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A tectonic study of part of the Philippine fault zone

RUPERT WILLIAM ROYE RUTLAND
CONTENTS
x Introduction 294
2 Stratigraphy . . 297
(A) T h e Lubingan Group 297
(s) T h e Mingan Formation 299
(c) The Coronel Formation 299
(D) The Mainit Formation 3oo
(E) T h e Dingalan Formation . 3oo
(x~) T h e Villa Wave and Bugnam Formations 3ox
(o) The Butete and San J u a n Formations 3ox
(H) Stratigraphical correlation . 3ox
3 Recent deposits and erosional features 3o2
(A) Debris avalanche deposits . 3o2
(e) Fan deposits 3o3
(c) Erosion levels 3o3
4 Folding. . . 3o6
(A) Deformation of the Lubingan Formation 3o6
(s) Folding in the Coronel and Dingalan Formations 3o8
5 Faulting. 3o9
(A) Late Miocene faulting 3Io
(s) Plio-Pleistocene faulting 3zI
(c) Recent faults . . . 3x2
(D) Geometry of faulting and nature of movements 3x3
6 Conclusions 320
7 References 322
Plates 23-24 between 324 and 325
SUMMARY
The Philippine Fault Zone which trends faults which have been recognized are also of
N40~ is widely accepted as a major strike-slip dip-slip type. Geomorphological evidence shows
fault comparable to the San Andreas fault. An that the whole area has been subjected to
area in south-eastern Luzon, commonly Recent episodic but areally uniform uplift.
regarded as part of the main fault zone, has Direct evidence of strike-slip movements is
been studied in an effort to date the faulting slight and the structural relations argue against
and to establish its nature and extent. major post-Miocene strike-slip movements.
Low-grade metamorphic rocks, of probable The possibility of earlier strike-slip cannot be
pre-Tertiary age, occur only on the north-east excluded and the fault and fold systems show a
side of the Rift; their schistosity and bedding good correlation with those predicted following
are folded on north-north-westerly axes. the theory of Moody & Hill (x956). Possibly
Marine early Tertiary formations follow un- therefore the faults on which the main Miocene
conformably on both sides of the Rift and and later dip-slip movements occurred were
locally are folded on east-north-easterly axes. initiated during earlier strike-slip episodes. A
Younger Tertiary terrestrial formations occur pre-Tertiary episode of left-lateral strike-slip
only on the south-west side of the Rift. in the Rift followed by a Miocene episode of
Two main episodes of faulting are recognized, right-lateral strike-slip on conjugate primary
one late Miocene on northerly faults, one faults can be tentatively inferred. The direct
Plio-Pleistocene on north-westerly faults. Both evidence of faulting in the Rift, however, re-
these episodes involve considerable dip-slip lates only to the Plio-Pleistocene activity of
movements and the two principal Recent the morphogenic phase.
iii i i I iii i ii1|
Q.oTlgeol. Soc. Lond. vol. x23, I968 [for I967], PP. 293-325, 7 figs., pls. 23-24. 23
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I. I n t r o d u c t i o n
MUCH of the early work on the tectonics of island arc regions is due to Dutch
workers. Generally they emphasized the importance of vertical movements
(e.g. Van Bemmelen, Umbgrove) though there were important exceptions (e.g.
Brouwer I95I), and more recently emphasis has been on trans-current fault
zones (Wellman I955) following lineaments which have been called megashears
by Carey in i954, regmatic joints by Sonder in I947 or geosutures by H. Cloos in
I948 ) . The theory has even been developed that the Pacific Basin is encircled
by a system of right-lateral strike-slip faults (e.g. Benioff in I959). Allen (i962)
has attempted to establish the Philippine Fault Zone of Willis in I937 as a
major left-lateral strike-slip fault zone and has emphasized the great length and
linearity of the fault trace.
The zone is certainly the most notable tectonic feature of the Philippines. It is
best developed south of Luzon, in the Visayan islands, and was renamed the
Visayan Rift by Willis (I 944) who recognized a general morphological similarity
to the San Andreas fault. Allen (I962) preferred to retain the earlier name and is
followed here because it is possible that the fault zone as a whole does not share
the characteristics of the rift zone in the Visayas. However, in the following text
the topographic feature along the main fault zone is described as the 'Rift' for
brevity and to avoid confusion with individual faults within the zone.
The present paper is a relatively detailed study of a small part of the fault
zone in an attempt to evaluate the evidence both for horizontal and vertical
movements and to establish a tectonic history. The fault zone generally lies in
late Tertiary to Recent deposits but the area studied, where the Rift crosses the
Sierra Madre range, has the advantage that older rocks are exposed on both
sides (Fig. 2). No comprehensive study of any part of the fault zone has previously
been published so that the present area cannot be compared with any other parts
of the zone. The present area may not, however, for reasons given below, be
typical of the fault zone as a whole.
The fault zone between Dingalan Bay and Lingayen Gulf follows the same
trend as the Visayan Rift to the south, but is somewhat offset to the north-east
(Fig. I). Irving (I95 I, p. 79) comments that 'Much is to be learned of the north-
ward continuation of the rift zone both by geological mapping, and in the third
dimension, from seismographic study of earthquake shocks that occasionally take
place along it'. He suggests that the Dingalan fault zone may be ' . . . either a
portion of the Philippine Rift Zone, or conceivably a north-western seismically
active branch of perhaps the more important but presently inactive portion
extending along the north-east coast of Luzon'. Allen (1962) is more confident
that the Dingalan fault zone continues the main Philippine Fault zone via a
bend in the fault trace under the sea south-south-east of Dingalan Bay. He suggests
that this bend may be comparable to the bend in the San Andreas Fault caused
by the Garlock-Big Pine fault system. In the case of the Philippine Fault Zone
which he regards as left-lateral, the bend would be caused by a right-lateral fault
zone trending north of east.
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FIO. I. Outline map of the Philippines showing the Philippine Rift Zone
(after Allen I962).
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The Philippine Fault Zone differs from the comparable faults round the Pacific
Ocean in the quality of the evidence for historically recent movements. Several
instances of strike-slip movements of the order of metres on definite fault lines are
well documented for the San Andreas fault. Nearer at hand, other examples
are known from the longitudinal valley of Taiwan, but no similar case has been
described in the literature from the Philippines. The major part of the archi-
pelago is highly seismic but there is no special concentration of epicentres along
the rift zone. The Weather Bureau epicentre map for i949-1959 (Minoza,
Ocampo & Bellosillo i96o ) shows a considerable concentration on Masbate,
which, however, is also at the intersection of the two main tectonic trends of the
Philippines. Irving (195 t) observes that the southern and central portions of the
rift appear to be more active than the northern part, which he regards as com-
paratively inactive. Certainly, published maps show no epicentres within the
Laur-Dingalan valley which has therefore been one of the least active areas of
the Philippines in historically recent times. The presence of earthquake epicentres
in the area of the fault zone both to north and south, however, emphasizes the
possibility of future movements in the Laur-Dingalan segment.
The difficulties of establishing true rather than apparent slip of faults are
well known. Evidence for original continuity of structure or lithology across the
faults is seldom unequivocal. Slickensides are of dubious value since, for example,
vertical slickensides are known to be common on faults of proved strike-slip
movement. Even the attitude of faults provides no reliable guide since strike-slip
faults may pass at the surface into thrust faults (Wellman 1955). It has to be
recognized moreover that major faults may show both dip- and strike-slip com-
ponents of movement either at the same or at different times in the fault history.
Allen presents several examples of stream-offsets which suggest recent left-
lateral movements, but apart from this the published evidence for left-lateral
movement is not strong. Allen (op. cir.) notes that evidence from seismic data as
to sense of movement is conflicting, and in any case evidence is not available
for any major earthquakes within the Philippine Fault Zone.
A prominent mountain front faces south-west between Dingalan Bay and
Lingayen Gulf but this is widely regarded as a monoclinal structure independent
of the Philippine Fault Zone. Willis (i937, p. 2o) remarks that generally the
' . . . profile is not of an eroded fault scarp but a flexure' [of the Tertiary mature
land surface]. 'In the one stretch only, that from Dingalan Bay on the east coast
to Bongabong, is there a fault and that is a thrust'. Nevertheless, recent fault
scarps have been observed along this mountain front and the Philippine Fault
Zone is supposed to separate into a number of branches that trend north into the
Cordillera Central.
Gervasio (I965) also considers that the Lingayen-Dingalan lineament is a
separate feature from the Philippine Fault Zone and, following Alvir (I926),
that it shows major right-lateral movement. In the Laur-Dingalan segment the
structures of the Lingayen-Dingalan lineament and of the Philippine Fault Zone
should be combined.
In summary, therefore, it may be noted that the Laur-Dingalan segment has
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been regarded as a major left-lateral fault, a major right-lateral fault and as a
thrust.
No detailed mapping has previously been done in the Laur-Dingalan area.
A photogeological interpretation of the area, supported by ground reconnaissance,
has been made by the Philippine Bureau of Mines in connexion with the prepara-
tion of the I : I oooooo geological map of the Philippines. The general results of
this work are shown in Fig. 2.
The road from Laur to Gabaldon provides the main access to the area. A
private logging road links Gabaldon to Dingalan. Other logging roads have
been cut parallel to the coast from Dingalan and a mine road gives access to the
mountains south of Lubingan Creek. In general, however, the hills on either side
of the Laur-Dingalan valley are difficult of access. They are in any case covered
by primary or secondary forest growth and are virtually devoid of outcrops. The
present work has therefore been largely confined to a narrow strip on either side
of the valley, and observations have been limited to the creek beds where fairly
fresh rock is often exposed, to the road sections mentioned above and to the
coast. The resulting picture of the bed-rock geology is necessarily fragmentary.
Similar basic volcanic rocks occur in several formations as the dominant con-
stituent of lavas and of epiclastic and pyroclastic rocks. Distinction of these types
is often difficult, especially since the primary differences are often subordinate to
secondary differences due to deformation and weathering. Moreover extrapolation
from individual outcrops is largely precluded by the complex faulting. Boundaries
and relationships between the main rock groups are therefore seldom well-defined.
However it is believed that the resulting map is correct in its essential features
though considerable errors of detail must remain.
Observations were made of the superficial deposits and erosional features on
both 9 of the valley, as well as of the bed-rock geology, and aerial photographs
were used both to assist the ground-work and to extend it by photo-interpretation.
The results of the work were plotted on i :25ooo enlargements of the 1:5oooo
topographic maps. The map, Plate 24, is a somewhat simplified reduction from
these field maps.
2. Stratigraphy
The characters of the main rock units and the relations between the units throw
considerable light on the nature and dating of the main phases of tectonic activity.
The main formations distinguished in the area are listed in Table I and their
essential features are summarized below. The formation names are here used for
the first time but it is not proposed to classify them formally.
Acid intrusions (quartz diorite) occur on both sides of the fault in all formations
up to the Dingalan Formation. Acid dyke rocks with hornblende phenocrysts
also occur in the Mainit and Bugnam formations. They are unknown in the
younger formations.
The rocks of this group display only a low grade of metamorphism but they show
a relatively homogeneous and penetrative deformation which is not met with in
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•xG. 2. Geological setting of the Laur-Dingalan area (after Philippine Bureau of

