Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221

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Journal of South American Earth Sciences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jsames

From geomorphology to shape-fabric: The interplay of geomorphological

controls and their spatial variability in the Teteltzingo lahar deposit,
Citlaltépetl volcano (Mexico)
Omar Hernández-Rivas a, *, Lizeth Caballero b, Damiano Sarocchi c,
Luis Ángel Rodríguez-Sedano d
a
Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Circuito Interior. Ciudad Universitaria s/n, C.U., 04510, Ciudad de México, Mexico
b
Departamento de Física, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad 3000, Circuito Exterior s/n, C.U., 04510, Ciudad de
México, Mexico
c
Instituto de Geología, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. M. Nava No. 5, Zona Universitaria, San Luis Potosí, 78240, Mexico
d
CONACYT-Instituto de Geología, Universidad Autónoma de San Luis Potosí, Av. Dr. M. Nava No. 5, Zona Universitaria, San Luis Potosí, 78240, Mexico

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The distribution and characteristics of volcaniclastic deposits are the result of the interplay among numerous
Geomorphology factors acting at different and multileveled scales of space and time. Such complexity requires multiple tech­
Morphometry niques for the study of volcanic regions. This approach provides a strong basis for understanding volcanic
Clast shape-fabric
processes and their relationship with the resulting landforms or deposits and for reconstructing dynamic prop­
Lahar
Citlaltépetl
erties of flows. The aim of this paper is thus to understand the interplay between the geomorphologic envi­
ronment and the origin and transport of large-magnitude debris flows. For this reason, we selected the eastern
sector of the Citlaltépetl volcano and the Teteltzingo lahar event (Veracruz, Mexico). Information from
geomorphological and morphometric analysis (including the linear features) was linked with field and shape-
fabric data on selected outcrops. The study area was divided into three morphometric zones based on their
elevation, slope, drainage network, and the trend in linear features. These zones are volcanic mountain zone,
minor folded ranges and cumulative volcaniclastic plain. The geomorphological map enabled us to understand
the origin of the landforms observed in each of the three morphometric zones. The characteristics of the
Teteltzingo lahar deposit (i.e., geographic distribution, thickness and components) are associated with the
morphologic and morphometric characteristics of the landscape. The particle shape-fabric analysis gave evidence
that particle iso-orientation is consistent with the flow direction and orientation of some regional linear features,
especially in the medial and distal zones. Moreover, the degree of iso-orientation was shown to be dependent on
travel distance and particle diameter. The highest degree of iso-orientation was found in the coarse particles
(gravel grain-size) throughout the entire deposit, being more developed in the distal zone. The evidence pre­
sented here suggests an interplay between geomorphological–structural controls and their spatial variability with
the distribution of large-magnitude lahars. This highlights the importance of a multi-scale vision of mass
movement phenomena that show how morphological and sedimentological characteristics are linked and could
affect the generation and dynamics of future flows.

1. Introduction
Large debris avalanches have been documented through history in
the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (TMVB) on volcanoes such as Popo­
catépetl, Nevado de Toluca, Jocotitlán, and Citlaltépetl (Capra et al.,
2002). The latter is the highest mountain in Mexico (5675 m asl) and has
undergone repeated collapses toward the east and southeast throughout
its eruptive history. One of these collapses (16.5 ka B.P.), destroyed the
previous volcanic edifice, known as “Espolón de Oro’’, and triggered a
debris avalanche that was subsequently transformed into a
large-magnitude debris flow named the Teteltzingo lahar (Carra­
sco-Núñez et al., 1993). Currently, the morphostructural setting and the

* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: om.geos@gmail.com (O. Hernández-Rivas).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsames.2021.103221
Received 15 June 2020; Received in revised form 18 January 2021; Accepted 10 February 2021
Available online 19 March 2021
0895-9811/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
O. Hernández-Rivas et al.
pervasive hydrothermal alteration of the Citlatépetl volcano are the
main factors controlling the instability of the volcanic edifice and could
induce a new sector collapse in the future (Zimbelman et al., 2004).
The stratigraphic and historical record show that large debris ava­
lanches of hydrothermally altered material can be transformed into
debris flows (Scott et al., 2001). The term debris flow describes a highly
concentrated mixture of water (>60% volume) and rock debris (Thouret
et al., 2020). Debris flow behavior is closely related to clay content;
therefore, using 3% of clay by weight as a threshold, they are classified
as cohesive (>3%) and non-cohesive (<3%) (Scott et al., 1995, 2001;
Vallance and Scott, 1997). Volcanic debris flows, together with hyper­
concentrated flows (Beverage and Culbertson, 1964) are included under
the term lahar (Pierson, 1995).
