See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/235219435

Transpressional kinematics and magmatic arcs

Article in Geological Society London Special Publications · January 1998

DOI: 10.1144/GSL.SP.1998.135.01.21

CITATIONS READS
221 1,499

4 authors, including:

Michel de Saint Blanquat Christian Teyssier

CNRS University of Minnesota Twin Cities
118 PUBLICATIONS 3,773 CITATIONS 279 PUBLICATIONS 11,816 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Michel de Saint Blanquat on 12 November 2018.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016

Transpressional kinematics and magmatic arcs

M I C H E L D E S A I N T B L A N Q U A T 1, B A S I L T I K O F F 2, C H R I S T I A N T E Y S S I E R 3 &
JEAN LOUIS VIGNERESSE 4
1 C N R S - UMR5563, Laboratoire de POtrophysique et Tectonique, UniversitO Paul-
Sabatier, 38 rue des 36-Ponts, 31400 Toulouse, France (e-mail: michel@lucid, ups-tlse.fr)
2Department o f Geology and Geophysics, Rice University, Houston, T X 77005, USA
(e-mail: btikoff@geophysics, rice. edu)
3Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, M N
55455, USA (e-mail: teyssier@maroon.tc.umn.edu)
4CREGU, 54501 Vandoeuvre, Nancy Cedex, France (e-mail: jlv@cregu.cnrs-nancy.fr)

Abstract: Most continental magmatic arcs occur in obliquely convergent settings and
display strike-slip movement within, or adjacent to, the magmatic arc, and contractional
structures in the forearc and backarc regions. Thus, three-dimensional transpressional kine-
matics typifies many arc settings, both modern and ancient. Intrusions cause magma-facili-
tated strike-slip partitioning, even in cases where the relative angle of plate convergence is
almost normal to the plate boundary. Transpressional systems are preferentially intruded
by magmas because of the steep pressure gradients in vertical strike-slip shear zones and
their ability to force magma upward. Both buoyancy and transpressional dynamics cause a
component of magma overpressuring, which in turn expels granitic magma upward follow-
ing the vertical pressure gradient. The tectonic and magmatic processes are linked in a posi-
tive feedback loop which facilitates the upward movement of magma.
We propose a lithospheric-scale, three-dimensional model of transpressional arc settings.
Strike-slip motion is partitioned into the magmatic arc settings because of the linear and
margin-parallel trend of the vertical, lithospheric-scale weakness caused by ascending
magma. The parallelism of contraction structures in the forearc and backarc regions is
caused by mechanical coupling through the lower crust and upper lithospheric mantle. The
displacement field of the basal layer of the arc system provides the boundary condition for
the upper-crustal, strike-slip partitioned deformation.

In oblique subduction, a common observation is
that some transcurrent motion is accommodated
within the magmatic arc (e.g. Fitch 1972; Jarrard
1986). Strike-slip faulting occurs in the volcanic
edifice of many magmatic arcs (Beck 1983). For
example, the central A n d e s (Soulas 1977;
Megard 1987), Sumatra (Fitch 1972; McCaffrey
1988; Bellier & Sebrier 1994), Japan (Matsuda et
al. 1967; Lallemand & Jolivet 1986), and New
Zealand (Cashman et al. 1992) are all active
magmatic arcs where strike-slip deformation is
observed at the surface of the Earth. Deeper
crustal levels in eroded magmatic arcs also
demonstrate strike-slip tectonism, despite the
tendency for magma to obscure structural
relations. These ancient magmatic arcs include
the Andes (Petford & A t h e r t o n 1992), north
Cascades (Brown & Talbot 1989), I d a h o
Batholith (Lund & Snee 1988), and the Sierra
Nevada (Busby-Spera & Saleeby 1990; Tikoff &
Teyssier 1992). Strike-slip tectonism associated
with oblique subduction is facilitated by two
obvious factors: (1) the linear, margin-parallel
trend of the magmatic arc, and (2) the high heat
flow in the arc because of magma transport,
which induces a zone of weakness across the
whole continental lithosphere (e.g. Jarrard
1986).
In addition to strike-slip tectonism, a com-
p o n e n t of contraction is often seen across
continental magmatic arcs. An arc-normal con-
tractional component is well documented in the
Andes (Suarez et aL 1983; Megard 1987) and
Sumatra (McCaffrey 1991; M o u n t & Suppe
1992); as well as inferred for many Mesozoic
arcs, the Coast Belt (Crawford et al. 1987;
Rusmore & Woodworth 1991), north Cascades
(Brown & Walker 1993), Idaho Batholith
(Manduca el al. 1993), Sierra Nevada (Tikoff &
Saint B l a n q u a t 1997), and A n d e s (Megard
1987). The combination of strike-slip and arc-
normal contractional tectonism suggests that a
transpressional setting is a common setting for
magmatic arcs, although other possibilities
clearly exist (Grocott et al. 1995; Tobisch et al.
1995).
Despite the evidence for three-dimensional
d e f o r m a t i o n within obliquely convergent

SAINTBLANQUAT,M., TIKOFF,B., TEYSSIER,C. d~;VIGNERESSE,J. L. 1998. Transpressional kinematics 327

and magmatic arcs. In: HOLDSWORTH,R. E., STRACHAN,R. A. • DEWZY,J. E (eds) 1998. Continental
Transpressionaland TranstensionalTectonics.Oeological Society, London, Special Publications,
135, 327-340.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016

328 M. DE SAINT BLANQUAT E T A L .

settings, the conventional view of continental

magmatic arcs remains overwhelmingly two
dimensional. The aim of this paper is two-fold:
(1) to illustrate the connection between trans-
pressional d e f o r m a t i o n and magmatic pro-
cesses, and (2) to propose a lithospheric model
that addresses the inherent three-dimensional
nature of continental magmatic arcs.

Transpression and exhumation

The three-dimensional kinematics of magmatic
arcs may explain some long-standing problems
concerning the wallrock fabrics and upward
ascent of magmas within arc settings. For
instance, transpressional kinematics may create
crustal thickening and lead to granite generation
(Hutton & Reavy 1992). In a magmatic arc
setting, granites are generated by the geody-
namic processes related to oceanic plate subduc-
tion and partial melting of the upper mantle and
lower continental crust. Thus, magma gener-
ation presumably occurs regardless of the par-
ticular kinematic framework. However, crustal
thickening associated with transpressional
deformation would influence the depth at which
magmas react with the base of the crust. Perhaps
more importantly, transpressional tectonics may
explain the vertical movement of the crust which
accompanies arc magmatism. Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the central Sierra
Let us consider, for example, a traverse across Nevada batholith. The youngest plutons are located
the central section of the Cretaceous Sierra on the eastern margin of the batholith. The axis of
Nevada batholith (Fig. 1; e.g. Bateman 1992). magmatism of the Cretaceous batholith progresses
Ague & Brimhall (1988), in a barometric study, from west (c. 120 Ma) to east (c. 80 Ma) and
corresponds to a change in emplacement depth (from
found that the oldest (120 Ma) part of the 4 kbar to 1 kbar). TIS, Tuolumne intrusive suite;
batholith, along the eastern edge, intruded at MPIS, Mono Pass intrusive suite; MWIS, Mount
depths of c. 4 kbar. The youngest part (90 Ma) of Whitney intrusive suite.
the batholith intruded at c. 1 kbar. Thus, within
the Sierra Nevada magmatic arc setting, there
was e x h u m a t i o n during arc magmatism, a transpression, which fulfils compatibility con-
common observation in other magmatic arcs straints of rigid walls (i.e. no-slip boundary con-
(Read 1957). The lack of any later structure to ditions), has been given by Robin & Cruden
cause this pattern of uplift suggests that it (1994). Their model predicts essentially the
occurred during arc magmatism. A similar con- same deformation pattern: rapid uplift and dis-
clusion of uplift during magmatism was reached tributed horizontal shearing.
by Pickett & Saleeby (1993) for the southern Transpressional kinematics may explain the
Sierra Nevada batholith. common observation of vertically foliated and
The efficiency of transpressional deformation vertically lineated wallrocks in magmatic arcs
at causing vertical movement is shown by the (e.g. Sams & Saleeby 1988; Tikoff & Greene
flow lines of homogeneous transpression (Fig. 1997). The existence of vertical foliation and
2). Upward movement of particles is due to the vertical lineation in wallrocks at lower
pure shear component of deformation, itself a batholithic levels is commonly cited as evidence
consequence of the fixed lower-boundary and for vertical return-flow during magma migration
free upper-boundary condition. In the hori- (e.g. Saleeby 1990). However, these fabrics are
zontal plane of transpression, material points also consistent with numerical models and geo-
move in straight lines toward the plate margins logical observations in other transpressional set-
but at any angle from 0~ to 90 ~ (Fossen et al. tings (Fig. 3; e.g. Hudleston et al. 1988; Fossen et
1994). A more sophisticated model of 'bulk' al. 1994; Robin & Cruden 1994). Most kinematic
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016