Mines reconnaissance map).
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TABLE I : Rock units of Laur-Dingalan area

Unit General character Occurrence Probable age
San Juan Formation coarse elastic Pliocene
Butete Formation coarse elastic
Unconformity
Villa Wave Formation unmetamorphosed sw side
sedimentary of Miocene
Bugnam Formation unmetamorphosed Rift only
sedimentary
Mainit Formation indurated
sedimentary
Unconformity
Dingalan Formation coarse epiclastic "/ Both sides Lower Miocene
Coronel Formation ophiolites and ]y of early Tertiary
fine epiclastic Rift
Unconformity
Mingan Formation coarse pyroclastic
Major Unconformity N~.s i d e Cretaceousor early
Lubingan Group low grade meta- ~- of Tertiary
volcanic and meta-] Rift only pre-Cretaceous
sedimentary rocks .J
the younger rocks of the region. The schistose fabric is very fine-grained and
accompanies small-scale folding of the formation, which is generally thin-bedded.
A distinct flattening and elongation of fragments is notable in psephitic rocks.
A great variety of lithologies is present. Amongst the meta-sediments are grey
and black phyllites, fine-grained, poorly micaceous psammitic rocks and marbles.
In addition much of the formation is made up of green schists, some of which are
coarsely fragmented. These appear to be largely of volcanic origin though it
cannot be determined whether they are epiclastic or pyroclastic. These principal
types are often inter-bedded but it has been possible to distinguish units of dominant
meta-sediments, greenschists and marble on the map.
(B) T H E MINGAN F O R M A T I O N
The Mingan Formation is only certainly found on the north-east side of the Rift
near Dingalan. The rocks there vary from coarse volcanic breccias to tufts, and
are probably true welded pyroclastic rocks. The fragments are of volcanic rocks,
commonly feldspar-phyric and vesicular. Such indications of strike as there are
show a general parallelism to the Rift. Dips are very steep.
There is no penetrative deformation and the primary volcanic textures are
preserved, though there is considerable alteration of the minerals. It is therefore
inferred that the Mingan Formation unconformably overlies the metamorphosed
Lubingan Formation. No contact between the two has been found since to the
north-west along the Rift the Mingan Formation is overstepped by the Coronel
Formation.
(c) CORONEL FORMATXON
Over a large part of the area and especially on the south-west of the fault zone are
ophiolitic lavas associated with cherty sediments and fine greywackes. The best
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sections occurs in the Dingalan Forest Products Company road which runs
north-east from Dingalan along the coast. There the volcanic rocks are highly
feldspar-phyric lavas which sporadically contain cognate xenoliths, suggesting a
gradation between these rocks and some of the less fragmental rocks of the Mingan
Formation. Pillow-structures are commonly well preserved. The upper contacts
of several bodies show intimate involvement with the overlying sediments and
probably at least some of the flows were intruded below soft unconsolidated muds
on the sea floor. Some of the bodies definitely form low-angle dykes cutting across
the bedding.
These relations have not been observed elsewhere but the map relations and
lithologies strongly suggest correlation with the volcanic rocks and cherty sedi-
ments along the north-east side of the Rift from Dingalan to beyond Gabaldon.
These lavas appear to correlate in turn with those immediately across the valley
to the south-east and with those south-east of Laur. All of them show well pre-
served volcanic textures in which feldspar laths show no preferred orientation.
Epidotic and chloritic alteration and veins are common but there is no pervasive
deformation.
Along the north-east side of the Rift the strike appears to be conformable with
that of the underlying Mingan Formation. Along the Dingalan Forestry road
however the Coronel formation has an east-north-easterly strike mainly in the
northern limb of a large syncline with the same trend. It is not known whether
in this area the formation is discordant on the underlying Mingan formation.
North of Gabaldon, these volcanic rocks apparently directly overlie the Lubin-
gan Formation although no contact has been observed. At the top of the scarp
a limestone band in the volcanics strikes oo5 ~ and dips 64 ~ west while the under-
lying basement rocks generally dip east. The lower contact of the volcanic group
cannot be parallel to the limestone band and a fault contact between the two
formations must be inferred.
(D) THE MAINIT FORMATION

The Mainit formation occurs only in the extreme north-west of the area in fault
contact with the Coronel Formation. It consists of highly indurated claystone,
siltstone, sandstone and grits showing small-scale graded bedding, current bedding
and ripple marks. These features are present both in the Bugnam sediments and in
the sediments of the Coronel Formation. The high degree of induration and the
absence of limestone suggests that the Mainit Formation correlates with some
of the sediments in the Coronel Formation.
(E) THE DINGALAN FORMATION

On the Dingalan forestry road the Coronel Formation is clearly conformably
overlain by the Dingalan Formation. The base of the formation is recognized by
the sudden appearance of coarse epiclastic breccias. These are clearly bedded
and include finer greywackes and cherty sediments like those of the underlying
ophiolite formation. Some red oxidized fragments and some limestone fragments
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occur. However the rocks are well indurated and the distinction from the Mingan
pyroclastic rocks is not always evident from hand specimens.
Epiclastic volcanic rocks in Butete Creek and on the south-west side of the rift
zone north from Bugnam Creek are also included in the Dingalan formation on
the basis of their lithology and of their close relation to the ophiolite formation.
(iv) T H E VILLA WAVE AND BUONAM FORMATIONS

The Villa Wave and Bugnam formations both lie on the western, down-throw
side of north-south fault zones, which bring them into contact with the Coronel
formation. Each is also associated with a younger elastic formation.
In Banay-Banay creek dark-grey to black calcareous shale and limestone rest
on intensely brecciated and faulted basalt, demonstrating the original uncon-
formity with the underlying Coronel Formation.
The Bugnam formation consists of poorly sorted but generally thin-bedded
dark shales and sandstones with some limestones and conglomerate. In the Villa
Wave Formation limestones are more important. Examination of the limestones
by the Philippine Bureau of Mines suggests a Miocene age (e4-5).
(O) T H E BUTETE AND S A N J U A N FORMATIONS

In Butete and Banay-Banay creeks a conglomerate formation resembling river
gravels is unconformable on the Bugnam Formation and similar conglomerates
overlie the Villa Wave Formation in the vicinity of San J u a n and Macaldasa
creeks. These conglomerates consist of poorly sorted sub-rounded to rounded
pebbles, chiefly of volcanic rocks but also including some limestone, in a loosely
cemented sandy and clayey matrix. The differential weathering of the matrix
provides a strong contrast with the older conglomerates. The fresh-water nature
of the deposition is indicated by the presence of large fiver snails (obba sp.) sug-
gesting a very young age. In both areas these conglomerates underlie well defined
surfaces with a maximum elevation of 3oom above sea level. These surfaces are,
however, erosion surfaces cut across the bedding of the conglomerates which
have downstream dips of about 3o ~.
It may be concluded therefore that an important unconformity occurs between
the marine Miocene Bugnam and Villa Wave Formation below and the ftuviatile
San J u a n and Butete Formations above.
(H) STRATIGRAPHICAL CORRELATION
The rock groups described are unfossilifcrous, except for the limcstones in the
Bugnam Formation and the shales in the San J u a n Formation mentioned above.
Miocene limestones, however, are widespread in Luzon and provide a key for
the comparison of different regions.
The stratigraphy and geological history show some analogy with those of
northern Luzon as exemplified in the Baguio District and the Cagayan Basin
(Leith 1938; Durkee & Pederson I96I ; Christian I964). In the Baguio district
the relations of the Mirador and Kennon limestones are still the subject of dis-
agreement but both are now generally accepted as Miocene; and, in the Cagayan
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basin, the Callao limestone is Middle Miocene. The Zig-Zag series underlying
the Baguio limestones contains lavas and finer sediments nearer the base and
coarse elastic rocks towards the top. It is regarded as probably Lower Miocene
and may be the equivalent of the lithologically similar Coronel and Dingalan
formations. The underlying Antamok Series may then be roughly equivalent to
the Mingan Formation. In the Cagayan valley Oligocene-Eocene basalts form
'economic basement' for oil exploration below the Miocene sediments and this
might suggest an Oligocene-Eocene age for the Coronel formation, only the
Dingalan Formation being Lower Miocene. No evidence as to the age of the
Lubingan Group is available. It could be Cretaceous but such rocks in the
Philippines are generally regarded as pre-Cretaceous basement.
Above the Miocene limestones in the Baguio district the coarse elastic Klondyke
Series occurs and has been regarded as Upper Miocene or Pliocene. In the
Cagayan Basin the Upper Miocene was quiescent; regressive, coarse marine
elastic rocks appear in the Pliocene. The Butete and San Juan fluviatile elastic
rocks may be of the same general age.
Finally, the main vertical movements in the Baguio district and in northern
Luzon appear to be post-Pliocene. This morphogenic phase correlates with the
main phase of faulting in the present area which is further discussed below. The
correlations indicated are of course tentative, but they do suggest generally similar
histories for several parts of Luzon. Most important is the inference that the
main elements of the present morphotectonic pattern did not come into existence
until post-Miocene times.
3. Recent deposits and erosional features

