk
o When hydrolysed yields galactose and glucose.
o The amount is 6.8 & 4.8 g/100 ml in human and cow’s milk.

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▪ Maltose — product of starch digestion = glucose + glucose
o Has two glucose units
o Is formed in the body as an intermediate product of starch
digestion.
o Is one of the commonly used sweetening agent.
o Beer, infant formula and malted breakfast cereals.

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 II. Complex carbohydrates
▪ Oligosaccharides
▪ Polysaccharides
o Starch
o Glycogen
o Cellulose
✔Are Complex CHO that contain as many as 60,000 simple CHO
molecules.
✔ Starch, glycogen and cellulose are important in nutrition.
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◾ Major storage carbohydrates in higher plants
Amylose – long straight glucose chains

Amylopectin – branched every 24-30 glucose residues

◾ Provides 80% of dietary calories in humans worldwide

◾ Most abundant CHO throughout the world in mans diet
◾ End product of starch digestion is glucose.
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• Major storage carbohydrate in animals

• The only Polysaccharide found in animals

• Branched every 4-8 glucose residues (More branched than

starch)
• Easily mobilized
• Glycogen is hydrolyzed within a few hours

• Not the commonest CHO we get from food. 18

• Contains as many as 12,000 glucose units.
• Comprises of 50% or more of all carbon found in vegetation
• Structural constituent of plant cell wall (skeletal part).
• Humans & Carnivores do not have the enzyme to digest
cellulose.
• Also called dietary fiber or roughage.

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◾ It begins in the mouth by the chewing action of the teeth and
salivary amylase, which breaks the starch molecules down to
dextrin.

◾ In the small intestine, pancreatic bicarbonate neutralizes the

stomach acid and raises the PH to the optimal level for intestinal
enzymes.

◾ Pancreatic amylase then hydrolyses maltose and oth

er small oligosaccharides.

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CONT’D…
◾ Intestinal cells: brush border of intestinal epithelial cells of the
small intestine is equipped with the following enzymes which do
break different CHOs into their absorbable forms.

◾ Enzymes
o Glycosidase glucose glucose
o Dextridase fructose + glucose
o Sucrase
glucose + galactose
o Lactase
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Digestion of CHOs

◾ Involves the enzymatic cleavage

of the oxygen bridge called
glycosidic bond which links the
hexose units

◾ Begins in the mouth

◾ Absorption is restricted to
monosaccharides

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 Polysaccharide Digestion
✔Begins in mouth
✔Key enzyme - α-amylase
✔Some in the stomach
▪ until acid lowers pH of food bolus enough to inactivate the
enzyme
↓ produce
o Dextrins
o Maltose
✔Small intestine
◾Pancreatic α-amylase (maltose, isomaltose, glucose)
◾ Brush border enzymes (complete the digestion) 24
Disaccharide Digestion
✔No digestion in mouth or stomach
✔Digestion start upper small intestine
◾ Disaccharidase digested by -
◾Microvilli of brush border enzymes (Lactase, sucrase,
maltase, isomaltase)

◾ Nearly all dietary starches and disaccharides hydrolyzed to

constituent monosaccharide units

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24
◾ Is inherited or acquired defect resulting in inadequate secretion of
lactase needed to break down lactose to its simple sugars.

◾ The undigested lactose produces symptoms including a

bdominal pain, diarrhea & flatulence.

◾ Intolerance begins early in life & becomes more prevalent with age.
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DIGESTION OF CHOS CONT’D…
◾ Non-starch polysaccharides, oligosaccharides and resistant
starches are digested differently.

◾ They usually escape digestion by human enzymes in the upper

gut (small intestine) and get fermented by an aerobic bacteria in
the colon giving raise to a number of outputs.

◾ E.g. production of gases, production of short chain fatty acids

like acetate, propionate and butyrate; and increased fecal biomass
resulting in increased peristalsis.

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Absorption of Glucose and Galactose
• Requires energy and involves specific receptor (Glucose-
galactose carrier: called sodium glucose transporter (SGLT1)
• Protein complex dependent on Na+/K+ ATPase pump: ATP
furnishes energy for glucose transport to mucosal cell ____Active
• Transported into the circulation via a carrier in the basolateral
membrane ____Passive
Small portion used by mucosal cells for energy Enter portal
circulation and Go directly to the liver
✔ Absorption of Fructose
◾ It is absorbed by Facilitated
diffusion process with out any
consumption of energy

◾ More slowly than Glucose or

Galactose

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34
 5. Metabolism of CHO/Glucose
❑ Once absorbed CHOs have the three fates depending up on the
bodies energy balance:
1. Utilized either aerobically or anaerobically to produce
energy in the form of ATP

1. Stored in the form of glycogen in the liver and muscle

1. Stored in the form of fat if the body is plethoric of energy

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36
 6. Functions of Carbohydrate
A. Energy supply:
To meet immediate energy needs as glucose, some stored as glycogen in liver
and muscles and the rest converted to fat & stored as adipose tissue.