MAGMATIC ARCS 329

Fig. 2. Flow lines of homogeneous transpression showing efficiency of vertical movement. (a) Flow lines in the
horizontal plane. The axes are the flow apophyses of movement (fa), which are not mutually orthogonal.
(b) Flow lines in the vertical plane. Upward movement of the particles is due to the pure shear component of
deformation. (c) Three-dimensional flow lines resulting from the fixed lower-boundary and free upper-
boundary conditions.

analyses in the last 20 years have focused on the anisotropic volume loss as magma segregates.
so-called movement plane, parallel to lineation This type of 'magmatic'-partitioned transpres-
and perpendicular to foliation. This two-dimen- sion may commonly occur in magmatic arcs, and
sional approach has failed to recognize the
potential role of transpression in the develop-
ment of regional deformation patterns.
Bulk transpressional deformation is accom-
plished by moving the segregated magma to
higher crustal levels, providing vertical growth
required by transpressional kinematics. This
type of emplacement is inferred for the Ox
Mountain igneous complex (McCaffrey 1992).
The melt is moved to a higher crustal level
during deformation, resulting in a 'magmatic'
partitioning of the transpressional flow field
(Fig. 3). This model relies on the observation
that the flow pattern of homogeneous transpres-
sion in the horizontal plane is identical to the
pattern of anisotropic area loss (Fossen & Tikoff
1993; Fossen et al. 1994). For homogeneous Fig. 3. Homogeneous and magmatic-partitioned
transpression. In magmatic-partitioned transpression,
transpression, the area loss in the horizontal the vertical growth required by transpressional
plane is only apparent as material is moved into kinematics is provided by the segregation and the
the vertical direction by the flow (Figs 2 and 3). upward movement of magma. The fabrics exhibited
In a 'magmatic' partitioning case, at deep levels by wallrocks are consistent with transpression
within the arc, the flow may approximate (vertical foliations, vertical to horizontal lineations).
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
330 M. DE SAINT BLANQUAT E T A L .
would tend to accentuate the vertical foliation
and lineation of the wallrocks at lower crustal
levels (Fig. 3).
Magma-facilitated strike-slip partitioning
Case e x a m p l e : S u m a t r a
Sumatra is probably the best example of an
active, obliquely convergent magmatic arc
system (Fig. 4). The present rate of convergence
is c. 70 mm/a between the Australian and
Eurasian plates (DeMets et al. 1990). The Great
Sumatran fault is parallel to and generally lies
within the volcanic arc (Bellier & Sebrier 1994).
Displacement on this fault increases from south-
east Sumatra (50-70 km, 6 mm/a) (Lassal et al.
1989: Bellier et al. 1991) to the A n d a m a n Sea
(450 km, 40 mm/a) (Curray et al. 1979), possibly
because of a component of arc-parallel stretch-
ing (McCaffrey 1991). The forearc region dis-
plays SW-directed thrust faults and associated
folds with axes oriented c. 15-20 ~ counter-clock-
wise to the plate margin (Karig et al. 1980:
Mount & Suppe 1992). A kinematic model of
strike-slip partitioning was applied to Sumatra
(Tikoff & Teyssier 1994), showing that approxi-
mately one-third of the transcurrent motion is
accommodated in the Great Sumatran fault,
Fig. 4. Map of the obliquely convergent magmatic
arc system of Sumatra. The Great Sumatran and
Mentawai faults record dextral motion. Orientations
of borehole elongations, earthquake slip vectors, and
fold axes in young sediments in both forearc and
backarc show a consistent 15~ (or 75~ obliquity to
the Great Sumatran fault, indicating mechanical
coupling across the magmatic arc. From Tikoff &
Teyssier (1994).
consistent with geodetic measurements in the
region (Sieh 1994). The remaining transcurrent
motion is accommodated by diffuse deformation
or margin-parallel strike-slip zones (e.g.
Mentawai fault; Diament et al. 1992).
The shallow slip vectors in the forearc and
backarc regions of Sumatra are neither parallel
to the plate motion nor perpendicular to the
plate boundary (Mount & Suppe 1992). Rather,
folds and faults tend to have an en 6chelon
orientation indicating a maximum horizontal
infinitesimal contraction (commonly interpreted
as stress) direction oriented at c. 75 ~ from the
Great Sumatran fault (assumed parallel to the
boundary of the deforming zone). This obliquity
reflects a wrench component of deformation
(see Teyssier & Tikoff this volume), and thus the
forearc and backarc regions of Sumatra are
accommodating wrench motion. The consistent
orientation and obliquity of contractional struc-
tures in a deformation zone several hundred
kilometres wide encompassing both sides of the
Great Sumatran fault strongly suggests that the
entire transpressional system is linked kinemat-
ically and forms a single dynamic system.
Strike-slip partitioning
Fitch (1972) first recognized the three-dimen-
sional structure of a continental magmatic arc
above an obliquely subducting oceanic plate: a
strike-slip fault system in or adjacent to the mag-
matic arc and a forearc region dominated by
contractional deformation. However, within the
last 25 years, two other aspects have been found
to be characteristic of oblique subduction: defor-
mation in the backarc as well as the forearc and
a component of wrench deformation in both the
forearc and backarc. The obliquity of these
structures to the plate margin indicates distrib-
uted wrench deformation, as observed through-
out Sumatra (Mount & Suppe 1992; Tikoff &
Teyssier 1994). Therefore, to a first approxi-
mation, the kinematics of magmatic arcs is
described by strike-slip partitioning (Tikoff &
Teyssier 1994; Teyssier et al. 1995).
In the absence of magmatism, strike-slip par-
titioning appears to cease at relatively low
angles of convergence. Tikoff & Teyssier (1994)
attributed the process of strike-slip partitioning
to wrench-dominated transpression, which
requires angles of convergence less than 20~. The
physical experiments of Richard & Cobbold
(1990) and the numerical models of Braun &
Beaumont (1995) likewise suggested that strike-
slip partitioning takes place at low angles of con-
vergence. The tectonics of the South Island of
New Z e a l a n d supports this interpretation.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
MAGMATIC ARCS
There, with a relative angle of convergence of
16--29~ (Walcott 1979; DeMets et al. 1990), no
strike-slip partitioning occurs (Norris et al. 1990;
Teyssier et al. 1995).
The requirement of a low angle of plate con-
vergence is not applicable to magmatic arcs.
Sumatra, with a convergence angle of c. 50 ~ par-
titions approximately one-third of the trans-
lation component of plate motion onto slip on
the Great Sumatran fault (Tikoff & Teyssier
1994). Slip within the Sierra Crest shear zone
system occurs with a relative angle of conver-
gence of 75-90 ~ (Kelley 1993; Kelley & Enge-
bretson 1994). Strike-slip tectonism in the
present Cascade arc of the western United
States is another example. Weaver et al. (1987)
interpreted magmatism under Mt Saint Helens
to occur in a dilational jog within a strike-slip
fault system. However, oblique subduction
between the Juan de Fuca and North American
plates is approximately c. 85~ (DeMets et al.
1990). Strike-slip partitioning occurs in other
arcs also at higher angles of plate convergence:
North Island of New Zealand (o~ = 70~ Walcott
1979) and Andes (c~ = 60-90~ Dewey & Lamb
1992). A vertical zone of lithospheric weakening
(particularly of the upper mantle), caused by the
rise of magmas, is well oriented to accommodate
the tangential component of plate motion and
forces strike-slip partitioning. In summary, in a
magmatic arc setting, very little component of
tangential plate motion is required for strike-slip
tectonism to occur.
These observations support the idea that mag-
matism facilitates partitioning of the plate
motion into components of tangential and
normal motion, even for almost normal subduc-