(A) DEBRIS A V A L A N C H E DEPOSITS
The main Coronel river valley is separated from the coast along the main fault
zone by a low divide. Road cuttings in this area and scarps at the heads of mud
flows caused by very recent typhoons reveal a uniform and distinctive deposit.
It consists of rounded boulders of volcanic breccias like those of the Mingan
Formation, set in a featureless and very plastic orange-brown clay matrix. In
the creeks on its eastern margin this deposit clearly overlies rocks of Coronel
Formation.
Two possible origins may be considered for the deposit:
(i) It is the result of in situ weathering of a volcanic breccia similar to those of
the Mingan Formation but younger than the Coronel Formation.
(2) It is an accumulation of debris avalanches from the Mingan Formation.
A study of the in situ weathering of the volcanic breccias and conglomerates of
the Mingan and Dingalan Formations allows the first hypothesis to be rejected.
In situ weathering produces spheroidal boulders which have sharp contacts with
the surrounding weathered material, butmespecially near the boulders--textural
features such as the form of feldspar phenocrysts are preserved in the weathered
material. It does n o t develop into a featureless sticky clay.
In the deposit in question such textural features are not preserved, although
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they are preserved in weathered volcanic rocks underlying the deposit. It is
believed, therefore, that the textural features have been destroyed during the
avalanching of the weathered material from the slopes of the Mingan Formation
which lie to the east. Further weathering of the disturbed and saturated material
in situ has then produced the present appearance.
The morphology of the deposit now shows erosional and tectonic features so
that the avalanches do not appear to have continued in historical time. It is
suggested that they occurred after a period of major uplift of the north-east side
of the Rift, which led to deep dissection and slope instability. Geomorphological
evidence in support of this hypothesis is presented below.
B) FAN DEPOSITS
Considerable fluviatilc fan deposits occur where the main tributaries from the
north-east disgorge into the Coronel valley which lies along the Rift. These fan
deposits have subsequently been dissected by the tributaries and several erosional
benches are preserved which mark stages in the dissection. The fan deposits are
very poorly sorted conglomerates with abundant earthy matrix. They thus stand
in marked contrast to the thin veneers of well sorted gravels and sands that
sometimes cover the erosional benches of the fan deposits as well as the main
flood plain.
Similar deposits are not found on the south-west side of the main fault zone,
although erosional benches of similar altitude do occur, cut into the San J u a n
and Butete elastic formations, the bedding of which dips at about 30 ~ towards
the fault zone. It is shown later that the tilting of these formations is due to the
main phase of Plio-Pleistocene faulting which also produced the main uplift of
the north-east side of the Rift. It can be inferred that this uplift induced a rapid
dissection of the north-east side of the Rift and thus provided the material for
the accumulation of the fan deposits in front of the fault scarp. The correspondence
of erosional benches on either side of the Rift and the general lack of faulting of
the fan deposits shows that tectonic activity subsequent to their deposition has
consisted principally of a general uplift of the whole area.
(C) EROSION LEVELS

The evidence for non-differential recent uplift indicated above is derived from
a study of erosional benches on both sides of the main fault zone. The graded
surfaces of which the benches were a part clearly had significant slopes so that
fragments of the same surface may occur at different levels, and correlation is
dimcult. The evidence does allow some correlation of benches along the main
scarp on the north-east side of the fault zone, however, and correlation across
the fault zone is possible for the lower benches where the zone is narrowest near
Ligaya and where higher ground crosses the zone near Gabaldon.
On the north-east side of the Rift the top edge of the fan deposits vary in
altitude from over 2oom in the south-east to about i 8 o m in the north-west.
This is consistent with the gentle fall in level of the main valley in the same direc-
tion. Only locally are higher fan deposits preserved as at the mouths of the Segun
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vxo. 3. (a) General topography of the possible dam site area; (b) topographic detail
near south-west abutment; (c) topographic detail near south-east abutment.
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and Danglan valleys. Well defined rock benches occur, however, especially at
about 3oom (Plate 23a).
The 3oom bench appears to be weakly developed on the higher ground across
the main valley south of Gabaldon. Moreover, a bench at about I9O to 22om
is also well developed around the mouths of Bugnam and Butete Creeks and
appears to correlate with the tops of the fans on the north-east side of the valley.
N
dding
T ~ o Fold a x e s
A LineatJons
FIO. 4" Lower hemisphere equal area projection of poles to bedding and foliation,
and of fold axes and lineations, in the Lubingan Schist Formation (Alintutuan
anticline).
North-west of Ligaya the m a i n valley is narrow and a direct correlation of

the lower levels across it can be made. This is a potential dam site and a topo-
graphic map on a scale of I:2 ooo with 5 m contour intervals is available. This
map shows several benches on both sides at i5o to 155 m (Fig. 3). The absence of
comparable benches at nearby levels makes the correlation convincing. Weaker
correlations can also be made between levels at 17~ to i 8 o m and 205 to 215m
on both sides.
In addition, the most recent dissection by the river has left a terrace remnant
of maximum elevation 134m in the centre of the valley and this corresponds with
a similar remnant of maximum elevation 14I m, isolated by a meander cut'off,
on the south-west side of the valley. A fault follows the line of the river between
these two remnants but their elevations suggest~ that there has been no significant
vertical movement on the fault during the recent dissection by t h e river (see
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Plate 23b). The same argument also rules out significant differential vertical
movements since the I5O to I55m and 205 to 215m levels were developed; and
if the correlation of 3oom levels south of Gabaldon is valid the argument can
be applied to this level also.
Higher benches can be seen on the main scarp north-east of the Coronel valley
but the topographic maps are not sufficiently detailed to reveal them.
A level at just above 3oom is also developed on both sides of the fault zone
above Dingalan Bay and a prominent I oom bench also occurs on both sides.
This again indicates a lack of differential vertical movements during the dissection
from the 3oom levels. It demonstrates, moreover, that the dissection is the con-
sequence of a real uplift relative to sea-level.
4. Folding
An indication has already been given in the preceding section of the main phases
of folding and faulting. It is clear that penetrative deformation and intense
folding has occurred only in the oldest rocks, the Lubingan Formation, and
presumably, therefore, a major unconformity separates this from younger forma-
tions. An open folding is also present in the Dingalan and Coronel formations
but the east-north-easterly trend is in marked contrast to the north-north-westerly
trend in the Lubingan Formation.
No simple fold-patterns can be recognized in the younger formations and their
bedding attitudes are essentially controlled by faulting.
The phases of folding and faulting are now examined in more detail with special
reference to the evidence they provide as to the nature of the main fault zone.
(A) DEFORMATION OF T H E LUBINOAN FORMATION

Bedding in the Lubingan Formation, and usually any associated schistosity,
strikes just west of north. The dip is variable and combined with the lithological
variations noted above allows the recognition of two major folds.
In the north-west the dip is moderate westerly but in Alintutuan Creek it
changes over a major anticlinal hinge to moderate easterly. This dip is maintained
south-easterly until the semi-pelitic and psammitic rocks around Bateria and
Lubingan Creeks are reached. In Bateria Creek angular folding about nearly
vertical axial planes is well displayed and suggests the presence of a major synclinal
hinge. The greenschists and marbles further south-east are generally similar to
those to the north-west and appear therefore to complete the synclinal structure.
The general trend of the lithological units is rather west of north and the
projection of poles to bedding and fold-axes for the Alintutuan anticline (Fig. 4)
indicates that this structure has a gentle plunge with trend about I6O~ Gentle
dips are more common in the westerly dipping limbs indicating a steep westerly
dip for the axial plane. In the exposures of the synclinal hinge zone in Bateria
Creek two vertical zones of platy bedding indicate dislocations and strike about
I4 o~ This is oblique to the main axial direction but is about parallel to the
local margin of the Rift.
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N
ain
/ fault zone
. N E side of main
fault, z o n e
F[o. 5. Main observed faults in the area plotted on lower hemisphere equal area
projection.
Examination of bedding schistosity relations and of minor structures shows that