The distribution and characteristics of a collapse-triggered debris
avalanche and lahar deposits are the result of the interplay of numerous
factors acting at different multileveled space/time scales. The
morphology of a volcano and its surroundings control the collapse and
flow direction, while the aerial extent and flow depth are controlled by
channel geometry (Zhou et al., 2019). Attributes related to flow prop­
erties (i.e., volume, temperature, fluid content, grain-size distribution),
influence runout, velocity, and thickness. Consequently, the study of
volcanic regions by multiple techniques (i.e., geomorphological map­
ping and texture analysis) provides a good basis for understanding the
occurrence of collapse-triggered avalanches, lahars and their relation­
ship with regional landforms and deposits, and also for reconstructing
the dynamic properties of these flows.
Geomorphologic studies on volcanic regions assess the aftermaths of
volcanic activity on the landscape and its subsequent modification by
erosion and climatic or tectonic conditions (Thouret, 1999). Geomor­
phological mapping graphically represents the type and distribution of
landforms originated by endogenous and exogenous processes, and en­
ables us to understand the relationship between regional landforms and
local surface elements. In volcanic environments, it is used to delineate
the distribution of vents and tectonic structures (Favalli et al., 2005), to
identify debris avalanche deposits (Godoy et al., 2017; Shea et al.,
2008), to classify volcanic landforms (Hasenaka and Carmichael, 1985),
and to characterize volcanic edifices (Alcalá-Reygosa et al., 2016;
Zamorano et al., 2002; Gabrielli et al., 2020).
The characteristics of geomorphic environments are especially
important in the development of sector collapses, debris avalanches, and
debris flows, since they constrain instability zones, hydrographic basins,
flow paths, and dynamic/kinematic flow properties (Thouret, 1999;
Shea et al., 2008; Bernard et al., 2008). Under this scheme, it is
important to generate the geomorphologic cartography of areas affected
by these processes, especially in those volcanoes where the geomor­
phological and geological context has been linked to multiple edifice
failures, generating debris avalanches, subsequently transformed to
debris flows.
As stated above, geomorphological features also have effects on flow
properties; for example, slope breaks and constrictions have a well-
known influence on erosion and deposition regimes (Pohl et al.,
2020). In this regard, texture analysis is a widely used technique to
provide information about the transport and emplacement history of
sedimentary deposits in volcanic environments. Among various textural
parameters, particle shape-fabric analysis gives information about
paleo-flow directions (e.g., Biró et al., 2015), helps to discriminate be­
tween different types of mass flow deposits (e.g., Karátson et al., 2002),
and enables the interpretation of transport processes (e.g., Capaccioni
et al., 1997; Capaccioni and Sarocchi, 1996; Capaccioni et al., 2001;
Karátson et al., 2002; Valentini et al., 2008; Moreno-Chávez et al.,
2018).
Studies using geomorphological mapping techniques coupled with
texture analysis of avalanche and lahar deposits are still scarce in the
literature, and are mainly focused on zones of transformation from
debris avalanches to debris flows (Bernard et al., 2009, 2017, 2019) or to
non-volcanic debris flows (Phillips, 2006).
2
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221
The aim of this paper is to understand the interplay between the
geomorphologic environment and the origin and transport of large-
magnitude debris flows. The eastern sector of the Citlaltépetl volcano
and the Teteltzingo lahar event were selected for the following reasons:
1) The eastern zone of the Citlaltépetl volcano is surrounded by a sedi­
mentary sequence which, in conjunction with volcanic successions and
primary/secondary volcaniclastic deposits, creates a landscape with a
complex architecture; 2) multiple east sector collapses associated with
large-magnitude debris flows have occurred throughout its geological
history; and 3) the characteristics of the Teteltzingo lahar event and its
deposits are well-constrained.
Our results are based on a detailed regional geomorphological
analysis coupled with geological field studies (stratigraphy, deposit ar­
chitecture, and texture description), and shape-fabric analysis in
selected outcrops. They highlight the role of complex geomorphological
environments in the occurrence and distribution of debris flows.
