BARC 404

1. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY LINEAR MEASUREMENTS?

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2. WRITE METHODS OF MAKING LINEAR MEASUREMENTS.

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3. ENLIST THE EQUIPMENT USED FOR CHAIN SURVEYING WITH

SKETCHES/IMAGES.

CHAIN SURVEYING:
Chain surveying is the branch of surveying in which only linear measurements are made in the
field. This is suitable for the survey of small areas with simple details and an area that is fairly
flat. It derives its name from the fact that the principle equipment commonly used is the chain.
Instruments used for chain surveying:
THE VARIOUS INSTRUMENTS USED IN CHAIN SURVEYING ARE AS FOLLOWS:
o Chain

o Tapes

o Arrows

o Pegs

o Ranging rods

o Offset rods

o Plumb bob

1) CHAIN:
o Chains are used to measure horizontal distances.
o Chains are formed of straight links of galvanized mild steel wire called links.
o The ends of each link are bent into a loop hand connected together by means of three oval
rings which afford flexibility to the chain.
o The chains are made up of mild steel.
o The ends of the chin are provided with brass handles for dragging the chain on the ground.
o The outside of the handle is the zero point or the end point of the chain and the length of
the chain measured from the outside of one handle to the outside of the other.
o The length of a link is the distance between the centers of the two consecutive middle rings.

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o The end links include the handles.

o Metallic tags are indicators of the chain to facilitate quick reading of fraction of a chain in
surveying measurements.
o Metric survey chains are available in lengths of 20m and 30m.
o The 20m chain contains 100 links whereas 30m.
o Chain contains 150 links. One link of both the type of chain measure 20cm.

DETAILS OF METRIC CHAIN

THE MAJOR TYPES OF CHAINS ARE:

o Metric Chains

o Gunter's Chain or Surveyor's Chain

o Engineer's Chain

o Revenue Chain

o Steel Band or Band Chain

2) TAPES IN SURVEYING
Tapes are used for accurate measurement of distances. The major types of tapes used in
surveying are:
o Linen Tape
o Metallic Tape
o Steel Tape

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o Invar Tape

3) ARROWS:
o Arrows or making pins are made of tempered steel wire 4mm in diameter and generally 10
arrows are supplied with a chain.
o An arrow is inserted into the ground after the chain length is measured on the ground.
o Usually the length of an arrow is 40cm and one end of it is made sharp and the other end is
bent into a circle for facility of carrying.

ARROWS

4) PEGS IN CHAIN SURVEYING:

o Pegs are made out of timber as shown below with a cross-section of 2.5 x 2.5 or 3 x 3 cm.
o It has a length of 15cm, with flat end at one side and pointed at the other end.
o Wooden pegs are used to mark the positions of stations or terminal points of a survey line.

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PEGS

5) RANGING RODS:
o Ranging rods are rods with length of 2m, 3m or 4m with a circular cross-section of 30 mm in
diameter.
o These rods are provided with a iron shoe at the bottom and are painted red , black and
white bands of 20 cm.
o It can be used for rough measurements of short length when necessary.
o For long distance ranging, we can make use of flags at the end.

RANGING RODS

6) OFFSET RODS:
o Offset rods are used to locate the measuring offsets.
o It is 3 m long that is made of seasoned wood and graduated in meters.

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o One meter at each end is subdivided into alternate black and white bands of 5 cm each.

OFFSET RODS

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7) PLUMB BOB:
o While chaining along sloping ground, a plump is required to transfer the points to the
ground.
o It is also used for accurate centering of the theodolite compass, plane table etc over a
station mark and for testing the vertically of ranging poles.

PLUMB BOB
8) CROSS STAFF:
o This is the instrument used for setting out right angles to a chain line.
o It consists of either a frame or box with two pairs of vertical slits and is mounted on a pole
shod for fixing in the ground
a. Open cross staff
b. French cross staff
c. Adjustable cross staff

Open cross staff French cross staff Adjustable cross staff

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9) MALLET:
Wooden mallets are used for driving the wooden pegs into the ground.

PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING:

The rectangle is the simplest fig that can be plotted from the lengths of its sided. Based on this,
the principle of chain surveying is to divide the area to be surveyed into a network of connected
triangles. Hence chain surveying is some times called chain triangulation. The exact
arrangement of triangles to be adopted depends upon the shape and configuration of the
ground and obstacles met with. When it contains no angle smaller than 30degree greater than
120 degree.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF CHAIN SURVEYING ADVANTAGES :

ADVANTAGES:
o Chain surveying is suitable for fairly level ground
o It does not require costly equipments
o It is used for preparing plans of smaller area
o It is simple

DISADVANTAGES:
o It is cannot used for large areas
o It is not always accurate
o

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4. WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY RANGING? EXPLAIN DIRECT RANGING.