several fold episodes have affected this group, the major folds being produced at a
late stage as the folding became less ductile. Some kink-band development and
extensive faulting follow the major fold development.
In Camunu Creek two generations of folds are readily recognized. The dominant
fold-axes and linear structures trend north-north-west, but earlier folds and
boudinage axes have plunges of about 5 ~ towards the west. The main schistosity
is fine-grained and usually sensibly parallel to the bedding which dips west at
moderate angles. Locally, the schistosity can be seen to be axial-planar to both
generations of folds. It appears that a schistosity was initially developed in associa-
tion with the early folds and has suffered transposition in tight second-fold hinges.
Neither of these fold phases appears to be synchronous with the development of
the major Alintutuan anticline since the latter folds the schistosity in a broad
open fold and must have a nearly vertical axial plane.
In the eastern limb of the Alintutuan anticline the bedding and early schistosity
dip east to south-east. Schistosity bedding intersections and early lineations and
tight folds now trend I IO~ or I2o ~ with plunges of about 3 ~ to 5 o~ Later folds
fold the schistosity and also produce puckers of strain-slip type with axes trending
about I65 ~ and with nearly vertical axial planes. The latter folds may be closely
related to the development of the main anticline which has a similar trend. It is
evident that the attitude of the early structures in the limbs of the major structure
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generally conforms with the refolding hypothesis but the data is not adequate for
a detailed analysis of the geometry of refolding. External rotation must, however,
be the dominant factor.
A few kink-band structures have been observed which have low-angle axial
planes and which are of both normal and reverse types. The reverse joint-drag
type is more common and is best seen in platy marbles in Malungan Creek where
the nearly horizontal kink bands cut across bedding dipping about 40 ~ to the east.
Other kink bands of this type dip north-easterly. Small shear kink bands of
normal type (i.e. equivalent to small reversed faults)1 have also been observed
near to the diorite intrusion contact in Malungan Creek. They strike north-west
and dip gently north-east.
The folding sequence described above indicates a change from more- to less-
ductile deformation conditions with time, such as might be achieved with falling
temperature from the early conditions of low-grade metamorphism. The early
schistosity was clearly produced as a low-angle schistosity and it seems certain
that this schistosity development must antedate the initiation of the main fault
zone. Unfortunately, the age of this metamorphism is not known.
The later fold-sequence is similar to that commonly observed in orogenic belts
and its development may also be independent of the Rift. Faults of the latter
zone trend 12o~ to I45 ~ and they clearly truncate the major folds in the Lubingan
Group which trend about 160~ to 17o~ Thus the folds may have been produced
by roughly F-w compression earlier than the development of the Rift. However,
the orientation of the major folds would also allow their interpretation as 'drag-
folds' dependent on left-lateral slip in the main fault zone according to the theory
of Moody & Hill (1956).
(B) F O L D I N G IN T H E C O R O N E L AND D I N G A L A N F O R M A T I O N S
Small-scale folds in the younger rock groups are only rarely observed and only
in the Coronel and Dingalan formations east of Dingalan has a major fold structure
been recognized. The latter structure is a syncline trending roughly ~.-w with
a moderately dipping north limb and gently dipping southern limb. The strike of
the northern limb varies from east to north-east and that of the southern limb
from east to south-east. The general plunge therefore appears to be easterly.
Smaller folds (wavelength 5 ~ to I oo m) which can be measured in the road section,
however, sometimes have gentle westerly plunges. Minor folds were not observed
associated with this structure.
The attitude and style of deformation in the Dingalan syncline is in strong
contrast to that in the Lubingan Formation, and again the structure is truncated
by the Rift. Possibly it is related to the major structural line along the coast
from Dingalan Bay (Irving 195 I).
1 It should be noted that the description of low-angle kink bands which cut steep bedding as
reversed or normal (Dewey x965) is not altogether satisfactory. T h e sense of movement on a
low-angle 'reversed' kink band corresponds to the movement on a low-angle normal or lag fault
while that on a 'normal' kink band corresponds to that on a low-angle reversed fault. Thus drag
on a low-angle reversed fault will produce a 'normal' shear kink band according to Dewey's
terminology (op. cit., pp. 46o, 485).
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Rocks of the Dingalan and underlying Coronel Formations also occur on the
south-west side of the main fault zone and the contact between the formations,
at least locally, also trends north-east. The structure on the south-west side of the
Rift does not, however, reveal a similar syncline. The dominant bedding attitude,
which is well seen in exposures along the shore, has a northerly strike and 6o~ o~
easterly dip. The creek exposures along the south-west margin of the main fault
zone, north-west of Dingalan Bay, are poor and difficult to interpret. Coarse
volcanic conglomerates and breccias do occur, however, and it is possible that
the Dingalan Formation outcrop extends along this margin, where it would lie
above the easterly dipping lavas and sediments of the Coronel formation.
The Coronel Formation extends north-westwards from Dingalan Bay on both
sides of the Rift. On the north-east side the contact with the underlying Mingan
Formation parallels the Rift and the general dip must be into the fault zone.
Corresponding local dips may be observed but in general bedding attitudes are
rather variable both in dip and strike. This may be a consequence of faulting
rather than folding and no minor folds have been observed. Strikes east of north
like those in the Dingalan syncline are fairly common, however. Thus sediments
in Kuyapa Creek strike o26 ~ and dip 2o ~ sE, while sediments in Dingalan River
strike o4o~ and dip 5~ sE.
South-west of the Rift the Coronel Formation is well exposed in the Coronel
River and its tributaries. The strike is here fairly constant north-westerly and the
dip moderate north-easterly. Thus the Coronel Formation dips into the Rift from
both sides, but this is probably a trough structure due to faulting rather than to
folding. The fact that both the Dingalan and the Coronel formations were de-
posited on both sides of the fault zone with similar character, and now occur in
corresponding positions across the Rift, provides suggestive evidence against
strike-slip movement of major proportions.
5. Faulting
It has been customary, following the work of Sander, to adopt a rigorous approach
in determining geometry and movement before attempting an analysis of stress
systems responsible for fold formation. On the other hand, fault systems are
commonly related to stress systems without rigorous analysis of geometry or
movement. This is facilitated by the simplifying assumption that one principal
stress direction is parallel to the gravity vector (Anderson i95i ).
It has to be recognized, however, that at any one time second- and third-order
stress systems might be developed (Moody & Hill i956 ) and, moreover, that
major faults display complex histories involving variable components of dip-slip
and strike-slip movement.
Ideally, therefore, the analysis of fault patterns demands:
(I) The separation of different phases of faulting in time;
(2) the determination of the geometry and movement picture of individual
faults;
(3) the delimitation of homogeneous stress system fields.
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The evidence available seldom allows the complete elucidation of any one of
these aspects and interpretations of fault and fracture patterns must necessarily
be tentative. In the present area, the evidence presented is adequate to outline
the fault pattern and to separate some of the main phases of faulting in time.
Much of the evidence available for discussion of stress analysis is slight and
further work will be necessary in the light of the evidence and discussion given
here.
The discussion which follows is based on three kinds of evidence:
(a) A large number of lineaments, mostly weak, can be recognized on aerial
photographs. Two principal ones are interpreted as Recent faults and they have
a clear topographical expression in the Recent deposits which they cross. In
general, however, it has not been possible to relate photo-lineaments in the older
rocks to definite faults, and occasionally exposures in creek beds are good enough
to rule out the presence of significant faults. Probably most lineaments are con-
trolled by master joints or sets of fractures without significant displacements.
Only a few of these lineaments are therefore shown on the map and a separate
symbol is used.
(b) Numerous definite faults, mostly small, outcrop in creek beds and often do
not have clear expression as lineaments on the air photographs.
(c) Other faults, including those of largest throw, can be inferred from ground
observations but are not exposed.
The evidence allows the recognition of three phases of faulting which may be
roughly dated as late Miocene, Plio-Pleistocene and Recent. The first two phases
were on fault sets of differing orientation but the Recent faulting consists of a
minor renewal of movement on the Plio-Pleistocene faults. Earlier faulting than
Miocene may have occurred but no direct evidence is available.
A) L A T E M I O C E N E F A U L T I N G
A set of northerly faults is of principal importance on the south-west side of the
Rift where it controls the distribution of the younger formations.
South of Gabaldon the mutual boundary of the Coronel and Bugnam Forma-
tions runs roughly N-S. Both formations commonly display north-westerly strikes
and north-easterly dips and, since the Bugnam formation is the younger, a faulted
relationship between the two formations can be inferred. In Banay-Banay Creek
an uncharacteristic synclinal fold about 2ore across occurs in platy limestone of
the Bugnam formation. It has a strike of about I9O~ in both of its steep-dipping
limbs and is probably related to northerly faulting between the Bugnam and
Coronel Formations. A later vertical fault striking 325 ~ truncates this syncline.
Similar relationships occur between the Villa Wave and Goronel Formations to
the north-west and there a steep reversed fault (strike 355 ~ and dip 7~ NE),
marked by Io or 2ocm of gouge between the two formations, can be directly
observed in Makalao Creek.
These northerly faults appear to be responsible for an easterly tilting of the
intervening blocks. The resulting troughs on the west of each of the faults have
been filled by the non-marine coarse elastic sediments of the Butete and San Juan
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formations. These, in contrast to the older formations, have regular down-stream
dips of about 3o ~ and appear to be unaffected by the northerly faults. The northerly
faulting is therefore post-Bugnam and pre-Butete in age and probably Late
Miocene. Direct evidence of Miocene faulting is provided in Bugnam Creek by
breccias containing large blocks of Miocene limestone which have been deposited
against a fault scarp down-throwing to the east. The breccias are cut by horn-
blende porphyry dykes such as commonly occur in the Bugnam Formation but
which have not been found in the overlying Butete conglomerates.
(B) PLIO--PLEISTOCl~.NI~. FAULTING