tion. Thus, in a transpressional magmatic arc,
the kinematics and the magmatism appear to be
intricately linked. As more magma is transferred
and emplaced within the magmatic arc, localiz-
ation of the transcurrent component of plate
motion occurs into strike-slip fault zones within
the arc. This strike-slip tectonism, in turn, pro-
vides room for the ascending magma.
Magma overpressuring: buoyancy and
tectonic forces
The exact reason why melt moves upward, par-
ticularly in an overall contractional arc setting, is
a currently debated topic. Magma movement is
governed by the magma driving pressure, which
results from a combination of (Hogan & Gilbert
1995; Hutton 1997): (1) The density-contrast
driven buoyancy, because of the lower density of
granitic melt compared with average crustal
densities; this component of the driving pressure
331
is always available, regardless of crustal connec-
tivity; (2) the confining pressure, or lithostatic
load, which acts as an effective driving force only
if crustal connectivity exists; (3) the volume
change during melting, acquired in the source
region; (4) the viscous resistance to magma flow,
which is strongly dependent on temperature; (5)
the increase in pressure because of the increase
of vapour pressure during the late stages of
ascent. We are more concerned here with the
first and second components, which result in a
positive driving pressure as a result of gravity-
driven buoyancy. Studies of melt movement in
migmatites indicates that gravity-driven buoy-
ancy forces are an important component of the
driving forces (Burg & Vanderhaeghe 1993).
The observation that magma reaches the
surface, whatever the composition or the geody-
namic context, has led many workers to propose
that most magma is overpressured as a conse-
quence of buoyancy (Lister & Kerr 1991; Parson
& Thompson 1991; Clemens & Mawer 1992;
Petford et al. 1993; Hutton 1997). Magma over-
pressuring is simply the idea that the magma
pressure exceeds the lithostatic load. The over-
pressured magma will move toward the lowest-
pressure region by opening its own conduits,
either by dyking or intruding pre-existing path-
ways, such as shear zones (strike-slip, normal, or
thrust). This idea of magma overpressuring also
explains the common observation of plutons
emplaced in contractional settings, such as mag-
matic arcs (e.g. Guglielmo 1993; Ingram &
Hutton 1994; Hutton 1997).
It is routinely assumed that the cause of the
magma overpressuring is primarily a buoyancy
effect. However, an overlooked aspect of mag-
matic overpressuring is the role of a differential
tectonic stress or 'tectonic overpressuring'. Tec-
tonic overpressuring is simply the idea that the
pressure induced by a tectonic deformation
locally exceeds the lithostatic load and causes
extrusion of material. This type of tectonic over-
pressuring has been invoked in subduction zone
dynamics (Mancktelow 1995). If tectonic over-
pressuring acts on a magmatic system, it will
strongly accentuate the magma overpressuring.
Thus, magma overpressuring has two main com-
ponents: buoyancy and tectonic pressures.
As suggested by Robin & Cruden (1994), a
dynamic effect induced by the boundary con-
ditions of transpression is to cause a component
of tectonic overpressuring. At shallow crustal
levels, tectonic overpressuring in transpression
results in extrusion in the form of flower struc-
tures (Mancktelow 1993). In a magmatic arc
setting, this tectonic overpressuring may con-
tribute directly to magmatic overpressuring. As
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
332 M. DE SAINT BLANQUAT ETAL.
the wall rocks push together, as a result of the
'press'-part of the transpression (Robin &
Cruden 1994), they exert a force on the magma,
which increases its pressure significantly: the
horizontal tectonic load is partly transferred into
a vertical driving force. Because this overpres-
suring is related to the 'press' rather than 'trans'
part of transpression, the ability of the magma to
withstand a shear stress is not of primarly
importance. The magma, which is potentially
already overpressured by buoyancy forces,
becomes more so. Robin & Cruden (1994) noted
that the transpression-induced overpressuring
increases with the square of depth. Thus, a pro-
nounced vertical gradient in tectonic overpres-
suring is created in the crust. This effect,
combined with vertical lithostatic load, acts to
effectively move granites upward in the crust
(Fig. 5).
The relative magnitudes of buoyancy forces v.
tectonic forces leading to magmatic overpres-
suring is complicated by rheology, viscosity of
melt, compressibility of country rock, drainage
rate, and length/thickness ratio of the deformed
zone. Thus, we emphasize that ours is only a
Fig. 5. Magma overpressuring resulting from both
buoyancy and tectonic forces. The transpressional
dynamics induce a tectonic overpressuring which is
proportional to the viscosity, strain rate, and the
square of the depth/thickness ratio of the deformed
zone (Robin & Cruden 1994). This tectonic pressure,
in addition to buoyancy forces, causes magma
overpressuring and upward-directed magma
transport. The buoyancy forces are relatively
constant with depth, although the transpression-
induced forces decrease toward the free, upper
surface.
qualitative model. However, recognition that
tectonic stress could be as high as 500 MPa (Bott
& Kuznir 1984) suggests that the tectonic part of
the magma overpressure could be significant.
Both buoyancy and differential stress act to
facilitate upward movement of granitic melt.
Therefore, we envision a positive feedback loop
between the two processes (Fig. 6). Whereas the
buoyancy pressure is active in any tectonic
setting, the tectonic pressure is limited to the
appropriate tectonic setting (e.g. compression,
transpression). The necessity of vertical pres-
sure gradients moving overpressurized magma
may also explain the common observation of
magmatism associated with strike-slip, rather
than thrust, movement. Strike-slip faults, simply
by virtue of their vertical orientation, provide a
higher pressure gradient (shortest way to a free
boundary at the surface) and are therefore pref-
erentially exploited by rising magmas. It is worth
noting as well that, although the effect of trans-
pression-induced overpressuring increases with
the square of depth (Robin & Cruden 1994), the
effect of buoyancy-induced magmatic overpres-
suring does not. Therefore, at progressively
higher crustal levels, magmas have less upward
force caused by transpression dynamics (Fig. 5).
Rather, structural weaknesses, ballooning, or
magma-induced tectonism (Tommasi et al. 1994)
may control upper-crustal emplacement, even in
transpressional zones. This reasoning may
explain why large plutons are often associated
with large shear zones, but not emplaced directly
in them, such as the south Armorican shear zone
(Vigneresse 1983) and sections of the Great
Sumatran fault (Bellier & Sebrier 1994).
Implications for pluton emplacement
The old concept of upward movement of
granitic magmas as diapirs originated the idea of
emplacement. At some point in their ascent,
these diapirs stop because of neutral buoyancy,
or became trapped or 'emplaced' at a particular
place in the upper crust. The increased recog-
nition of dyking as a viable mechanism for
magma ascent (e.g. Petford et al. 1993) and the
interaction of tectonism and magmatism (e.g.
Karlstrom 1989; Hutton 1997) suggests that
'emplacement', i.e. upward or lateral movement
of a plutonic-sized volume of coherent magma,
may be rare. Rather, pulses of magma aggregate
into coherent plutonic bodies during pluton con-
struction. In other cases, what we call 'emplace-
ment', for small granitic bodies (<1 km 2) or
dykes, consists of magmas that 'froze' at some
point in their upward ascent (see, e.g. Castro et
al. 1995).
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016

MAGMATIC ARCS 333

..................... Dsg~m!.~176 L L.~176 ................................. .~t':'. ~.m.a..t!.~176176176 ........