The CNS is entirely dependent on glucose for energy, other tissues can utilize
glycogen when blood sugar is low.
B. Protein sparing action:
When CHO and fat content of diet is below the desirable caloric level, more
protein is used for energy at expense of tissue building and maintenance that is (semi
starvation) weight reduction leading to cachexia.
A person can mobilize a maximum of 4 KG of protein from his body during Starvation
before he succumbs to death.
C. Helping the body use fat effectively:
Prevents the occurrence of ketosis due to mobilization of lipids.
D. Lactose enhances calcium absorption:
E. As component of body substances and compounds

Heparin, nervous tissue, hormones, enzymes, ribose in RNA & DNA

and component of a compound in the liver that destroys toxic substances etc.

F. Encouraging the growth of useful bacteria:

Fructose oligosaccharides selectively promote the growth of important

bacteria like lactobacillus and bifidobacteria
Probiotic: bacteria that benefit the host by acting upon the food. E.g. fructose
containing oligosaccharides
Prebiotic: Food stuffs that selectively stimulate the growth of essential
bacteria ex. Fructose
INTESTINAL BACTERIA (MICROFLORA), PRE- AND PROBIOTICS,
AND DISEASE
◾ Fermentation - breakdown of CHO & protein anaerobically
◾ Generate lactate & short-chain fatty acids, gases
◾Enhance immunity
◾Prevent colonization by pathogens
◾Lower pH of the colon
◾Transform/promote excretion of toxic substances
◾Enhance fecal bulk
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G. Promoting normal functioning of the lower intestinal tract:
Oligosaccharides and non starch polysaccharides as a dietary fiber
✔promote peristalsis and normal movement of the food
and
waste products along the GI tract and
✔ prevent occurrence of diseases like constipation, diverticulosis, hemorrhoids,
cancer and also coronary heart disease.

H. Improving the palatability of food and drink:

Sucrose is used as sweetening agent and added to foods like biscuits, soft drink, coffee,
tea etc.

I. Texturing and preservative:

✔ sugars give textures to some foods and they also are endowed with the function of 40
 7. Food source of carbohydrates:
✔ Free sugars:
cereal grains, dried fruits, vegetables, processed foods (pasta), jams, candies,
pastries and breads and fruits like banana , dates and sweet potato.(high CHO
density)
✔ Oligosaccharides : garlic, onions, legumes (peas and beans),
fruits and molasses.
✔ Polysaccharides : fruits,vegetables, cereals and legumes, whole
grain cereals.
✔ High carbohydrate density:
bread, cereals, rice, pasta, vegetables
✔ Low sources: egg, fish, poultry, cheese, meat, milk,
animal and vegetable fats contain no CHO.
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 OVER CONSUMPTION OF CHOS
◾ Foods with high sugar content provide energy but few nutrients.
◾ Diets that contain a high percentage of sugar are likely to lack
vital nutrients such as vitamins and minerals

◾ Everyone should limit the consumption of sugar, especially

people whose total caloric needs are low

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DENTAL DISEASE
◾ The major health problem associated with eating sugar is tooth
decay.
◾ The bacteria in our oral cavity convert sugars and starches into
acids that promote tooth decay
Obesity
◾ Some people consume too many calories because sugar-
containing foods are tasty and many are calorie dense, along with
also being high in fat.

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LACK OF FIBER
◾ The increased use of convenience foods, which are made from
highly refined
ingredients, has resulted in diets that are low in fiber

◾ A high f iber diet has proven power in reducing the symptoms of

chronic constipation and diverticulitis

◾ Research has suggested that a high f iber diet also may be useful
in preventing some types of cancer, reducing serum cholesterol,
and reducing blood sugar levels in diabetes.

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 DEFICIENCIES
◾ Low carbohydrate - reducing diets that promote the use of fats
an d p rot ein an d sev erely rest ric t or elimin at e t h e u se of
carbohydrates can cause serious harm
◾ When there is too little carbohydrate, fat is not burned completely,
and a condition known as acidosis (also called ketosis) results.
◾ In ketosis excessive quantities of water and sodium are excreted,
body tissue breaks down, and there is a general deterioration in
physical condition
◾ Also, the replacement of carbohydrate with fat predisposes the
individual to high serum cholesterol levels and some types of
cancers.
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 BLOOD GLUCOSE
◾ Immediate source of energy for cells and tissues.
◾ High (hyperglycemia) or low (hypoglycemia)
◾ Two mutually antagonistic metabolic hormones
Glucagon
✔Increase blood glucose
✔Catabolic hormone
Insulin
✔Decrease blood glucose
✔Anabolic hormone
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 8. Recommended daily allowance:
▪ Daily intake from food should not contribute more than 50% of total
daily requirement.
• Upon excessive consumption CHOs could be converted to lipids
and get stored leading to obesity and related chronic diseases.
• Besides dental caries is the commonest problem that encounters
frequent frank sugar consumers.

• As the brain uses glucose as a source of energy in most of the

cases, decreased intake of sugars may lead to utilization of bodies
protein pool for glucose synthesis, leading to cachexia.
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