2. Study area and Teteltzingo lahar deposit (TLD)
The Citlaltépetl volcano (also known as Pico de Orizaba) is an
andesitic–dacitic stratovolcano located within the eastern portion of the
TMVB, at ~19◦ 01′ N, 97◦ 16′ W (Fig. 1). It is emplaced over folded
sedimentary rocks of Cretaceous age (Fig. 2), and belongs to the Cofre de
Perote, La Gloria, Las Cumbres, Citlaltépetl–Sierra Negra volcanic chain.
This geological–structural context has been linked to multiple edifice
failures and debris avalanches transformed into debris flows (Con­
cha-Dimas et al., 2005).
Carrasco-Núñez (2000) identified three episodes associated with the
construction of the principal cone and dome formation. The construction
of the first cone, known as Torrecillas, began ~650 Ka ago and finished
with a sector collapse that triggered a debris avalanche that was trans­
formed into a lahar. This avalanche has been termed “Jamapa” and
occurred ~290-210 Ka ago (Carrasco-Núñez and Gómez-Tuena, 1997;
Carrasco-Núñez et al., 2006). The second cone, named “Espolón de Oro,”
was constructed over the calderic remnants of the Torrecillas cone, 210
± 40 Ka ago, and finished with a sector collapse producing a debris
avalanche and a cohesive lahar. This event occurred ~16.5 Ka ago and
was named “Teteltzingo” (Carrasco-Núñez et al., 2006), after a small
village located ~15 km from the crater. The current cone of Citlaltépetl
began its activity over the Espolón de Oro remnants. Since then, at least
40 eruptive events have been recorded in the deposits, from 13,270 ± 90
to 690 ± 50 years ago (e.g., Cantagrel et al., 1984; Höskuldsson and
Robin, 1993; Carrasco-Núñez and Rose, 1995; Carrasco-Núñez, 2000; De
la Cruz-Reyna and Carrasco-Núñez, 2002; Rossotti and Carrasco-Núñez,
2004; Alcalá-Reygosa et al., 2018).
The Teteltzingo lahar deposit (TLD) extends 110 km from the source,
has a volume of 2.2 km3, and covers an area of 175 km2 (Carrasco-Núñez
et al., 2006). A distinctive feature of the deposit is the high amount of
clay, from 10 to 16% (Carrasco-Núñez et al., 1993), associated with
hydrothermal alteration, indicating that the event is not associated with
the eruptive activity but with the weakening of the volcanic edifice by
hydrothermal alteration and the deformed basement (Carrasco-Núñez
and Gómez-Tuena, 1997; Carrasco-Núñez et al., 2006). The high clay
content within the deposit enables the Teteltzingo lahar event to be
classified as a cohesive debris flow (Scott et al., 1995).
3. Methodology
This work presents a set of maps, which include morphometric maps,
a linear features map, and a geomorphological map (1:250,000 scale) of
the southeastern sector of Citlaltépetl volcano. Samples of the TLD were
extracted in order to perform a shape-fabric analysis. All this informa­
tion was integrated to analyze the geomorphological environment in the
surrounding area of Citlaltépetl volcano and its influence on the char­
acteristics of the Teteltzingo lahar event.
O. Hernández-Rivas et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221

Fig. 1. Geographic location of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt, Citlaltépetl volcano and Teteltzingo lahar deposit. The extent and direction of the deposit is mainly
E–W in the proximal zone and NW–SE in the medial and distal zones, according to Carrasco-Núñez et al. (1993).

3.1. Morphometric maps
Three morphometric parameters (elevation, slope, drainage density)
were used to observe the distribution of the morphometric features in
the study area and delineate the morphometric zones (Norini et al.,
2004; Bustos et al., 2020). The three parameters were obtained by
processing a 12.5-m spatial resolution ALOS PALSAR digital elevation
model (DEM) (Dataset, 2018) (ASF DAAC, 2011; JAXA/METI, 2018)
downloaded from https://search.asf.alaska.edu in ArcMap and SAGA
GIS software.
The elevation map was classified by the Natural Breaks method
(Jenks and Caspall, 1971) into 11 classes. This scale accurately
represents the elevation contrast and landforms (Lugo-Hubp, 1988) and
enables preliminary identification of morphometric zones.
The software calculates the slope with a moving window that mea­
sures the maximum rate of change of a cell compared to its neighboring
cells (3 × 3 cell neighborhood). For this map, six slope classes, adapted
from Demek et al. (1972), were selected, as they grouped areas with
similar slope values and the minor geomorphological features within
them.