Magmatransport
[ (ascent/emplacement) J ~ - thermallyweakened
Ik ~ verticalzone,
Steeppressure
Magmatic 1Idl.~--...-_ . .
graaients tectonc"space"
' ~..[ ~StriKe-slip
_ . .
overpressure]" ~ J :~.~.___.._~ partitioning]
Horizontaltectonicload ~ " A
t causesverticaldrivingforcef ]
magmainduced fi i /
de~ormat,on,~,,~ Tectonic / i i /
~ " ~ I

mranspressional
kinematics J

Fig. 6. Interactions between tectonic and magmatic processes in a magmatic arc setting. The first feedback
loop describes the dynamic interaction between the two main components of magma overpressuring, the
tectonic-induced and the buoyancy-induced forces, both acting to facilitate upward movement of magma. The
second feedback loop relates the kinematics. Magma is transferred and emplaced within the magmatic arc,
thereby localizing the transcurrent component of plate motion into strike-slip fault zones. The strike-slip
tectonism, in turn, provides room for the ascending magma and causes a steep vertical pressure gradient.

If the concept of magma overpressuring is
correct (e.g. Hutton 1997), buoyancy is not
necessarily the primary reason for the cessation
of upward movement. Rather than magmas
rising to a point of neutral buoyancy, magmas
rise until they are capable of deforming or
moving the wallrocks. Magmas may simply push
rocks out of their way, using the free-boundary
condition at the Earth's surface (e.g. roof
raising) or lateral ballooning. At this point,
pluton construction begins by aggregation of
overpressurized magmas.
This idea of pluton construction explains why
granites commonly appear as 'tectonically con-
trolled'. If local emplacement of overpressur-
ized magma is distributed into a regional
deformation (Hutton, 1997), no distinction can
be made between an emplacement rate and a
tectonic rate; yet it is critical to realize that this
tectonism may not occur without magmatism.
Using an automotive analogy, a pre-existing
void in the crust is similar to having a reserved
parking space in Toulouse: no such thing exists
(to our knowledge). Parking places do not exist
in Toulouse, they are created by the person who
needs to park. Likewise, tectonic voids do not
exist in the crust before granites intrude. Rather,
granitic bodies are opportunistic: they assist
regional tectonics in creating space, pushing
away their margins and moving to lower-pres-
sure regions. This is the concept of magma-
enhanced regional deformation (Tommasi et al.
1994; Neves et al. 1996): the magmas actually
create a regional deformation (e.g. Hutton
1997). Thus, the effects of tectonically controlled
magmatism and magma-controlled deformation
are not only indistinguishable, but ultimately the
same phenomenon.
Application to the Sierra Nevada batholith
The Late Cretaceous Sierra Nevada is an
ancient magmatic arc, which preserves a record
of both strike-slip and contractional tectonism
(Fig. 1). In this paper, we limit our discussion to
the latest magmatic events in the Cretaceous
Sierra Nevada batholith, which resulted in
nested 'Intrusive Suites' (Tuolumne, Whitney,
Mono Pass) in the eastern part of the batholith.
Plutons emplaced between 92 and 83 Ma indi-
cate intrusion at upper-crustal depths (a few
kbar) and account for a large volume of magma-
tism (about 105 kin3), c. 20% of the currently
exposed batholith.
Several lines of indirect evidence suggest that
large, intrabatholith, strike-slip displacements
affected the Sierra Nevada. The Sr i = 0.706 line
(isopleth of 87Sr/86Sr initial ratio) is offset by
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
334 M. DE SAINT BLANQUAT ETAL.
several arc-parallel, NW-SE trending faults
within the Sierran block, amounting to c. 200 km
of dextral displacement during the Early to Late
Cretaceous (Kistler 1990). Lahren et al. (1990)
suggested 400 km of dextral offset across the
Sierra Nevada on the basis of stratigraphic cor-
relation of the Snow Lake pendant.
In addition, direct observation of shear zones
occurring along the eastern crest of the Sierra
Nevada also suggests significant strike-slip dis-
placement. The Sierra Crest shear system (Fig.
1) is a 220 km long continuous shear zone, com-
posed of a series of shear zones that were all
active during the emplacement of the youngest
plutons (Greene & Schweickert 1995; Tikoff &
Saint Blanquat 1997). In the Kern Canyon area,
southern Sierra Nevada, the proto-Kern Canyon
fault exhibits dextral, ductile motion and
shallowly plunging mineral lineations. This
shear zone system may be connected to the
deformation zone (White Wolf-Breckenridge
fault) in the southernmost Sierra Nevada
adjacent to the Rand Schist (Busby-Spera &
Saleeby 1990; Pickett & Saleeby 1993). Further
north, the Rosy Finch shear zone is 80 km long,
and displays ductile, dextral deformation
(Tikoff & Teyssier 1992; Tikoff & Saint Blan-
quat 1997). The Rosy Finch shear zone is in
structural continuity with the Gem Lake shear
zone (Greene & Schweickert 1995) and Cascade
Lake shear zone (Davis 1996; Tikoff & Greene
1997) to the north (Fig. 1). The plutons them-
selves show good evidence for a combination of
strike-slip and contractional deformation.
Generally, these plutons of the eastern Sierra
Nevada have a well-defined NW-SE trending,
vertical foliation.
Relation to plate motion
Plate reconstructions for Late Cretaceous Cali-
fornia indicate a high angle of plate convergence
(75-90 ~) between North America and the off-
shore Farallon plate (Kelley 1993; D. C. Enge-
bretson, pets. comm. 1995). Thus, large volumes
of magma were emplaced in the Late Cretaceous
Sierra Nevada batholith, associated with strike-
slip tectonism, during a time of nearly normal
subduction (Tikoff & Saint Blanquat 1997).
M a g m a t i s m and deformation: the M o n o
Creek granite
A case example provides a basis for the concept
of a magma-enhanced regional deformation and
the feedback between transpression and magma
ascent. A particularly well-studied example is
the Mono Creek granite (Mono Pass Intrusive
Series) of the Late Cretaceous Sierra Nevada
batholith (Fig. 7; Saint Blanquat & Tikoff 1997;
Tikoff & St Blanquat 1997). Fabrics within the
Mono Creek granite are in good agreement with
transpressional deformation models. The folia-