North-westerly faults are also prominent on the south-west side of the Rift zone.
Thus in Makalao creek nearly vertical faults trending 3Io ~ and 325 ~ mark the
western and eastern margins of the Villa Wave sediments which lie in the inter-
vening trough. Often these faults are demonstrably later than those of the northerly
set. For example, the northerly fault which is exposed in Makalao Creek and
which separates the Coronel and Bugnam Formations terminates against a north-
westerly fault along the Coronel valley and this latter fault affects the San J u a n
Formation. In general the down-stream dips of the San J u a n and Butete Forma-
tions can be ascribed to movement on north-westerly faults in the Rift, so that
the demonstrable faulting is later than these formations and can be roughly
dated as Plio--Pleistocene.
Owing to the fill of Recent deposits the main faults in the Rift cannot be directly
observed but their location and apparent throw can be inferred.
The inferred trends are usually between 315 ~ and 325 ~ Such a trend locally
controls the direction of several of the principal streams which flow from the fault
zone into Dingalan Bay. Small faults and brecciation can be observed, especially
in the Tuntonin River section, but no major fault can be observed directly.
The presence of the Coronel Formation on both sides of the Rift does in fact
preclude the presence of any single fault with major dip-slip component. The
general structure resulting from the faulting is synclinal with a steeper dip into
the fault zone on the north-east side.
The faults of the Rift are postulated north-west of Ligaya where the valley
of the Coronel River is reduced to about I5oom and where an erosional terrace
remnant of older rock protrudes through the alluvium (Plate 23b). The Rift zone
clearly cuts across the dioritic intrusion and across the strike of the enclosing
schists on the north-west side. The main fault must lie in the i km of unexposed
ground between the mountain front and the terrace in the valley because at the
latter locality well-jointed and fractured rocks of the Coronel Formation are found.
The terrace remnant itself has a trend about 325 ~ like the north-east side of the
valley, and the main fault probably has the same trend. It then falls closely in
line with the straight part of the Recent fault between Gabaldon and Dingalan
but not with the Bongabon fault (Plate 24). There is possibly another fault parallel
to the Bongabon fault, however, represented by a degraded scarp at Antipolo
so that it is possible to envisage a single fault line through the area.
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The Coronel Formation rests directly on the Lubingan schists and both have
dioritic intrusions. The apparent throw of the main fault is greater than the height
of the main scarp of Lubingan rocks on the north-east side of the valley and is
of the order of I ooom. This apparent throw might be partly taken up by a
synclinal structure in the Coronel Formation like that between Gabaldon and
Dingalan.
The terrace remnant referred to above has a fairly flat top and to the south-west
it drops steeply some Io or 2om to the flood plain. O n this slope, which trends
325 ~ are several outcrops of limestone with steep dip and a sheared appearance.
These limestones are not found in the slopes on the south-west side of the valley,
but south of the Antipas River similar limestones of presumed Miocene age, with
flat undisturbed dips, occur on ridge crests at about 4oom altitude. It appears,
therefore, that the limestones have been down-faulted into a narrow zone less
than 89 wide on the south-west side of the terrace remnant in the main valley.
Downstream from this point the left bank of the Coronel River is extremely
straight on a trend about 3o5 ~ A small parallel fault has been observed in San
J u a n Creek, and the San J u a n sediments along this line in the left bank of the
river are locally vertical on the same strike; a major fault with this trend is there-
fore inferred. This fault cuts across and terminates the N-s fault between the
Coronel and Villa Wave formations.
(c) RECENT ~AULTS

The two faults which cut Recent deposits both occur in the main fault zone.
One has a rectilinear trace with trend 325 ~ two kilometres east of Bongabon; it
cuts across the main fan of the Digmala River and the ground immediately south
of the fault trace is one to two metres higher than that to the north. The slight
north-east facing scarp so produced has diverted drainage both to the north-west,
on the north-west side of the fan, and to the south-east on the south-east side.
It appears, therefore, the faulting was of dip-slip type with down-throw to the
north-east. The feature is preserved on that part of the fan not subject to inunda-
tion by the present floods of the Digmala River and this accounts for its preserva-
tion. It is lost where it descends towards the present flood plain of the Coronel
River but its trend if maintained would carry it into the left bank of the river
rather than along the main valley. This is one indication that the main fault zone
is a composite feature containing faults of varying trends, chiefly between 300 ~
and 33 ~ .
The second Recent fault line occurs between Gabaldon and Dingalan and has
been figured by Allen (I962, p. 4802). Where it is straight it trends 325 ~ like the
Bongabon fault, but south-east of Gabaldon it curves to a 34 ~ trend. The line-
ament is preserved only on the higher ground of the divide and not on the low
ground at Dingalan, nor on the valley or terraces of Danglan Creek near Gabaldon.
O n the divide the main fault line lies below a north-east facing scarp up to 2om
high so that as with the Bongabon fault a down-throw in the opposite direction
to that of the main Plio-Pleistocene fault movements is indicated.
The two Recent faults described have the same trend in part but they are not
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in line and it is evident that no direct connexion exists between them. It is notable,
moreover, that no other fault lines cutting Recent deposits have been recognized
on aerial photographs or on the ground although the abandoned terrace levels
cut in the alluvial fan deposits along the valley would surely readily reveal them.
South of the Lubingan River, for example, a fault scarp is indicated by the
triangular facets on the main spurs, the trend being roughly 320 ~. This trend
would carry the fault across the higher terrace remnants at the mouths of Lubingan
and Bateria creeks but there is no fault displacement of these gravels. It appears,
therefore, that the main fault scarp south of Lubingan Creek is older than the
development of the terrace levels in the fan deposits (although as the geomorpho-
logical evidence shows, there has been a general uplift). This, of course, is con-
sistent with the view that the fan deposits are the consequence of rapid erosion
following a major fault movement.
In addition to the two main phases of faulting outlined above, and to the mild
Recent faulting, there is possibly an earlier phase. Lineaments with approximately
E-w trend are fairly prominent on the north-east side of the fault zone near
Gabaldon. The upper course of the Kuyapa Creek is locally straight and controlled
by E-w shear fractures. The contact between the Mingan and Coronel formations
is offset several hundred metres by this zone so that an important fault can be
inferred. It may be seen from Fig. 5 and Table i that other faults trending E-w
and also those trending NE have been observed only in the older rocks on the
north-east side of the fault zone. This may suggest a phase of faulting earlier than
the deposition of the Dingalan and younger formations.
(D) GEOMETRY OF F A U L T I N G AND NATURE OF M O V E M E N T S

The description of the main faults given above indicates the presence of several
distinct sets. Further evidence of these sets is obtained from numerous faults
revealed in creek sections by narrow zones of fault breccia and gouge, though
only rarely is there evidence of significant displacement when different rock forma-
tions are brought into contact.
Forty-eight faults of some importance were directly observed; they have been
plotted in equal area projection (lower hemisphere) in Fig. 5 and their trends are
summarized in Fig. 7b.
The strike and dip of fault zones can often not be measured with great pre-
cision, and most of those plotted were not measured by the writer. However, some
distinct fault sets appear in the plot and as shown later there is a remarkable
fit with a theoretical strike-slip fault-pattern. The main sets are as follows:
(a) 320-33 ~ group. The north-westerly group (Fig. 5) is derived entirely from
observed faults in creek beds and is further augmented by the two main Recent
faults discussed and by a number of the inferred faults in the Rift zone. These
faults are dominant on the sw side of the Rift. They tend to be slightly more
northerly in trend than the 320 ~ trend of the Rift as is demonstrated by the two
main Recent faults.
(b) Northerly group. The observed faults in the northerly group fall between
35 ~ and 005 ~ in trend and the data scarcely allow their sub-division. The trends
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of the main inferred northerly faults are not precisely determined but they
certainly strengthen this group.
(c) 3oo-31 o ~ group. This group does not make a strong maximum in Fig. 7b but
one major fault in this group has been described above and others can be inferred.
(d) 28o ~ and o4 o~ groups. These are prominent amongst the observed faults
in the older rocks on the north-east side of the Rift but only in Kuyapa Creek
has an important displacement been recognized for a fault in these groups.
Fault-dips are usually high, and generally greater than 7o~ this favours their
interpretation as strike-slip or steep reversed faults. It has been indicated above
that faults of both the main phases have large apparent throws. The main faults
of the northerly group down-throw to the west; except for the two Recent faults,
the main faults of the 32o-33 ~ group down-throw to the south-west, while the
principal fault of the 3oo-3Io ~ group down-throws to the north-east. Locally,
as in Macaldasa Creek, the faults appear to be of steep reversed character and the
field relations appear to be entirely explicable in terms of dip-slip movements.
Again on the Dingalan Forestry road, small conjugate normal faults can be seen
in the sediments of the Coronel Formation. One set strikes 33 ~ and dips wsw;
the other strikes 3oo ~ and dips ~ . Low-angle thrust faults striking 35 ~176 have also
been observed in this formation.
It may be seen from Fig. 5 that the 32o-33 ~ group includes most of the faults
of larger hade (as well as some vertical faults) and that these faults dip both to
N~ and sw. It could be inferred, therefore, that the notional line of intersection
of these faults, roughly parallel to the Rift, represents the intermediate principal
stress direction. A similar inference can be drawn from intense shear systems that
are found locally in exposures near the Rift.
In the Dingalan River section such shear fractures striking 33o-335 ~ are com-
mon. They do not form a single parallel set, however, and vary in dip from
60~ to 55~ In Segun Creek very close-set shears occur locally in the
diorite. Their strike is constant at 34o-35 o~ but they also vary in dip from moderate
west through vertical to moderate east. Down-dip slickensides are well developed
and together with the variation in dip clearly indicate that the intermediate
principal stress was horizontal (parallel to the intersection of shear planes) and
that the maximum principal stress was orientated east-north-east.
The intermediate principal stress in this case is distinctly oblique to the Rift
trend and this recalls the fact that the north-westerly faults also tend to deviate
slightly in a northerly direction from the Rift trend. There is thus some doubt
that the Rift can be explained simply in terms of dip-slip movements, although
these are undoubtedly of great importance.
Some of the more important faults in the 320-33 ~ and 3oo-3Io ~ groups are
certainly vertical but they do not provide direct evidence of strike-slip movements.
No evidence of a mylonite zone has been found in the Rift but there is everywhere
nearly one km or more of unexposed ground. Horizontal or gently pitching slicken-
sides have very rarely been observed and the best evidence of strike-slip movements
comes from sets of planar shear-joints with small displacements.
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I n the Coronel Formation east of Gabaldon, local conjugate shears marked b y
quartz veins occur. A set trending 315 ~ shows small left-lateral displacements,
while a set trending 020 ~ shows small right-lateral displacements. West of Gabal-
don, in the Bugnam Formation, similar left-lateral shears trend 330 ~ while right-
lateral shears trend 04 ~ . It seems unlikely that these constitute conjugate sets
produced by a single stress system, since the maximum principal stress would
then lie in the obtuse angle between the fractures, contrary to the Mohr-Coulomb
theory. Furthermore, there is no general constancy in trend- or slip-direction of
such fractures. Thus shear-fractures trending 315 ~ with right-lateral displacements
have been observed north-east of Ligaya, and fractures trending 288 ~ in Butete
Creek displace left-laterally other fractures trending 040 ~ which themselves
display left-lateral offsets of bedding. It appears, therefore, that the various sets
of shear-fractures have been produced by different stress systems at different
times. Since the north-westerly fractures are generally left-lateral, however,
while the north-easterly are generally right-lateral, an easterly trending maximum
principal stress is indicated.
Ordinary joints are commonly developed but their over-all pattern is not very
distinctive. Joints striking in the north-west quadrant are especially common on
the south-west side of the fault. Joints striking EN~. are common in the Lubingan
Formation on the north-east side of the fault, but not the south-west side. They
are probably ac joints to the folding in the Lubingan Formation.
A distinctive set of close-set joints also occurs in the Lubingan Formation. It
is nearly vertical and strikes ENF. to E. Microscopic study has shown that hair-line
quartz veins follow this direction, cutting across the schistosity which strikes
355 ~ Microscopic kink bands of the schistosity trending WNW also occur with
left-lateral sense of movement. This evidence therefore indicates compression on
a trend north of east.
The most convincing evidence of strike-slip movements derives, not from stress
analysis, but from lateral offsets of structural stratigraphical, plutonic or geo-
morphological features (e.g. Kennedy I946 ) though even this evidence is seldom
unequivocal (e.g. Crowell I952, opposed by Paschall & Off I96I). The present
area appears to provide the best prospects of significant comparison between the
two sides of the Rift, since older rocks occur on both sides. Unfortunately, how-
ever, only very tenuous direct evidence of Mingan or Lubingan rocks has been
found on the south-west side of the Rift. A single outcrop at the mouth of Banay-
Banay Creek consists of thin bedded limestone and shale striking Nw. The bedding
is plicated on axes plunging 20 ~ on I36 ~ and the enveloping surfaces dip moder-
ately N~. across axial planes dipping steeply in the same direction. This outcrop
possibly represents an inlier of the Lubingan Group, since no similar structural
style has been observed elsewhere on the south-west side of the Rift, and immedi.
ately upstream limestones of the Bugnam Formation with north-easterly strike
lie unconformably on the Coronel Formation. Further work, especially compara.
five petrographic study, on this possible inlier is required. Even if proved to be
Lubingan Group, however, it could not be taken to rule out strike-slip movement
on the Rift since the original width of the deformed Lubingan Group is unknown.
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Isolated outcrops of coarse volcanic breccias intruded by dykes on the south-

