SURVEYING

LECTURE 04

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey
a) Chain
b) Metallic Tape
c) Ranging Rods
d) Arrows
e) Pegs
f) Cross-Staff

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey (cont.)

Chain
The chain is composed of 100 or
150 pieces of galvanized mild
steel wire 4mm in diameter
called links. The end of each link
are bent into a loop and
connected together by means
of three oval rings.

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey (cont.)

Metallic Tape
They are available in 2, 10, 30, and 50 meters. The tape is
made of yarn and metal wire. A metal ring is attached to
the outer end of tapes. The length of the tape includes
the metal ring.
• At every centimeter a black line 8 to 10 mm in height is
marked.
• Every 5 centimeters is marked with an arrow in black.
• Every meter is marked with a black line extending over
the full width of the tape.

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey (cont.)

Steel Tape
Tape is available in 1, 2, 10, 20, 30, and 50 meters. The
tape is of steel or stainless steel.
Before Stretching the tape for taking measurements, it
must be checked that there are no kinks in the tape,
otherwise it can break.

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey (cont.)

Invar Tape
Invar tapes are used for work of highest precision. Invar is
an alloy of steel and nickel (64:36). The alloy has a very low
coefficient of expansion equal to 0.00000012/oC. The tape
is available in length of 20, 30, 50 and 100 m. It is very
delicate and expensive.
It is used for base line
measurement in triangulation
survey.

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey (cont.)

Ranging Rods
Used for making the positions of stations and for
ranging.
• They are made of seasoned timber or bamboo,
or hollow steel rod.
• They are circular or octagonal in cross section of
3 cm diameter.
• Lower shoe is 15 cm long.
• They are made in two sizes as 2 meters and 3
meters and are divided in to equal parts each 0.2
m long. They are painted alternatively black and
white or red and white.

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey (cont.)

Pegs
They are of timber with 3 to 5 cm sq.
cross-section at one end and tapered at
the other end.
They are 15 to 20 cm long and are driven
into the ground to mark the survey
station.

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey (cont.)

Arrows
They are also called as marking or
chaining pins and are used to mark the
end of chain during the process of
chaining.
The arrows are usually made 400 mm in
length, made of hardened and tampered
steel wire of 4 mm diameter.
They are pointed at one end of inserting
in to the ground.

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Equipments Used for Chain Survey (cont.)

Cross Staff
The cross staff is used to set out the perpendicular
directions for offsets.

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Chaining a Line
• For measuring a line with the help of a chain or a tape two
persons are required, a leader and a follower.
• For good chaining, it is very important that the alignment is
true with proper stretching and marking.

The operation of fixing points in a straight line is called

ranging. This is done before the measurements are made with
a chain/tape so that the measurements are made along a
straight line joining the survey stations.

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Chaining a Line
A. Direct Method of Ranging

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Chaining a Line
B. Indirect Method of Ranging
When the two ends are not intervisible due to some interveing high
ground, the indirect method of ranging will be used.

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 Measurement of horizontal distance on sloping
ground
In plotting we need horizontal distances. As far as
possible all measurements should be done in a
horizontal plane. Sometimes they may be done on a
sloping ground and reduced to a horizontal distance by
applying the necessary correction. The following
method are normally used for this purpose:
1. Stepping
2. Measuring along slope

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Method of Stepping
Procedure:

a. A smaller chain/tape is taken; whose length may ranges

from 20-ft to 30-ft.
b. The tape is stretched horizontally with one end (say A)
resting on the ground and the other end held horizontally
in line.
c. The position below this end point (say B) is accurately
fixed by a plumb bob or ranging rod.
d. The next step is then started from “B” in the direction of
the main line. The process is repeated in correct alignment
until the end of the line is reached.

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Method of Stepping

Tape

Plumb Bob
A
B

N.S.L C

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Method of Stepping
Points to be remembered:

1. The tape should be stretched horizontally. This can

be checked by standing on one side and directing
the leader.
2. It is convenient to measure going down the hill
rather than going up. This also gives better results.
3. The length of the step should vary inversely with
the steepness of the slope and weight of the chain.
4. Tape of greater weight imparts the error due to sag
in addition to difficult handling.
2
 weight 
Error   
 Tension 
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Method of Stepping

• When the chain is suspended, it sags. This sagging can be

decreased by using light weight tape in small steps and
stretching the tape more.
• The method of stepping is more convenient and quicker and is
also be preferred if the ground consists of short slopes of
varying degrees.

 But when the ground is sloping gently and uniformly, it is

more convenient to use indirect methods which are quicker
and more accurate.

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Method of Measuring along Slope

• When the ground slope is long and uniform, the distance is

measured along the ground.
• The angle of slope can be measured with certain instruments,
such as clinometers or an Abney Level.
• The inclined surface shows reduced value then slope distance
by applying slope correction.
• The correction for different slopes can be applied on different
sections.

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Method of Measuring along Slope

Sometimes, for applying the slope correction, the difference

in height between the two points is found by using leveling
instruments.

h (Vertical Distance)
θ

H (Horizontal Distance)

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Method of Measuring along Slope
CASE - I
Relation of Slope correction:

h2
cs  (ive)
2l
Because the slope distance is always more than the horizontal distance. By
applying the negative correction, the correct horizontal distance can be
computed.

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Example
The distance between two points A and B
measured along the slope is 252 m. Find the
horizontal distance between A and B, when
the difference of elevation of A & B is 35.07 m.

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Method of Measuring along Slope
CASE - II

When the angle of slope is given along with the sloping

ground distance.

The slopes are measured by a clinometer etc. Using relation:

Base
cos 
Hypotenuse

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Example
The distance between two points A and B
measured along the slope is 252 m. Find the
horizontal distance between A and B, when
the angle of slope is 12ᵒ.

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Method of Measuring along Slope
CASE - III

If only the distance between the ends of the line along slope
is required by using chain. The correction may be obtained as
follows:

Hypotenusal allowance  100(sec   1) links

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Example
If in a length of one 20-m chain along a slope,
the ground rises 3.1-m, find the angle of slope
and the hypotenusal allowance in cm per
chain?

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CROSS STAFF
It is an instrument used for setting out right
angles at a given point on a chain line or for
dropping the perpendicular from a given point
on a chain line.

Types:
1. Open cross staff
2. French cross staff

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SETTING OUT RIGHT ANGLE

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DROPPING PERPENDICULAR

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1. OPEN CROSS STAFF

90o

Open Cross Staff

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2. FRENCH CROSS STAFF

French Cross Staff

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OPTICAL SQUARE
 More accurate than open cross staff
 Specially used for long off-sets
 Rule of reflection

θ θ

Silvered Surface

 Principle of Optical Square

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OPTICAL SQUARE
 Construction of Optical Square

Objectives:

Setting out of Perpendicular

Dropping a perpendicular

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OPTICAL SQUARE
Setting out of Perpendicular

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OPTICAL SQUARE
Dropping a Perpendicular or Locating Foot of Perpendicular

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OPTICAL SQUARE
Fixing Point at Foot of Perpendicular

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PRISM SQUARE
 It is more accurate than optical square.
 Works on the same principle of optical
square, only with a change in its
construction is use of Penta Prism instead
of Mirrors.

 Construction of Prism Square

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PRISM SQUARE
Reflection scheme through Penta Prism

45⁰

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