tion (flattening plane) is systematically vertical,
indicating a sub-horizontal axis of compression
throughout the construction of the pluton, and
the shape of the fabric ellipsoid is oblate. We
observe a continuous evolution between two
geometries: the inferred earliest fabrics are
characterized by east-west sub-vertical folia-
tions and sub-vertical lineations, and the latest
are characterized by north-south sub-vertical
foliations and sub-horizontal lineations. The
transition between these two fabrics is always
progressive.
We propose this fabric evolution characterizes
a progressive switch from emplacement-domi-
nated strain to regional-deformation-dominated
strain, although both are transpressional (Saint
Blanquat & Tikoff 1995) (Fig. 7). The E-W foli-
ation orientation of the first batches of magma
occurs at a high angle to the inferred regional
strain, and is due to overpressuring magma
pushing to open its own space (Fig. 7a). The first
batches of melt may actually initiate, rather than
being passively emplaced between, the shear
zones that parallel the pluton. This is similar to
the tectonic situation suggested for plutons
intruding transcurrent shear zones in Brazil
(Tomassi et al. 1994; Neves et al. 1996). For the
case of the Mono Creek granite, it is also a good
example of how magmatically induced strike-
slip partitioning may occur. Thus, strike-slip
movement occurs even for a high angle of rela-
tive plate motion (75-90~ Kelley & Engebretson
1994). Further, magma-induced overpressuring
may partially explain the lack of offset of pluton
contacts seen in this setting (Tikoff & Saint
Blanquat 1997).
Magma overpressuring is also clearly seen in
the second stage in the evolution of the Mono
Creek granite (Fig. 7b). In the main part of the
pluton, lineations are shallowly plunging and
foliations are rotated parallel to the inferred
regional strain. However, along the NE side of
the pluton, the magmatic overpressuring creates
a 'bulge' in the otherwise elongate shape of the
pluton. This bulge is the result of forceful
emplacement of the Mono Creek granite
(Bateman 1992; Tikoff et al. 1996), as it deflects
the surrounding foliation and displaces meta-
morphic wall-rocks from their regional strike.
The final stage of emplacement involves tec-
tonically assisted magmatic intrusion (Fig. 7c).
The Rosy Finch shear zone is activated at this
time, and by shearing provides tectonic space for
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
MAGMATIC ARCS
Fig. 7. Simplified emplacement model of the Mono
Creek granite (Sierra Nevada, California). (a) The
first stage of magma intrusion is due to
overpressurized magma pushing to open its own
space, leading to a foliation (flattening plane) which
is E-W, at high angle to the inferred regional strain
orientation. The overpressured magma initiates the
strike-slip movement and the pull-apart setting.
(b) Magmatic overpressuring causes emplacement of
a 'bulge' in the otherwise elongate shape of the
pluton. (e) The final stage of emplacement involves
tectonically assisted magma intrusion, through
activation of the Rosy Finch shear zone, which
provides tectonic space for the latest stages of magma
intrusion.
the latest stages of magma intrusion (Saint Blan-
quat & Tikoff 1997; Tikoff & Saint Blanquat
1997). We envision the following pattern in the
ascent and construction of the Mono Creek
granite, based on structural fieldwork, AMS
analysis, and microstructural studies. The
magma initiates a pull-apart geometry, indicat-
ing that magma is facilitating strike-slip parti-
tioning. As more magma is emplaced within the
335
pluton, it constitutes a zone of weakness and
localizes a component of strike-slip motion in
the N-S shear zone developed during the latter
stages of pluton construction. However, once
strike-slip tectonism occurs, it further facilitates
magma emplacement. Thus, a positive feedback
between magmatism and deformation induces
partitioning of strike-slip motion within the
magmatic arc during transpression (Fig. 6).
Three-dimensional view of arcs and strike-
slip partitioning
A clear relationship exists between m a g m a
emplacement and strike-slip tectonism in neo-
tectonic settings (e.g. Sumatra) and can also be
discerned in ancient magmatic arcs (e.g. Sierra
Nevada). Further, in both cases, the upper crust
deforms over a wide region, in a consistent
orientation, in response to the plate motion. We
propose that deformation of the upper crust is
driven by the bulk lithospheric deformation
induced by oblique plate interaction. Strike-slip
partitioning, or the relative efficiency for strike-
slip faults or shear zones to take up the wrench
component of plate motion, is facilitated by
magmatism which tends to localize shear in the
volcanic arc region (Sumatra), but also in the
underlying plutons (Sierra Nevada).
The interaction between magmatic and kine-
matic processes has broad implications for the
dynamics of continental arcs. We propose the
following three-dimensional model for mag-
matic arc construction, based on an approximate
rheological lithospheric layering in an arc setting
(Fig. 8). According to lithospheric strength pro-
files determined experimentally (e.g. Brace &
Kohlstedt 1980), the upper mantle is the
strongest layer in the lithosphere, although it
may be thermally weakened below the arc.
Oblique subduction transfers motion to the
overriding continental plate presumably
through the strong upper mantle, or possibly the
lower crust. Deformation of the upper mantle is
poorly known in modern, obliquely converging
arc settings. However, studies of seismic
anisotropy in the San Andreas region (e.g. Oza-
laybey & Savage 1995), which is also character-
ized by oblique convergence and strike-slip
partitioning, indicate that a strongly anisotropic
layer more than 100 km thick and probably over
100 km wide underlies California (e.g. Molnar
1992).
In a magmatic arc, one may also expect an
upper mantle accommodating the imposed plate
motion by distributed shearing. Because of heat
advection from magmas, the thinned sub-arc
mantle becomes the weakest lithospheric
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016