To construct the drainage density map, the drainage network was
automatically extracted from the DEM, and drainage density (Dd) was
calculated by obtaining the length of fluvial channels for each km2 with
the formula

3
O. Hernández-Rivas et al.
Fig. 2. Simplified geologic map of the southeastern sector of the Citlaltépetl volcano. Modified from Mexican Geological Survey (2001; 2002).
∑ /
Dd = Lμ A,
∑
where Lμ represents the total length of the stream segments of all
orders in km; and A = area in km2. For this process, a grid of 1 km2
points containing the length values per cell was created. Several pre­
liminary maps were created with different interpolation algorithms and
clustering methods. The kriging interpolation algorithm and five classes
of drainage density by the Natural Breaks method (Jenks and Caspall,
1971) were selected. This was due to the aerial distribution of classes
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221
(1) fitted suitably with the distribution of the drainage network.
3.2. Linear features map
We identified the main linear features associated with the drainage
network using the visual interpretation technique (Clódis De Oliveira
and Dilce de Fátima, 2012; El-Sawy et al., 2016; Alshayef et al., 2017)
and the angular variation of the illumination applied to the DEM (Smith
and Wise, 2007). Additionally, structural and morphological lineaments
identified in previous publications were compiled in order to identify
4
O. Hernández-Rivas et al.
regional linear trends and their spatial location. These corresponded to
the regional morphological lineaments identified by Concha-Dimas et al.
(2005) and to the folds and faults (normal and thrust) from the Mexican
Geological Survey (2001; 2002).
The orientations of all sets of lineaments were calculated by ArcMap
COGO algorithms. The results were represented in rose diagrams, with
10◦ -bin absolute frequency. After this procedure, circular statistical
parameters were calculated; the mean, standard deviation, mode, me­
dian, and length of the resultant vector R, and the Rayleigh (1919) test
was performed (Swan and Sandilands, 1995; Jacques et al., 2012).
3.3. Geomorphological map
A 1:250,000 scale geomorphological map of the southeastern sector
of Citlaltépetl volcano was produced from the interpretation of the in­
formation provided by the DEM, satellite images (Google Earth), and the
available geological/geomorphological information. The morphometric
and the linear features maps were a useful tool to delineate geomor­
phological systems associated with the morphometric zones. The land­
forms of the study area were represented graphically using a
morphogenetic approach (Lugo-Hubp, 1984; 1988 based on Chemekov,
1972 and Bashenina, 1975). The geomorphological units were catego­
rized into three genetic groups: endogenous, denudative endogenous,
and exogenous. Each element of the map represents a landform related
to its genetic, topographic, and lithologic features. The legend was
constructed based on the recommendations of Peña-Monné (1997) and
Pedraza-Gilsanz (1996). We carried out two field campaigns to verify
the mapped elements.
3.4. Directional shape-fabric
The TLD was described in the field to determine the characteristics at
outcrop scale. We chose three representative sites from the proximal,
medial, and distal zones. The selection criteria were based on geomor­
phological data, since each point is located within a specific morpho­
metric zone. Appropriate outcrops for oriented sample extraction were
selected, and labeled as PO-18-08 (proximal zone), PO-18-01 (medial
zone), and PO-18-10 (distal zone). At the three sites, samples were taken
at the left lateral margin of the deposit in the downflow direction
(Fig. 11). The vertical position of the samples is not clear since basal and
upper contacts do not outcrop at each site. Only in the medial zone can it
be stated that the samples were collected in the central part of the de­
posit. The samples were extracted following the Thellier (1981) modi­
fied method described in Capaccioni and Sarocchi (1996) and
Moreno-Chávez et al. (2018). In order to consolidate the samples, they
Fig. 3. Photo statistical methodology for shape-fabric analysis. A) Sample slab on the horizontal plane. B) Segmented image with direction reference (red arrow) and
mean vector measurement (yellow line) obtained from FabricS software. C) Measurements of major axis orientations of particles obtained from FabricS software. D)
Rose diagrams were obtained from Stereonet software.
5
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221
were treated with epoxy resin at the Paleosols Laboratory of the Institute
of Geology (UNAM). The samples were then cut into slabs following the
horizontal plane until a statistically representative number of particles
was obtained (Moreno-Chávez et al., 2018). Thirty-six high-resolution
images (2400 ppi) were taken of each sample using a high-resolution
scanner (Fig. 3A).