west of the Rift in Tuntonin Creek appear more closely to resemble Mingan than
Dingalan Formation rocks. Since the stratigraphical relationship to the Coronel
Formation cannot be firmly established, however, no definite conclusions can be
drawn.
The occurrence of similar rocks of both the Dingalan and Coronel Formations
on both sides of the Rift is also suggestive, but again the original width of these
facies is unknown so that some strike-slip movement may have occurred and yet
retained the facies correlation across the Rift. Better evidence is provided by a
suite of ENE-trending basic dykes which occur on both sides of the Rift near
Dingalan and certainly suggest that no significant strike-slip movement has taken
place since their emplacement, which is probably earlier than the deposition of
the Dingalan Formation.
Some further evidence is to be obtained from the pattern of the main faults.
The parallelogram shape of the main flood plain of the Coronel River between
Gabaldon and Ligaya appears to be controlled by the northerly and the 300-31 o ~
fault sets while the main 320-33 ~ faults run into the acute angles of the parallelo-
gram (Fig. 6).
The pattern is reminiscent of some which have been explained by strike-slip
movements (e.g. Ouennell i958 ). Thus it could be inferred that the north-south
faults are of tensional character, and the movement in the Rift would be right-
lateral. Since the fault sets have been shown to be of different ages, however,
and since such small-scale evidence of strike-slip as exists favours left-lateral
movement, this possibility can be eliminated.
The flood-plain shape rather appears to be the consequence of differential
erosion controlled by the faults. On the south-west side of the Rift the area of
softer rocks down-faulted between the northerly faults, has channelled the drainage
and suffered greater erosion. O n the north-east of the fault zone the drainage has
been channeled by the main N-s synclinal axis. This synclinal structure may
continue directly across the valley (especially when the possible inlier at the south
of Bandy-Bandy creek is taken into account) and provide the sub-surface control
for the down-faulted area which has the same trend. If so, very little strike-slip
movement can have taken place in the Rift since the main folding in the Lubingan
Group was produced. If this possibility is discounted, the apparent control of the
flood plain by N-S faults extending across the Rift remains, and it therefore appears
that little strike-slip movement can have occurred in post-Miocene times.
Strike-slip movements have also been inferred from postulated correlations of
major morpho-tectonic units. It has been pointed out above, however, that the
main morpho-tectonic elements of the Philippines date from the Pliocene, and the
Sierra Madre element crosses the Rift in the present area. In detail, it should be
noted that the watershed is very close to the coast and indicates an asymmetrical
uplift of the Sierra Madre. The watershed lies on the same line on both sides of
the Rift and no strike-slip displacement can be inferred since the inception of
the drainage pattern in post-Miocene times. This evidence shows that the apparent
offset of the coast-line on the Rift is not due to right-lateral strike-slip. The
316
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structural evidence suggests that the Dingalan Formation on the south-west of

the Rift dips to the east under Dingalan Bay into a fault trough similar to those
in which the later Tertiary formations lie, inland. It is therefore easily understood
that the sea would have more readily encroached on these rocks on the down-
throw side of the Rift.
Thus, in spite of the suggestive features of the Philippine Fault Zone as a whole
(Allen 1962), this area provides very little evidence of major strike-slip movements,
while the evidence of dip-slip movements is strong. It is known, however, that
some major strike-slip faults have important phases of dip-slip movement and
Wellman (I 954) has suggested that strike-slip faults may be expressed at the surface
as thrusts. Moody & Hill (1964) have pointed out that it is normally as difficult
to demonstrate the absence of strike-slip movement as its presence; in the present
area the evidence presented is mainly concerned with Miocene and post-Miocene
tectonic activity so that the possibility of strike-slip movement prior to the estab-
lished phases of dip-slip movement must be recognized. Study of the fault pattern
does give some support to this possibility.
The evidence bearing on stress analysis given above suggests an intermediate
principal stress which is not strictly parallel to the Rift and, independently,
directions of maximum principal stress (Pmax) which are not normal to it; this
suggests that the Rift may not be simply of normal or reversed fault character.
O n the other hand it cannot, according to the usual theories of faulting, be a
major strike-slip fault produced by the indicated Pmax orientated north of east.
There remains the possibility that the inferred Pmax is a consequence of move-
ment on the Rift, rather than a characteristic of the primary stress system which
produced the Rift initially. Moody & Hill (1956) have examined the possible
fault patterns resulting from second- and third-order stress systems produced by
movement on major strike-slip faults. Application of their theory t to the present
area is admissible if it is assumed that the established phases of dip-slip movement
took place on faults which were initiated by earlier, and not directly recognizable,
phases of strike-slip.
If the Rift zone in the present area is regarded as a major left-lateral strike-slip
fault, the predicted hierarchy of faults is as in Table 2 and the fault and fold
trends are summarized in Fig. 7a (where Moody & Hill's own preferred values of
3 ~ and I 5 ~ have been given to their angles/~ and 9,). In Fig. 7 b the strikes of all
the faults shown in Fig. 5 are represented on a rose diagram. It is evident that
there is a good correspondence between the strikes of the observed fault sets and
those in the theoretical pattern. Moody & Hill (i956, p. 243 ) recognized that their
scheme provided so many sets of faults and allowed so much latitude in their
t The mechanical basis of the theory is insubstantial (Prucha 1964) but the possibility of re-
orientation of stress in the general manner postulated by Moody & Hill must be admitted. It is
now well-known that movement on major strike-slip faults is periodic and that it is preceded by
strain accumulation in the adjacent zone. This strain will lead to a secondary stress distribution
w h i c h m a y in turn lead to local shear failure before movement occurs o n the main fault. Further,
as Prucha (op. cit.) observes, the theory might be accorded a high degree of probable validity if
it could be established empirically by careful geological mapping.
3x8
Library of the 28,
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strike that almost any observed fault could be fitted into the scheme. Several
arguments suggest, however, that the correlation noted here is not fortuitous.
The four principal fault trends in Fig. 7b are 320-33 ~ and about ooo ~ 04 ~ and
280 ~. These correspond with the theoretical first-order strike-slip direction of
320 ~ and the second-order directions oo5 ~ 035 ~ and 275 ~ The fourth theoretical
second-order trend at 305 ~ is also represented by several faults with a maximum
at N6o~ Thus all the important fault trends actually developed correspond
closely with predicted first- and second-order directions though the predicted
first-order right-lateral direction is missing (see below). Furthermore, in the
Dingalan area important dykes trending ENF.occur on both sides of the fault zone.
These correspond in trend with a theoretical principal stress direction.
The theoretical scheme allows for the development of only two sets of drag
folds of second order, which should be approximately at right angles to each other.
In the present area only two fold sets have been observed. They are approximately
perpendicular to each other and they correspond very closely to the predicted
directions. This could suggest that the main folds in the Lubingan schist group
are drag folds controlled by left-lateral strike-slip in the main fault zone, while
the main syncline in the Coronel and Dingalan Formations is controlled by
strike-slip in a conjugate right-lateral fault-system.
Since the two sets of possible 'drag folds' are of different age it could be inferred
that they indicate two distinct phases of strike-slip movement. The folds in the
Lubingan Group do not occur in the unconformably overlying formations and the
major left-lateral strike-slip movement necessary to produce them as drag-folds
must be postulated to be earlier than the deposition of the Mingan Formation.
Theoretically, the associated second-order faults trend 035 ~ and 095 ~ (Table 2)
and in fact such faults are confined to older rocks on the north-east of the Rift.
The folding of the Coronel and Dingalan Formations, on the other hand, would
indicate first-order right-lateral strike-slip on a system conjugate to the Rift in
Miocene times. The predicted trends for the associated second-order fault sets
are 005 ~ and 305 ~, agreeing well with the trends of prominent Miocene and
post-Miocene faulting. Faults with these trends appear to cross the Rift, as discussed
above, controlling the form of the flood plain of the Coronel River north-west
of Gabaldon. Possibly therefore first order Miocene right-lateral movements
have served to 'lock' the Rift against further left-lateral activity. Such movements
could be equated with those envisaged by Allen (1962 , p. 4805) to account for
the bend in the Philippine Fault Zone south of Dingalan (Fig. I). Allen suggested
no date for these movements but he observed that his postulated right-lateral
system is currently inactive.
Direct evidence for the postulated primary right-lateral system is weak and
this is a principal obstacle to the acceptance of the hypothesis. The theoretical
first-order right-lateral direction at o8o ~ is not represented in Fig. 4 though an
important fault with about this trend and fight-lateral offset is inferred along
Kuyapu Creek, and shear fractures with this trend are numerous. The absence
of faults of this trend on the south-west of the Rift where the principal observed
faults of the oo5 ~ and 3o5 ~ sets occur suggests a failure to fulfil the implied hier-
319
R. W.
Library R. Rutland
T A B L E 2" The family of strike-slip fault-sets theoretically related to a major left-lateral