336 M. DE SAINT BLANQUAT E T A L .

Fig. 8, Three-dimensional geometry of magmatic arcs. Oblique motion imposed by the oceanic lithosphere is
transferred to continental lithosphere through the 'strong' upper mantle. Vertical coupling between the mantle
and upper crust is provided by distributed shearing in the lower crust. This explains the consistency in
orientation of structures from the forearc to the backarc. Because of its relative weakness caused by rising
magma, the continental lithospheric mantle beneath the forearc region undergoes margin-parallel tFanslation
('forearc mantle sliver').

segment of the subduction system. However, this
zone probably remains stronger than the lower or
upper crust, which is also thermally weakened.
As a result of these two effects, the continental
lithospheric mantle beneath the forearc region
moves tangentially with the obliquely subducting
oceanic plate as a forearc (mantle) 'sliver' (e.g.
Beck 1983; Jarrard 1986), in which the forearc
region urldergoes margin-parallel translation
(although discrete offset is not necessary).
The lower crust undergoes distributed shear-
ing, which acts to transmit the deformation to
both the upper-crustal forearc and backarc
regions, in response to the velocities field
imposed by the upper mantle (basal forcing).
This type of deformation is inferred by shallow
(<40 kin) crustal seismic anisotropy, recorded for
example in the Hikurangi subduction zone, New
Zealand (Gledhill & Stuart 1996), where a strong
seismic anisotropy orientation is found, with lin-
eation parallel to the trend of the overlying geo-
logical structures. This type of anisotropy is
consistent with a bulk transpressional shearing of
the lower crust. In this manner, the forearc, the
active arc, and the backarc are mechanically
linked through distributed shearing in the lower
crust. Further, this mechanical explanation pro-
vides a rationale for why the deformation in the
upper crust is systematically consistent with plate
motion (Teyssier & Tikoff this volume).
The influx of magmas into the lower litho-
spheric levels is expected to affect the distri-
bution of shearing in the upper mantle, lower
crust, or both. Thus heat advection from rising
magmas has the effect of thinning the upper
mantle and weakening the lower crust. This ver-
tically oriented zone of high heat flow is ideally
oriented to accommodate the tangential com-
ponent of the plate motion. For both the lower
crust and upper mantle, heat transfer is
expected to result in a zone of enhanced
wrenching deformation below the arc (Fig. 8).
This increased wrench zone occurs within a
larger transpressional regime, resulting in
heterogeneous transpression of the lower
layers. Despite the gradient of simple shear and
the heterogeneous displacement field, the
system is mechanically continuous.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
MAGMATIC ARCS
Deformation in the upper crust adjacent to
the magmatic arc is best considered as a double-
wedge: two wedges or prisms which verge in
opposite directions and may or may not be sep-
arated by a strike-slip fault system (Fig. 8). This
model of a double-wedge is inferred from geo-
logical studies (Norris et al. 1990) and physical
experiments (Richard & Cobbold 1990), and is
supported by three-dimensional numerical
studies (e.g. Koons 1994; Braun & Beaumont
1995). This double-wedge is similar to the classic
geometry of a flower structure, insofar as thrust
faults emerge from a central strike-slip fault (e.g.
Harding 1985), except the scale is much larger
(hundreds v. tens of kilometres). The strike-slip
partitioning implied by the double-wedge is an
upper-crustal effect of transpressional defor-
mation (e.g. Teyssier et al. 1995). The parallelism
of structures on the forearc and backarc implies
kinematic connection across the arc, provided
by basal coupling (e.g. Molnar 1992; Teyssier &
Tikoff this volume).
This idea of lithospheric layers explains a
recurring problem in magmatic arcs: the active
strike-slip fault does not always correlate with
the surface expression of volcanism (Fig. 8; Fitch
1972). For example, the Sumatran fault does not
always lie within the Sumatran volcanic arc
(Bellier & Sebrier 1994). On a lithospheric scale,
the location of the strike-slip fault occurs over
the area of maximum displacement in the lower
crust, controlled by thermal weakening or offset
in the lithospheric mantle. In contrast, overpres-
sured magmas in the uppermost crust exploit
structural weaknesses and their location may not
correlate exactly with the surface expression of
the main strike-slip fault.
In our model, the two main interfaces (upper
crust-lower crust, and lower crust-upper
mantle) are theological boundaries. They
necessarily constitute zones of deformation
maintaining the mechanical continuity of the
whole system. A vertically weakened zone exists
in the lithosphere because of the upward move-
ment of magmas. The upper mantle, as the
strongest lithospheric layer, controls partition-
ing of the plate motion. The lower crust tends to
widen the zone affected by transpressional
deformation and homogenizes the movement.
Strike-slip partitioning describes the response of
the upper crust. Therefore, even on a litho-
spheric scale, there is a clear relationship
between magmatism and tectonism.
Conclusion
A positive feedback loop exists between mag-
matism and transpressional processes; the result
of each is to cause magmatic overpressuring.
337
Transpressional kinematics results in tectonic
overpressuring, seen in upward movement of
material from transpressional zones. In a mag-
matic arc setting, the horizontal tectonic load of
transpression is partly transferred into a vertical
driving force, which facilitates the upward
movement of granitic magma along a vertical
pressure gradient. Overpressured magmas can
cause regional deformation, to facilitate magma
movement, and thereby initiate strike-slip
movement. Thus, transpression-induced and
buoyancy-induced overpressuring of magma are
linked in a positive feedback loop, which pro-
vides the force for upward magma movement.
The same feedback cycle explains how a mag-
matic arc facilitates strike-slip partitioning, even
in cases where the relative angle of plate con-
vergence is almost normal to the plate boundary.
We propose that transpressional kinematics
typifies many arc settings, both modern and
ancient. Strike~slip motion is partitioned into the
magmatic arc settings because of the linear and
margin-parallel trend of the vertical, litho-
spheric-scale weakness caused by ascending
magma. Offset occurs within the mantle forearc
sliver (e.g. Beck 1983), creating a strike-slip fault
that broadly correlates with the magmatic arc.
The lower crust couples the upper mantle and
upper crust, explaining the parallelism of con-
traction structures in the forearc and backarc
regions. The displacement field of the basal layer
of the arc system provides the boundary con-
dition for the upper-crustal, strike-slip par-
titioned deformation. However, strike-slip
motion is ultimately related to shearing at lower
lithospheric levels and may not correlate exactly
with upper-crustal magmatism.
We would like to thank A. Cruden, D. Hutton, and K.
McCaffrey for critical and helpful reviews. Thanks are
also due to R. E. Holdsworth for his encouragement
and editorial patience. This work was supported by
CNRS (INSU/DBT, MDRI and UMR 5563) (M. S. B.)
and NSF grants (EAR 9305262) (B. T. and C. T.).
References
A~uE, R. & BRIMHALL,G. H. 1988. Magmatic arc
asymmetry and distribution of anomalous plu-
tonic belts in the batholiths of California: effects
of assimilation, crustal thickness, and depth of
crystallization. Geological Society of America
Bulletin, 100, 912-927.
BATEMAN,P. C. 1992. Plutonism in the Central Part of