The high-resolution images of the horizontal slabs were oriented
according to the azimuth of the outcrop measured in the field (Fig. 3B).
They were successively processed and binarized through a semi-
automated method using the free software ImageJ (Schneider et al.,
2012) and OptgranCS (Moreno-Chávez et al., 2015). Subsequently, they
were processed with FabricS software (Moreno-Chávez et al., 2018) and
Stereonet software (Allmendinger et al., 2012) in order to extract in­
formation of the particles’ shape-fabric (Fig. 3B and C). Through this
software, the main axis orientation of each particle was measured and
studied by circular statistics (Fig. 3C and D). FabricS is a freeware pro­
gram developed in MATLAB that is used to measure the preferential
orientation of elongated clasts in geological samples. The program
enabled the clast population to be filtered based on the particles’ ec­
centricity and grain size. Stereonet is a freeware circular statistics pro­
gram commonly used in structural geology. The two programs were used
in order to cross-check the statistical data.
FabricS carries out a circular statistical study and in addition to the
main statistical parameters and tests (mode, mean, median, standard
deviation, length of the resultant vector R and Rayleigh test), provides
rose diagrams of the particles’ orientation. The software calculates the
mean orientation of the elongated clasts using the mean unit vector and
its cartesian coordinates (Moreno-Chávez et al., 2018):
1∑ n
1∑ n
x= cosθi , y = sinθi (2)
n i=1 n i=1
where n is the number of particles, θi is the orientation of particle i, and
the mean orientation is calculated using the inverse tangent as suggested
by Capaccioni et al. (1997). In this work, the standard deviation is
measured as a standard error with values ranging from ±51.4◦ to
±0.26◦ . R is the concentration parameter (here called iso-orientation). It
measures the mutual degree of alignment of the particles in the same
direction and corresponds to the length of the mean unit vector (Capa­
ccioni et al., 1997):
√̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
R = x2 + y2 (3)
The parameter R ranges from 0 to 1. The value 1 corresponds to
complete directional agreement between the particles, and 0 corre­
sponds to a population of particles uniformly distributed around a unit
O. Hernández-Rivas et al.
circle, defined as isotropic alignment by Capaccioni et al. (1997).
Iso-orientation is a measure of the shape-fabric development. Its
magnitude is measured by the Rayleigh statistical test of randomness
(Rayleigh, 1919; Capaccioni et al., 1997; Moreno-Chávez et al., 2018).
The Rayleigh test evaluates the null hypothesis that clasts within a
sample are from a randomly oriented population (Moreno Chávez et al.,
2018); that is, orientation is evenly distributed in the population. Ray­
leigh’s statistical test is given by:
(4)
2
z = nR
The z-values are used to compare the critical z values in the Rayleigh
test for circular uniformity (Zar, 1999). The statistical test is used to
extract p-values from the tables in Batschelet (1981) and Davis (1986).
Our study uses a significance level of 0.05, as is common in the literature
(Fisher, 1993).
Iso-orientation varies depending on particle size and apparent ec­
centricity. Eccentricity is defined here as the ratio between the smallest
and largest particles’ apparent axes. Low apparent eccentricity clasts are
less prone to be oriented and their measurements could provide biased
iso-orientation (Capaccioni et al., 1997; Moreno Chávez et al., 2018).
Small particles could also provide biased iso-orientation, because they
are more susceptible to local flow variations. For these reasons, we
filtered particles by size and eccentricity, separating the features cor­
responding to the particles’ apparent sections in the slabs according to
Fig. 4. Morphometric maps of the southeastern sector of Citlaltépetl volcano. A. Hypsometric map, B. Slope map. C. Drainage density map. The pie charts show the
distribution of all classes of slope and drainage density by morphometric zone.
6
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221
their size. Although it is not a rigorous granulometry, which would go
beyond the objectives of this work, we have used optical granulometric
methods (Sarocchi et al., 2005, 2011; Moreno-Chávez et al., 2018),
applying them to the set of particles used for the study of the
shape-fabric. The optical analysis was carried out by ImageJ freeware. In
this way, we separated the particles into the classes corresponding to
sand (125 μm to 2 mm) and gravel (>2 mm). Very fine sand particles
were discarded because they are too small for our fabric study at the
scale used. Particles with elongation less than 0.6 were also discarded, as
they are not sensitive to the stress field, as well as particles cut off by the
edge of the image, whose actual shape and size are unknown. There are
some inherent limitations to segmentation of real geological objects
related to the area or perimeters of very small objects (i.e., sand parti­
cles). Different digital image processing software counting methods
could give different results, and the perimeter could be seriously
underestimated (Kröner and Doménech Carbó, 2013). In order to
minimize errors, we used a high-resolution scanner, which enabled us to
obtain images with a suitable pixel size for their segmentation. A total of
6 samples were analyzed, distributed on the proximal, central, and distal
areas (see Fig. 11). An average of 800 particles per sample were
analyzed, which is considered appropriate for shape-fabric analysis
(Moreno-Chávez et al., 2018).