strike-slip fault trending 14 ~
I st Order 140 L ( Dependent OBOR (Dependent
[ fold~ ~55) I fa,~ 065>
I I I I
~d O~d=r 095L 035R O05L 125R
I i , I I
I I , ~ , I I
3 rdOrder 050L ~70R ~40L OeOR O~OL ~70R
archial requirements, indicated in T a b l e 2, of the M o o d y & Hill theory (cf.

M a x w e l l & Wise I958); however, the coast north-east of D i n g a l a n is supposedly
fault-controlled a n d it m a y not be u n r e a s o n a b l e to suppose t h a t second-order
stress systems due to m o v e m e n t (either at the surface or in depth) on p r i m a r y
right-lateral strike-slip faults have been developed on both sides of the Rift.
6. Conclusions
T h e evidence obtained provides a fairly clear picture of the geological history of
the area. T h e postulated sequence of events is indicated in T a b l e 3-
T A B L E 3 : Main sequence of events

Event Age (approximate)
I. Formation of early schistosity in Lubingan Group pre-Cretaceous
2. Main folding of the Lubingan Group, possibly as a consequence
of major left-lateral strike slip in the main fault zone Cretaceous
3. Deposition of Mingan and Coronel Formations unconformably
on Lubingan Group late Cretaceous
4. Main fold in the Coronel and Dingalan Formations, possibly as
a consequence of right-lateral strike-slip movement on faults
conjugate to the Rift Lower Miocene
5. Deposition of Bugnam and Villa Wave Formations including
fossiliferous limestones Miocene
6. North-south faulting down-throwing west and tilting fault
blocks to east pre-Pliocene
7. Deposition of Butete and San Juan Formations in fault troughs Pliocene
8. Faulting of main morphogenic phase in main fault zone late Pliocene-Pleistocene
9. Uniform uplift with very minor faulting Pleistocene-Recent
F r o m the tectonic point of view a principal difficulty is the d a t i n g of the fold

episodes in the L u b i n g a n G r o u p . T h e age of the g r o u p itself is u n k n o w n b u t
it is p r o b a b l y pre-Cretaceous. T h e u n c o n f o r m i t y between this a n d the younger
320
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formations has not been observed but the structural relations suggest a strong
unconformity so that the main folding in the Lubingan Group can be inferred
to be older than the deposition of the Mingan Formation. This folding is therefore
also regarded as pre-Tertiary.
The Dingalan syncline with its easterly trend cannot be older than Lower
Miocene since the Dingalan Formation is probably of this age. The main Miocene
limestones are unconformable on the older formations, however, so that in all
probability this folding is also of Lower Miocene age. The dioritic bodies do not
intrude younger rocks and may also be of Lower Miocene age.
The main northerly faulting clearly affects the Miocene limestones and can be
roughly dated as late Miocene, while the main north-westerly faulting followed
the deposition of the Butete and San Juan Formations and is probably late or
post-Pliocene. The main effect was a large up-throw of the north-east side of the
Rift from which the fan deposits and debris avalanche deposits were derived.
There is no direct evidence of movement in the Rift earlier than Pliocene. The
correspondence of the Coronel and Dingalan Formations across the Rift suggests,
moreover, that there has not been significant strike-slip movement on the Rift
since the Miocene.
The varied tectonic history which has been demonstrated shows that the tec-
tonic activity of the Rift has not been qualitatively constant over long periods of
geological time. The four main tectonic episodes (two of folding, two of faulting)
may well require four different stress systems, although the Moody & Hill theory
has the merit of allowing the whole tectonic pattern to be understood in terms of
a single primary stress system. The application of this theory is of dubious validity
in the absence of direct evidence but, irrespective of theory, it must be admitted
that pre-Miocene strike-slip movement in the Rift cannot be ruled out. Any such
movement must post-date the development of the early flat-lying schistosity in
the Lubingan Group.
It is possible that two episodes of strike-slip initiated the fault system of the
region but in both the main episodes of faulting (in late Miocene and post-
Pliocene) the faulting was of essentially dip-slip character related to the morpho-
genie phase which produced the main morpho-tectonic elements of the Philip-
pines.
In other regions the morphogenic phase is regarded as a consequence of strike-
slip movements in major geosutures. (e.g. Cotton I956, p. t 74). In the writer's
opinion the evidence presented shows that the morphogenic phase in this area is
not a consequence of movement in the Philippine Fault Zone, nor is it directly
related to the stress system which produced the Rift. The morphogenic phase
may have utilized faults developed by strike-slip but it must be regarded as later
and superimposed on the Philippine Fault Zone.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. This work was undertaken while the writer was in the
service of the United Nations Special Fund, as part of a field-training programme
for trainees at the Institute of Applied Geology, Manila, Philippines. The support
of the Director, Dr M. H. Tupas, and of the Project Manager, D r W. E. Hale,
32x
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R . Rutland
is gratefully acknowledged. D r H a l e a n d D r L. Bryner kindly criticized an

early draft of this paper. T h a n k s are also due to D r F. S. Busuego, Director of
the Philippine Bureau of Mines, for assistance from his D e p a r t m e n t and permission
to publish this paper. D r D. Encina, Supervising Geologist of the Bureau, assisted
with organization of the field group and the following trainees of the Institute of
Applied Geology contributed greatly to the evidence on which this paper is based:
D. H . Almogela, W. P. Argano, V . B. Austria J r . , M. L. C a b a n t o g , G. L. Cawis,
P. P. Contreras, A. G. D a c a n a y , D. P. Fajardo, R. M . Luis, P. O. Montero, C. B.
Presbitero, C. V . Ramos, A. C. Sevillano, O. S. T o m a n e n g , F. N. U y and R. R.
Zerda.
7. References
ALLEN, C. R. I962. Circum-Pacific faulting in the Philippines-Taiwan Region. Geophys. Res. 67,
4795-812.
ALVIR, A. D. x926. A theory on the major tectonic structure of Luzon, Philippine Islands. Proc.
Pan-Pacific Sci. Congr. 3 ( I ), 45 I-4.
A_nD~RSON,E. M. x95 I. The dynamics of faulting. Edinburgh (Oliver & Boyd).
BROUWER, H. A. I95 I. The movement of island arcs. Q. ffl geol. Soc. Lond., xo6, =3I-9 .
CH~STtAN, L. B. x964. Post-Oligocene tectonic history of the Cagayan Basin, Philippines. Philipp.
Geol. x8, xx4-47.
COTTON, C. A. x956. Geomechanics of New Zealand mountain-building Ar.Z . dTl Sci. Technol. 38,
I87-2oo.
CROWELL, J. C. I952. Probable large lateral displacement on San Gabriel fault, S. California.
Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 36, 2o26-35.
D~wEY, J. F. I965. Nature and origin of kink-bands. Tectonophysics x, 459-5x6.
DoRxCm~, E. F. & I~I)E~ON, S. L. I96x. Geology of Northern Luzon, Philippines. Bull. Am. Ass.
Petrol. Geol. 45 (I), I37--68.
G~RVASIO,F. C. x965. A study of the tectonics of the Philippine Archipelago. Int. Geol. Congr. (in
the press).
IRVXN% E. M. I95 x. Submarine morphology of the Philippine Archipelago and its geologic
significance. Philipp. 07. Sci. 80 (x), 55--88.
KENm~DY, W. Q.. I946. The Great Glen Fault. Q. o7l geol. Soc. Lond. xo2, 4x-76.
LErrH, A. x938. The Geology of the Baguio gold district. Tech. Bull. Dep. Agric. Commerce Philipp.
Isl. no. 9.
M.nXWELL,J. C. & WisE, D. U. x958. Wrench-fault tectonics; a discussion. Bull. geol. Soc. Am.
67, 12o7-46.
MINOZA, W. A., Oca~Meo, A. T., Jr. & B~LLOSILLO,Jr. I96o. Significant Philippine earthquakes
I949--I959. Sci. Pap. Philipp. Weath. Bur. no. IoI.
1V[oovY,J. D. & HILL, M.J. 1956. Wrench-fault Tectonics. Bull. geol. Soc. Am. 67, I2o7-46.
&~ I964. Reply to discussion, Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 48, 112-22.
PASCrrALL, R. H. & OFF, T. t96x. Dip-slip versus strike-slip movement on San Gabriel fault,
S. California. Bull. Am. Ass. Petrol. Geol. 45, I941-56.
PRUCHA,J. J. I964. Moody and Hill system of wrench fault tectonics: Discussion. Bull. Am. Ass.
Petrol. Geol. 48, Io6-x xI.
O trsNm~LT., A. M. x958. The structural and geomorphic evolution of the Dead Sea Rift. Q. 07l
geol. Soc. Lond. xx4b 1-24.
WELL,N, H, W. I954. Angle between the principal horizontal stress and transcurrent faults.
Geol. Mag. 9 x, 4o7-8.
1955. New Zealand Quaternary tectonics. Geol. Rdsch. 45, 248-57.
3~2
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WXLLXS,B. 1937. Geologicobservations in the Philippine archipelago. Bull. natn. Res. Goun.Philipp.
Isl. no. 13.
Submitted 7 February i966; revised manuscript received i o February I967; read I I May x966.
[Professor] R. W. R. Rutland, PH.D.V.O.S.
Department of Geology and Mineralogy, The University, Adelaide, South Australia.
DISCUSSION
Mr R. STONELEY congratulated Dr Rutland on the successful application of
theory to the explanation of an area that was otherwise difficult to understand.
The late-stage movements, although suggested to be expressed along pre-existing
lines of weakness, appeared to reflect tectonic processes different from those that
had caused the earlier strike-slip movement; they were presumably also reflected
in the Bouguer anomalies, which in nothern Luzon are in general strongly positive
north-east of the Philippine fault-zone but negative to the south-west. Did Dr
Rutland have any comments as to the nature of these late-stage movements ?
In reply to Mr Stoneley the AUTHOR said it was a fact that there was an unexpected
correlation between the actual fault-pattern and that predicted by a particular
theory. It was not the intention of the paper, however, to place emphasis on
speculations arising from this, but rather to demonstrate the existence of a history
of varying tectonic activity. The established late-stage movements did indeed, as
Mr Stoneley suggested, reflect tectonic processes different from those that might
have caused any earlier strike-slip movements inferred from the tectonic pattern.
The late movements were undoubtedly related to the formation of the antfclises
and syn6clises which controlled the present disposition of mountain ranges and
basins in the Philippine islands. The Bouguer anomalies were also related to
these features. The author would not subscribe to the view that the late-stage
vertical movements were a consequence of strike-slip in the main fault-zone.
Dr Gilbert WILSON expressed his great interest in Dr Rufland's paper, and