the Sierra Nevada Batholith, California. US Geo-
logical Survey Professional Papers, 1483.
BECK,M. E. 1983. On the mechanism of tectonic trans-
port in zones of oblique subduction. Tectono-
physics, 93, 1-11.
BELLmR, O. & SEBRIER, M. 1994. Relationship
between tectonism and volcanism along the Great
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
338 M. DE SAINT B L A N Q U A T E T A L .
Sumatran Fault Zone deduced by SPOT image
analyses. Tectonophysics, 233, 215-231.
-- & PRAMUMIJOYO, S. 1991. La grande faille
~le Sumatra: gGometrie, cindmatique et quantit6
de ddplacement mises en 6vidence par l'imagerie
satellitaire. Comptes Rendus de l'AcadOmie des
Sciences, SOrieH, 312, 1219-1226.
Borr, M. R & KUZNm, N. J. 1984. Origin of tectonic
stress in the lithosphere. Tectonophysics, 105,
1-14.
BRACE, W. E & KOHLSTEDT, D. L. 1980. Limits on
lithospheric stress imposed by laboratory experi-
ments. Journal of Geophysical Research, 85,
6248-6252.
BRAUN, J. & BEAUMONT, C. 1995. Three-dimensional
numerical experiments of strain partitioning at
oblique plate boundaries: implications for con-
trasting tectonic styles in the southern Coast
Ranges, California and central South Island, New
Zealand. Journal of Geophysical Research, 100,
1805%18074.
BROWN, E. H. & TALBOT, J. L. 1989. Orogen-parallel
extension in the North Cascades Crystalline Core.
Tectonics, 8, 1105-1114.
-- & WALKER, N. W. 1993. A magma-loading model
for Barrovian metamorphism in the southeast
Coast Plutonic Complex, British Columbia and
Washington. Geological Society of America Bull-
etin, 105, 479-500.
BURG, J. P. ~z;VANDERHAEGHE, 0. 1993. Structures and
way-up criteria in migmatites, with applications to
the Velay Dome (French Massif Central)).
Journal of Structural Geology, 15, 1293-1301.
BUSBY-SPERA, C. J. & SAI_EEBY,J. 1990. Intra-arc strike-
slip fault exposed at batholithic levels in the
southern Sierra Nevada, California. Geology, 18,
255-259.
CASHMAN, S. M., KELSEY, H. M., ERDMAN, C. E,
CUTI?EN,H. N. C. & BERRYMAN,K. R. 1992. Strain
partitioning between structural domains in the
forearc of the Hikurangi subduction zone, New
Zealand. Tectonics, 11, 242-257.
CASTRO, A., DE LA ROSA, J. D., FERNANDEZ, C. &
MORENO-VENTA, I. 1995. Unstable flow, magma
mixing and magma-rock deformation in a deep-
seated conduit: the Gil-Marquez complex, south-
west Spain. Geologishe Rundschau, 84, 359-374.
CLEMENS, J. D. & MAWER, C. K. 1992. Granitic magma
transport by fracture propagation. Tectono-
physics, 204, 339-360.
CRAWFORD, M. L., HOLLISTER, L. S. & WOODSWORTH,
G. J. 1987. Crustal deformation and regional
metamorphism across a terrane boundary, Coast
Plutonic Complex, British Columbia. Tectonics, 6,
343-361.
CURRAY, J. R., MOORE, D. G., LAWVER, L. A., EMMEL,
E J., RAITT, R. W., HENRY, M. & KIECKHEFER, R.
M. 1979. Tectonics of the Andaman Sea and
Burma. In: WATKINS,J. S. et al. (eds) Geological
and Geophysical Investigations of Continental
Margins. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Memoir. 29, 189-198.
DAVIS, M. 1996. Anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility
and fabric analysis in granitoids: the Cascade Lake
shear zone, Sierra Nevada, California. M.S. thesis,
University of Minnesota, Minneapolis.
DEWEY, J. E & LAMB,S. H. 1992. Active tectonics of the
Andes. Tectonophysics, 205, 79-95.
DEMETS, C., GORDON, R. G., ARGUS, D. E & STEIN, S.
1990. Current plate motions. Geophysical Journal
International, 101, 425-478.
DIAMENT, M., HARJONO, H., KARTA, K., ET AL. 1992.
Mentawai fault zone off Sumatra: a new key to the
geodynamics of western Indonesia. Geology, 20,
259-262.
FITCH, J. T. 1972. Plate convergence, transcurrent
faults, and internal deformation adjacent to
Southeast Asia and the Western Pacific. Journal
of Geophysical Research, 77(23), 4432-4460.
FOSSEN, H. & TIKOFF,B. 1993. The deformation matrix
for simultaneous pure shear, simple shear, and
volume change, and its application to transpres-
sion/transtension tectonics. Journal of Structural
Geology, 15, 413-422.
-- & TEYSSmR, C. 1994. Strain modeling of
transpressional and transtensional deformation.
Norsk Geologisk Tidsskrifi, 74, 134-145.
GLEIgHmL,K. & STUART,G. 1996. Seismic anisotropy in
the fore-arc region of the Hikurangi subduction
zone, New Zealand. Physics of the Earth and
Planetary Interiors, 95, 211-225.
GREENE, D. C. & SCIqWEICI,:ERT,R. A. 1995. The Gem
Lake shear zone: Cretaceous dextral transpression
in the northern Ritter Range pendant, eastern
Sierra Nevada, California. Tectonics, 14, 945-961.
GROCOTT, J., BROWN, M., DALLMEYER, R. D., TAYLOR,
G. & TRELOAR, P. J. 1995. Mechanisms of conti-
nental growth in extensional arcs: an example
from the Andean plate-boundary zone. Geology,
22, 391-394.
GUGLIELMO, G. 1993. Magmatic strains and foliation
triple points of the Merrimac plutons, northern
Sierra Nevada, California: implications for pluton
emplacement and timing of subduction. Journal
of Structural Geology, 15(2), 177-189.
HARDING, T. P. 1985. Seismic characteristics and
identification of negative flower structures, posi-
tive flower structures, and positive structural
inversion. American Association of Petroleum
Geologists, Bulletin, 69, 582-600.
HOGAN, J. P. & GILBERT,M. C. 1995. The A-type Mount
Scott granite sheet: importance of crustal magma
traps. Journal of Geophysical Research, 100,
15779-15792.
HUDLESTON, P. J., SCHULTZ-ELA,D. & SOUTHWICK,D.
L. 1988. Transpression in an Archean greenstone
belt, northern Minnesota. Canadian Journal of
Earth Sciences, 25, 1060-1068.
HUTTON, D. H. W. 1997. Syntectonic granites and the
principle of effective stress: a general solution to
the space problem? In: BOUCHEZ,J.-L., STEVHENS,
W. E. & HUTrON, D. H. W. (eds) Granite: From
Melt Segregation to Emplacement Fabrics, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 189-197.
- - & REAVY, R. J. 1992. Strike-slip tectonics and
granite petrogenesis. Tectonics, 11, 960-967.
INGRAM, G. M. & HUTrON, D. H. W. 1994. The Great
Tonalite Sill: emplacement into a contractional
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
MAGMATIC ARCS
shear zone and implications for late Cretaceous to
early Eocene tectonics in southeastern Alaska
and British Columbia. Geological Society of
America Bulletin, 106, 715-728.
JARRARD, R. D. 1986. Terrane motion by strike-
slip faulting of forearc slivers. Geology, 14,
780-783.
KARIG, D. E., LAWRENCE, M. B., MOORE, G. E &
CURRAY, J. R. 1980. Structural framework of the
fore-arc basin, NW Sumatra. Journal of the Geo-
logical Society, London, 137, 77-91.
KARLSTROM, K. E. 1989. Toward a syntectonic para-
digm for granitoid. Eos Transactions, American
Geophysical Union, 70, 762.
KELLEY, K. 1993. Relative motions between North
America and oceanic plates of the Pacific basin
during the last 130 million years. M.S. thesis,
Western Washington University, Bellingham.
-- & ENGEB~TSON, D. C. 1994. Updated relative
motions and terrane trajectories for North
America and oceanic plates: Cretaceous to
present. Geological Society of America, Abstracts
with Programs, 26, 459.
KISTLER,R.W. 1990. Two different lithosphere types in
the Sierra Nevada, California. In: ANDERSON,J. L.
(ed.) The Nature and Origin of Cordilleran Mag-
matism. Geological Society of America Memoir,
174, 271-281.
KOONS, P. O. 1994. Three-dimensional critical wedges:
tectonics and topography in oblique collisional
orogens. Journal of Geophysical Research, 99,
12301-12315.
LAHREN,M. M., SCHWEICKERT,R. A., MATTINSON,J. M.
& WALKER, J. G. 1990. Evidence of Uppermost
Proterozoic to Lower Cambrian miogeoclinal
rocks and the Mohave-Snow Lake fault: Snow
Lake Pendant, Central Sierra Nevada, California.
Tectonics, 9, 1585-1608.
LALLEMAND,S. & JOLIVET,L. 1986. Japan Sea: a pull-
apart basin? Earth and Planetary Sciences Letters,
76, 375-389.
LASSAL, O., HUCHON, P. & HARJONO, H. 1989.
Extension crustale dans le drtroit de la Sonde