RANGING:
o The process of fixing or establishing intermediate points to facilitate measurement of the
survey lines are called as Ranging. The intermediate points are located by means of ranging
rodes, offset rods and ranging poles.
o While measuring the survey lines, the chain or the tape has to be stretched along the survey
line along that joins two terminal stations.
o When the line to be measured has a smaller length compared to the chain, then the
measurement goes smooth.
o If the length of the line is greater, the survey lines have to be divided by certain
intermediate points, before conducting the chaining process. This process is called ranging.

RANGING

THE PROCESS OF RANGING CAN BE DONE BY TWO METHODS:

a. Direct Ranging
b. Indirect Ranging

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DIRECT RANGING:
o Direct ranging is the ranging conducted when the intermediate points are intervisible.
o Direct ranging can be performed by eye or with the help of an eye instrument.

DIRECT RANGING
(A) RANGING BY EYE
o It is the type of method of direct ranging that is done simply by the aid of the eyes of the
surveyor.
o As shown in figure-1 below, let A and B are the two intervisible points at the ends of the
survey line.
o The surveyor stands with a ranging rod at the point A by keeping the ranging rod at the
point B.
o The ranging rod is held at about half meter length.
o The assistant then takes the ranging rod and establishes at a point in between AB, almost in
line with AB.
o This is fixed at a distance not greater than one chain length from point A.
o The surveyor can give signals to the assistant to move traverse till the rod is in line with A
and B. In this way, other intermediate points are determined.

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RANGING BY EYE

(B) RANGING BY LINE RANGER:

o Ranging by Line Ranger is the type of direct ranging method in which the intermediate
points are fixed directly utilizing an instrument known as line ranger.
o The line ranger is an instrument that has either two plane mirror arrangement or two
isosceles prisms that are placed one over the other.
o The arrangement and silvering of the diagonals of the prism are done such that they reflect
incident rays.
o The figure-2 below shows a line ranger that has either two plane mirror arrangement or two
isosceles prisms that are placed one over the other.
o The diagonals of the prism are arranged and silvered such that they reflect incident rays.
o In order to handle the instrument in hand a handle with hook is provided. The hook is to
enable a plumb- bob to help transfer the point to the ground.
o In order to range the point ‘P’, initially two rods are fixed at points A and B. By eye
judgment, the surveyor holds the ranging rod at P almost in line with AB.
o The lower prism a-b-c receives the rays coming from A which is then reflected by the
diagonal ac towards the observer.

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o The upper prism d-b-c receives the rays from B which is then reflected by the diagonal b-d
towards the observer.
o Hence the observer can see the images of the ranging rods A and B, which might not be in
the same vertical line as shown in figure-2(c).
o The surveyor moves the instrument till the two images come in the same vertical line as
shown in figure-2(d).
o With the help of a plumb bob, the point P is then transferred to the ground. This instrument
can be used to locate the intermediate points without going to the other end of the survey
line.
o This method only requires one person to hold the line ranger.

RANGING BY LINE RANGER

(C)

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5. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF SURVEYING

CHAINS.

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6. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON DIFFERENT TYPES OF MEASURING TAPES.

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7. WRITE AND EXPLAIN PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING.

PRINCIPLE OF CHAIN SURVEYING:

o The principle of chain surveying is triangulation. This means that the area to be surveyed is
divided into a number of small triangles which should be well conditioned.
o In chain surveying the sides of the triangles which should be well conditioned.
o In chain surveying the sides of the triangles are measured directly on the field by chain or
tape. and no angular measurements are taken.
o Here, the tie lines and check lines control the accuracy of work. It should be noted that
plotting triangles requires no angular measurements to be made, if the three sides are
known.

CHAIN SURVEYING IS RECOMMENDED WHEN:

i. The ground surface is more or less level
ii. A small area is to be surveyed
iii. A small-scale map is to be prepared
iv. The formation of well-conditioned triangles is easy

CHAIN SURVEYING IS UNSUITABLE WHEN:

i. The area is crowded with many details.
ii. The area consists of too many undulations.
iii. The area is very large.
iv. The formation of well-conditioned triangles becomes difficult due to obstacles.

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A) LARGE-SCALE AND SMALL-SCALE MAPS:

o When 1 cm of a map represents a small distance, it is said to be a large-scale map.
For example,
1 cm = 1m i.e. RF = 1/100
o When 1 cm of the map represents a large distance, it is called a small-scale map.
For example,
1 cm = 100 m i.e. RF = 1/0000
o A map having an RF of less than 1/500 is considered to be large-scale. A map of RF more
than 1/500 is said to be small-scale.

B) WELL-CONDITIONED AND ILL-CONDITIONED TRIANGLES:

o A triangle is said to be well-conditioned when no angle in it is less than 30 degree or
greater than 120 degree.
o An equilateral triangle is considered to be the best-condition or ideal triangle Well-
conditioned triangles are preferred because their apex points are very sharp and can be
located by a single 'dot”.
o In such a case, there is no possibility of relative displacement of the plotted point.
o A triangle in which an angle is less than 30 degree or more than 120 degree is said to be
ill-conditioned Well - conditioned triangles are not used in chain surveying.
o This is because their apex points are not sharp and well defined which is why a slight
displacement of these points may cause considerable error in plotting.