remarked on one of his maps which showed the fault discussed splitting into
subsidiary branches at its northern end. Much the same thing occurred at the
north-east end of the Alpine Fault in New Zealand, and at the south-east end of
the San Andreas Fault. It could also be seen at the eastern end of the 'Great Ice
Chasm' photographed by Fuchs and Hillary and discussed by the speaker.
(Fuchs & Hillary i958 , The Crossing of Antarctica, Photo. no. 6; Wilson I96o ,
Proc. Geol. Ass. 7x, I3o-8. ) Two recent papers which had only arrived in this
country two days previously contained discussions of this branching at the ends
of the faults; and their author, M. A. Chinnery, considered this structure a
characteristic feature of strike-slip faulting (Chinnery i966 , Can. 07. Earth Sci. 3,
I63-I 74, 175-I9o).
Chinnery considered that once the fault-fracture had formed, the stresses
along the fault-zone were relieved, but they became highly concentrated around
323
R. W.
Library R. Rutland
the ends of the fracture-zone. This led to the development of a complex stress-
pattern within the area where the fault terminated, and could result in the main
fault branching into a number of secondary faults which were not co-linear with
it. Other subsidiary faults of different orientations might also be formed within the
area surrounding the end of the main wrench. The theory discussed also accounted
for the way in which a major strike-slip fault might be locally deflected along its
length. The speaker considered that the author might find some useful material
in these two consecutive papers to further his interesting analysis of the Philippine
fault-zone.
In reply, the author thanked Dr Wilson for his comments. He emphasized, how-
ever, that the present paper was not concerned with the Philippine fault-zone as
a whole but with the evidence from a small segment. He hoped to offer some
more general comments on the fault-zone at a future date.
Dr M. G. AUDLEY-CHARLES said that about 9ookm south of Mindanao, which

was at the southern end of the Philippine fault-zone, was the Sorong fault-zone
of the Vogelkop region of western New Guinea. The Sorong fault zone struck
approximately east to west and had been described by Visser & Hermes (x962 ,
Verh. tf. ned.-mijnb. Genoot. 2o, 1-265) as a strike-slip fault of left-lateral movement.
It was thought to extend westward from the Vogelkop, passing just south of
Obi and Sula Spur islands, Visser & Hermes (I962) described this fault as being
'characterized by a chaotic jumble of blocks of many kinds of rock units. The
size of these blocks varies considerably. One outcrop of granite near Sorong is
I o km long. Most of the blocks have much smaller dimensions'. They found that
the Sorong fault-zone varied between 4 and I okm wide, and considered that
locally the fault system might cover a much wider area. The major strike-slip
and vertical movements were thought to have occurred in the Sorong fault-zone
during the late-Miocene and Plio-Pleistocene time.
In view of the broadly similar setting and nature of these two faults he asked
if Dr Rutland would like to comment on the possibility that major strike-slip
movements might have occurred in the Philippine fault-zone during late-Miocene
time ?
Further, he asked in view of Dr Rutland's statement that the mapping of the
Philippine fault extended only a few hundred metres up the streams across the
fault-zone, whether Dr Rutland could be certain that the Philippine fault-zone
PLATES 23-24
PLATS 23. (a) The three-hundred-metre bevels on both sides of the mouth of Bateria Creek o n
the north east of the Rift; (b) The south-east side of the Rift near Ligaya showing terrace r e m n a n t
(see Fig. 5).
PLATE 24. Geological map of the Laur-Dingalan fault zone.

324
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was not also several kilometres wide, and that he had not been looking at a number
of fault-blocks which formed part of a much wider structure like the Sorong
fault-zone? Was there any possibility that some of the post-Miocene dip-slip
faulting he has described might be rejuvenated movements of fault-blocks which
were originally cut out by strike-slip faulting in Pre-Pliocene times?
In reply to Dr Audley-Charles the AUTHOR said that the detailed evidence pre-
sented in the paper seemed to rule out significant strike-slip movements from
Miocene time onwards. Certainly, however, as was suggested in the paper, the
later vertical movements might have utilized faults initiated by earlier strike-slip.
The mapping showed that the main dislocation was confined to the main topo-
graphic depression across the Sierra Madre. The rock units on either side were
faulted but were sufficiently well defined to show that major dislocations were
absent. On the south-west side of the fault-zone, moreover, the Miocene limestones
formed a little disturbed carapace to the ant6clise of the range as they commonly
did elsewhere in the Philippines recorded by Gervasio. The fault-zone did not,
therefore, appear to be comparable in detail with that described by Visser &
Hermes (1962) .
Professor W. D. GILL regretted the recent tendentious approaches to circum-

Pacific tectonics which seek to have the Pacific ocean move anti-clockwise.
Would not the author agree that his ground yielded no evidence from observa-
tional geology of right-lateral slip along the main fault? The deductions made
from a pattern of faults of different ages seemed a poor substitute for geological
facts.
The AUTHOR agreed with Professor Gill that the area showed no evidence from
observational geology of right-lateral slip along the main fault. What evidence
there was favoured left-lateral movement. Allen (1962, 07. geophys. Res. 67, 4795-
4812) has discussed the tenuous evidence for the whole fault-zone in relation to
theories of circum-Pacific tectonics. Professor Gill rightly drew attention to the
need for a fuller factual basis for such theories.
325 25

Rutland 1967

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A tectonic study of part of the Philippine fault zone

•xG. 2. Geological setting of the Laur-Dingalan area (after Philippine Bureau of

TABLE I : Rock units of Laur-Dingalan area

(D) THE MAINIT FORMATION

(E) THE DINGALAN FORMATION

(iv) T H E VILLA WAVE AND BUONAM FORMATIONS

(O) T H E BUTETE AND S A N J U A N FORMATIONS

3. Recent deposits and erosional features

(C) EROSION LEVELS

North-west of Ligaya the m a i n valley is narrow and a direct correlation of

(A) DEFORMATION OF T H E LUBINOAN FORMATION

Examination of bedding schistosity relations and of minor structures shows that

(B) PLIO--PLEISTOCl~.NI~. FAULTING

(c) RECENT ~AULTS

(D) GEOMETRY OF F A U L T I N G AND NATURE OF M O V E M E N T S

Isolated outcrops of coarse volcanic breccias intruded by dykes on the south-

structural evidence suggests that the Dingalan Formation on the south-west of

T A B L E 2" The family of strike-slip fault-sets theoretically related to a major left-lateral

archial requirements, indicated in T a b l e 2, of the M o o d y & Hill theory (cf.

T A B L E 3 : Main sequence of events

F r o m the tectonic point of view a principal difficulty is the d a t i n g of the fold

is gratefully acknowledged. D r H a l e a n d D r L. Bryner kindly criticized an

Dr Gilbert WILSON expressed his great interest in Dr Rufland's paper, and

Dr M. G. AUDLEY-CHARLES said that about 9ookm south of Mindanao, which

PLATE 24. Geological map of the Laur-Dingalan fault zone.

Professor W. D. GILL regretted the recent tendentious approaches to circum-

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