(Indonesie). Donnres de la sismique reflrxion
(campagne Krakatoa). Comptes Rendus de
l'AcadOmie des Sciences, Paris, Serie II, 309,
205-212.
LISTER, J. R. & KERR, R. C. 1991. Fluid-mechanical
models of crack propagation and their application
to magma transport in dykes. Journal of Geo-
physical Research, 96, 10049-10077.
LUND, K. & SNEE,L. W. 1988. Metamorphism, struc-
tural development, and age of the continent-
island arc juncture in west-central Idaho. In:
ERNST, W. G. (ed.) Metamorphism and Crustal
Evolution, Western Coterminous United States,
Rubey Vol. VII. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs,
N J, 296-331.
MANCKTELOW, N. S. 1993. Tectonic overpressure in
competent mafic layers and the development of
isolated eclogites. Journal of Metamorphic
Geology, 11, 801-812.
- - 1995. Nonlithostatic pressure during sediment
subduction and the development and exhumation
339
of high pressure metamorphic rocks. Journal of
Geophysical Research, 1 0 0 , 571-583.
MANDUCA, C. A., KUNTZ, M. A. & SHNER, L. T. 1993.
Emplacement and deformation of the western
margin of the Idaho batholith near McCall,
Idaho: influence of a major terrane boundary.
Geological Society of America Bulletin, 105,
749-765.
MATSUDA, T., NAKAMURA, K. & SIGIMURA, A. 1967.
Late Cenozoic orogeny in Japan. Tectonophysics,
4, 349-366.
MCCAFFREY, K. J. W. 1992. Igneous emplacement in a
transpressive shear zone; Ox Mountains igneous
complex. Journal of the Geological Society,
London, 149, 221-235.
MCCAFFREY, R. 1988. Active tectonics of the eastern
Sunda and Banda arcs. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 93, 15163-15182.
- - 1991. Slip vectors and stretching of the Sumatran
forearc. Geolog); 19, 881-884.
MEGARD,F. 1987. Structure and evolution of the Peru-
vian Andes. In: SCHAER,J.-E & RODGERS,J. (eds)
The Anatomy of Mountain Ranges. Princeton
University Press, 179-210.
MOLNAR, P. 1992. Brace-Goetze strength-profiles, the
partitioning of strike-slip and thrust faulting at
zones of oblique convergence, and the stress-heat
flow paradox of the San Andreas fault. In: EVANS,
B. & WONG,T.-E (eds) Fault Mechanics and Trans-
port Properties of Rocks. Academic Press, New
York, 435-459.
MOUNT,V. S. & SUPPE,J. 1992. Present-day stress orien-
tations adjacent to active strike-slip faults: Cali-
fornia and Sumatra. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 97, 11995-12013.
NEVES, S. P., VAUCHEZ, A. & ARCHANJO, C. J. 1996.
Shear zone-controlled magma emplacement of
magma-assisted nucleation of shear zones?
Insights from northern Brazil. Tectonophysics,
205, 171-185.
NORRIS, R. J., KOONS,E O. & COOPER,A. E 1990. The
obliquely-convergent plate boundary in the South
Island of New Zealand. Journal of Structural
Geology, 12, 715-725.
OZALAYBEY, S. ~; SAVAGE, M. K. 1995. Shear-wave
splitting beneath western United States in
relation to plate tectonics. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 100, 18135-18149.
PARSON, T. & THOMPSON, G. A. 1991. The role of
magma overpressure in suppressing earthquakes
and topography: worldwide examples. Science,
253, 1399-1402.
PETFORD, N. & ATHERTON, M. P. 1992. Granitoid
emplacement and deformation along a major
crustal lineament: the Cordillera Blanca, Peru.
Tectonophysics, 205, 171-185.
- - - , KERR, R. C. & LISTER,J. R. 1993. Dike transport
of granitoid magmas. Geology, 21, 845-848.
PICKEtt, D. A. & SALEEBY,J. B. 1993. Thermobaro-
metric contraints on the depth of exposure and
conditions of plutonism and metamorphism at
deep levels of the Sierra Nevada batholith,
Tehachapi Mountains, California. Journal of Geo-
physical Research, 98, 60%629.
 Downloaded from http://sp.lyellcollection.org/ at INIST-CNRS on April 5, 2016
340 M. DE SAINT B L A N Q U A T E T A L .
READ, H. H. 1957. The Granite Controversy. Thomas
Murby.
RICHARD, E & COBBOLD, P. 1990. Experimental
insights into partitioning of fault motions in con-
tinental convergent wrench zones. Annales Tec-
tonicae, IV, 35-44.
ROBIN, R-Y. E & CRUDEN,A. R. 1994. Strain and vor-
ticity patterns in ideally ductile transpression
zones. Journal of Structural Geology, 16, 447-466.
RUSMORE, M. E. & WOODWORTH,G. J. 1991. Coast Plu-
tonic Complex: a mid-Cretaceous contractional
orogen. Geology, 19, 941-944.
SAINT BLANQUAT,M. & TIKOFF, B. 1995. Passive and
forceful emplacement of the Mono Creek pluton
(Sierra Nevada, California), during regional
transpressive deformation. Terra Nova, 7, 138.
- -& -- 1997. Development of magmatic to solid-
state fabrics during syntectonic emplacement of
the Mono Creek granite, Sierra Nevada batholith.
In: BOUCHEZ,J.-L., STEPHENS,W. E. (eds) Granite:
From Melt Segregation to Emplacement Fabrics.
Kluwer Academic Publishers, 231-252.
SALEEBY, J. 1990. Progress and tectonic and petro-
genetic studies in an exposed cross-section of
young (-100 Ma) continental crust, southern
Sierra Nevada, California. In: SALISBURY,M. H. &
FOUNTAIN, D. M. (eds) Exposed Cross-sections of
the Continental Crust. D. Reidel, Dordrecht,
137-158.
SAMS,D. B. & SALEEBY,J. B. 1988. Geology and petro-
tectonic significance of crystalline rocks of the
southernmost Sierra Nevada, California. In:
ERNST, W. G. (ed.) Metamorphism and Crustal
Evolution of the Western United States (Rubey
Vol. 7). Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New
Jersey, 865-893.
SIEH, K. 1994. Active tectonics of Sumatra. Geological
Society of America, Abstracts with Programs, 26,
382.
SOULAS, J. E 1977. Les phases tectoniques andines du
Tertiaire Superieur, r6sultats d'une transversale
Pisco-Ayacucho (Peru Central). Comptes Rendus
de l'Acaddmie des Sciences, Paris, Serie H, 284,
2207-2210.
SUAREZ,G., MOLNAR,P. & BURCHFIEL,B. C. 1983. Seis-
micity, fault plane solutions, depth of faulting, and
active tectonics of the Andes of Peru, Ecuador,
View publication stats
and Southern Colombia. Journal of Geophysical
Research, 88, 10403-10428.
TEYSSIER, C. & TIKOFF, B. 1998. Strike-slip partitioned
transpression of the San Andreas fault system: a
lithospheric-scale approach. This volume.
& MARKLEY, M. 1995. Oblique plate
motion and continental tectonics. Geology, 23,
447-450.
TIKOFF,B. & GREENE, D. 1997. Stretching lineations in
transpressional shear zones. Journal of Structural
Geology, 19, 29-39.
-- & SAINT BLANQUAT, M. 1997. Transpressional
shearing and strike-slip partitioning in the Late
Cretaceous Sierra Nevada magmatic arc, Cali-
fornia. Tectonics, 16, 442-459.
- - & TEYSSIER,C. 1992. Crustal-scale, en echelon 'P-
shear' tensional bridges: a possible solution to the
batholithic room problem. Geology, 20, 927-930.
- -& -- 1994. Strain modeling of displacement-
field partitioning in transpressional orogens.
Journal of Structural Geology, 16, 1575-1588.
, BECK, M., OSWALD, B., SAINT BLANQUAT, M.,
KELSO, P. & HALVORSEN, M. 1996. Forceful
emplacement of the Mono Creek 'bulge', Sierra
Nevada, California. Geological Society of
America, Abstracts with Programs, 28, 42.
TOBISCH, 0. T., SALEEBY,J. B., RENNE, P. R., MCNULTY,
B. & TONG, W. 1995. Variations in deformation
fields of a large volume magmatic arc, Central
Sierra Nevada, California. Geological Society of
America, Bulletin, 107, 148-166.
TOMMASI, A., VAUCHEZ, A., FERNANDES, L. A. D. &
PORCHER, C. C. 1994. Magma-assisted strain
localization in an orogen-parallel transcurrent
zone of southern Brazil. Tectonics, 13, 421-437.
VIGNERESSE, J. L. 1983. Enracinement des granites
armoricains estim6 d'apr6s la gravim6trie. Bull-
etin de la SociOtO GOologique et MinOralogique de
Bretagne, 15C, 1-15.
WALCOTT, R. I. 1979. Plate motion and shear strain
rates in the vicinity of the Southern Alps. Royal
Society of New Zealand Bulletin, 18, 5-12.
WEAVER, C. S., GRANT, W. C. d~ SHEMETA, J. E. 1987.
Local crustal extension at Mount St. Helens,
Washington. Journal of Geophysical Research, 92,
10170-10178.