According to the R-values obtained, iso-orientation was divided into
four categories (Moreno-Chávez et al., 2018): 1) low iso-orientation
O. Hernández-Rivas et al.
(0–≤0.10), 2) low-moderate iso-orientation (0.10–≤0.15), 3)
moderate-high iso orientation (0.15–≤0.30), and 4) high iso-orientation
(>0.30).
4. Results
4.1. Morphometric analysis
The morphometric zones were defined based on elevation, slope
angle, and drainage density (Fig. 4). They correspond to Volcanic
Mountain Zone, Minor Folded Ranges, and Cumulative Volcaniclastic
Plain (Fig. 5).
Volcanic Mountain Zone: This area covers 16.8% of the study area
(774.37 km2) and is characterized by a mountain zone composed mostly
of dacitic and andesitic volcanic rocks and volcaniclastic deposits (Robin
et al., 1983; Höskuldsson and Robin, 1993; Höskuldsson and Cantagrel,
1994; Carrasco-Núñez and Gómez-Tuena, 1997; Carrasco-Núñez, 2000;
Mexican Geological Survey, 2001, 2002; Rodríguez, 2005). It includes
multiple volcanic edifices, domes, and other minor volcanic structures
and products deposited downslope. The highest elevations correspond to
the tops of the volcanic edifices: Citlaltépetl, Sierra Negra, Las Cumbres,
and multiple domes, with elevations >3420 masl (Figs. 2 and 4).
The slopes between 3420 and 1660 masl are composed of successions
of lava and volcaniclastic deposits, products of multiple episodes of
volcanic activity, and their remobilization from the upper slopes
(Fig. 4A). The slopes ranging from 15 to 25◦ make up 24.5% of this zone
(189.67 km2). The slopes ranging from 5◦ to 15◦ make up 22.9%
(177.58 km2) and the slopes in the range 25◦ to 35◦ make up 21.5%
(166.99 km2), respectively (Fig. 4B). Drainage density values range from
1.26 to 2.02 km in almost 60% of this morphometric zone (Fig. 4C).
However, the largest portions, composed of abundant lava flows,
represent 23.1% of the lowest drainage density values (less than 1.26
km).
Minor Folded Ranges: This zone is constituted by Cretaceous lime­
stones and shales in folded mountain ranges and pseudo-cockpit karst
hills (González, 1976; Geissert, 1999; Eguiluz de Antuñano et al., 2000;
Mexican Geological Survey, 2001, 2002) and covers 38.3% (1764.59
km2) of the total area. It corresponds to the pre-volcanic basement
located in the south and southeast sector of the Citlaltépetl volcano
(Carrasco-Núñez, 2000). This zone consists of several elevations (Cerro
San Mateo, Tepoztecatl, El Puntado, Tlachinoltepec, Tepetzala, and
Matlacueyetl) and elongated ridges (for location refer to Fig. 2), with
elevations ranging from 3420 masl at the highest peak near the volcanic
area to 1010 masl in the distal zone (Fig. 4A). The predominant slope
class is 15◦ –25◦ , which makes up 28.8% of the total area (516.97 km2).
The 25◦ –35◦ class also has a significant area, corresponding to 26.4%
(474.23 km2) (Fig. 4B). The drainage density map displays values
ranging from 0.24 to 2.02 km in 82.5% of the area (1428.71 km2)
(Fig. 4C).
Cumulative Volcaniclastic Plain: This zone has low elevations
(100–2050 masl) and the largest portion the total area, 44.7% (2058.23
km2). It consists of an extensive plain composed of volcaniclastic–epi­
clastic deposits (Fig. 4A). Within this zone, highly dissected ravines and
plains with a fan morphology, associated with rapid deposition in areas
of slope rupture (Fig. 4B), can be observed. The dominant slope is 0◦ –5◦
and makes up 69.3% of the total area (1426.44 km2). Higher slope
values (>35◦ ) are found in deep, narrow valleys developed over volca­
niclastic and epiclastic deposits. The predominant drainage density class
is from 2.02 to 2.46 km, which covers 27.3% of the total area (557.50
km2) (Fig. 4C). The lowest slope values and the highest drainage density,
2.46–3.76 km, are found within this zone.