C) RECONNAISSANCE SURVEY AND INDEX SKETCH:

o Before the commencement of any survey work, the area to be surveyed is thoroughly
examined by the surveyor, who then thinks about the possible arrangement of the
framework of survey.
o This primary investigation of the area is termed as reconnaissance survey or
reconnoiter.

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o During reconnaissance survey, the surveyor should walk over the area and note the
various obstacles and whether or not the selected stations are intervisible.
o The main stations should be so selected that they enclose the whole area.
o The surveyor should also take care that.
o The neat hand sketch of the area which is prepared during reconnaissance survey is
known as the 'index sketch' or 'key plan'.
o The index sketch shows the skeleton of the survey work. It indicates the main survey
stations, sub-stations, tie stations, base line, arrangement for framework of triangles
and the approximate positions of different objects.
o This sketch is an important document for the surveyor and for the person who will plot
the map.
o It should be attached to the starting page of the field book.

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8. WRITE A SHORT NOTE ON OPERATIONS IN CHAIN SURVEYING.

OPERATIONS IN CHAIN SURVEYING:

In these process, we take linear measurement between stations or between station and points
of any important structure like buildings etc.
IT INVOLVES THREE STEPS:
A) CHAINING
B) RANGING
C) OFFSETTING

A) CHAINING:
o For chain surveying, at least two men are required, but frequently three people are
employed.
o They are:
(1) The surveyor, who does the reading and booking,
(2) The leader, and
(3) The follower.
o Leader who present at forward end and drag chain forward and Follower who follow the
leader and present at rear end of chain.
o The leader insert arrow in ground while Follower collect the arrow from ground.
o If two points are present at lesser distance than the length of chain by estimation then
person directly mesured the distance with chain or tape.
o But if the distance between the station are larger then they took the help of arrows and
ranging rod.
o Firstly the Follower help the Leader to range the rod. After ranging the rod, the leader mark
the point and then stretch the chain toward the marked point.

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o The leader insert an arrow at outer edge of chain which represent a full chain length. Then
the leader and follower repeat the same process till the end station reached.
o The follower collected the previous arrows and give it to leader after stock out.
o If chaining is at slope ground, then we need only horizontal distance for plotting.
o The slope of any surface upto 3 taken as level surface. It involves following parts:
a. DIRECT METHOD (STEPPING METHOD):

b. INDIRECT METHOD:

B) RANGING:
It involves establishing the intermediate ranging rods in a line with the help of ranging rods in
order to make a straight path for chaining between stations. It can be done either by an
instrument or simply by eye.
The instrument may be a line ranger or a theodolite. Ranging can be classified into two
categories:
a) DIRECT RANGING
b) INDIRECT RANGING

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a. DIRECT RANGING:
It is used when we perform whole process on plain ground such that we can see other station
clearly. It can be done with by eye or by line ranger.
 Line Ranger: It is a small reflecting instrument consist of two rectangular prism placed
one above on another. It is used for ranging long lines when there is difficulty to reach
one end of line. The Observer take approximate intermediate position between the
stations. Then the ray from A enter from one side of ranger and ray from B enter from
another end present at opposite side of ranger. The images from both stations are seen
directly in upper and lower prism. The observer continuously change the instrument
position forward or backward until the images of both station coincide with each other.
The centre of instrument give the required position on ground.

DIRECT RANGING

b. INDIRECT RANGING:
When there is depression or high ground between the stations then it is difficult for ranging
betwen the station. It is also known as Reciprocal Ranging.
Suppose if there is hill between two stations then we perform ranging as picture below:
Firstly we take two intermediate stations by
approximation. We range A, M1, N1 by moving
the rod at M1 which give new point M2 and then
range N1 with M2, B give new point N2. These
process continuous till all point come in a straight
line.
INDIRECT RANGING

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C) OFFSETTING:
The method of measuring the distance of any object from chain line is known as Offset. The
offset can taken on either side of chain line. It is perform to get idea of how far an object locate
fron chain and plotted on sheet. The offsets are classified according to direction and length.

ACCORDING TO DIRECTION:
a. PERPENDICULAR OFFSET:
The measurement of distance at right angle from chain line. The offset are generally taken
at peripendicular direction in surveying. So an offset mean perpendicular offset in strict
case.
b. OBLIQUE OFFSET:
The measuring of distance at angle execpt 90 is called Oblique Offset. It is also know as Tie
Line offset. It is taken when distance is larger or when there is need of plotting corner of any
building.
In above image, Ab is chain line. P1P is perpendicular offset and QP is Oblique Offset.

ACCORDING TO LENGTH:
a. LONG OFFSET: The offsets greater than 15 m.
b. SHORT OFFSET: The offset lesser than 15m.

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9. DEFINE OFFSET. EXPLAIN PERPENDICULAR AND OBLIQUE OFFSET.

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10. EXPLAIN 3-4-5 METHOD OF SETTING A PERPENDICULAR OFFSET.

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