4.2. Linear features analysis
The linear features of each morphometric zone are presented in
Fig. 5. For the volcanic mountain zone, 163 lineaments were mapped.
7
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221
The rose diagram shows two modes oriented NW20◦ –30◦ SE and
NE0◦ –10◦ SW, with a mean value of NW09◦ SE ±8.8◦ (see Table 1 and
Fig. 5). The value of R = 0.35 suggests a high degree of iso-orientation of
the volcanic lineaments.
The lineaments extracted from the minor folded ranges zone (n =
158) have a preferential NW–SE orientation with angles ranging from
50◦ to 70◦ SE. A small number of lineaments are oriented NE30◦ –40◦ SW.
The mean orientation of the complete dataset is NW55◦ SE ±7.9◦ (see
Table 1 and Fig. 5). An increase in the R-value is apparent (R=0.39)
which indicates a high degree of iso-orientation of the lineaments in this
zone.
In the cumulative volcaniclastic plain, 175 lineaments were identi­
fied. The highest iso-orientation value (R = 0.56) was observed in this
zone. The rose diagram shows that the lineaments are preferentially
oriented NW–SE, in a range of angles from 10◦ to 60◦ . The smean value is
NW33◦ SE ±4.9◦ . This orientation is similar to the volcanic mountain
zone but with a lower standard deviation, indicating a wider dispersion
in the volcanic mountain zone (Table 1 and Fig. 5).
4.3. Geomorphological map
The geomorphological map of the southeastern sector of the volcano
(Fig. 6) includes 38 landforms in three genetic groups: a) Endogenous:
landforms created by tectonic and volcanic processes that largely
conserve their original form. b) Denudative endogenous: landforms
created by endogenous processes (volcanic or tectonic) that have been
substantially modified by exogenous activity and due to this, do not
retain their original appearance. c) Exogenous: landforms produced by
modeling processes such as weathering, erosion, and accumulation and
the agents that create them (fluvial, glacial, gravitational, and karstic).
The genetic groups have subdivisions. Endogenous relief is divided
into: 1. Cumulative Volcanic Landforms, and 2. Destructive Volcanic
Landforms. The cumulative volcanic landforms include many conserved
volcanic features related to eruptive activity such as volcanic edifices
(Citlaltépetl and Chichimeco dome complex) and their recent lava flows
(Holocene), talus, terraces, and plains composed of pyroclastic deposits,
and hummocks. In the destructive volcanic landforms group, there are
two features associated with explosive volcanic activity, such as the
Citlaltépetl crater and a few horseshoe-shaped scars associated with
volcanic sector collapses (e.g., Las Cumbres, Espolón de Oro, and Sierra
Negra collapse scars).
Denudative endogenous relief is divided into: 3. Volcanic Landforms
and 4. Tectonic Landforms (sedimentary-structural). The denudative vol­
canic landforms correspond to ancient volcanic edifices and associated
lava flows, slopes, and undulating plains composed of volcaniclastic
deposits denudated by fluvial activity (e.g., the Las Cumbres and
Jamapa avalanches). The denudative tectonic landforms (sedimentar­
y–structural) correspond to highly dissected and fractured folded ranges
of Cretaceous sedimentary rocks, structural crests, karstic conical hills
(pseudo-cockpits), and isolated remnants of sedimentary rocks.
The exogenous relief is divided into: 5. Fluvial–erosive landforms, 6.
Fluvial–cumulative landforms, 7. Fluvial–glacial erosive landforms, 8.
Gravitational–depositional landforms, and 9. Karstic erosive landforms. The
fluvial–erosive landforms consist of elements associated with fluvial
incision. They are >40 and < 40 m deep valleys, and also flat valley
bottoms. The fluvial–cumulative landforms consist of extensive plains
and alluvial fans composed of volcaniclastic/epiclastic deposits (e.g.,
Teteltzingo lahar deposit). The fluvial–glacial erosive landforms consist
mainly of volcanic rock slopes and ancient cone relicts affected by
glacial and subsequent fluvial erosion. The gravitational–cumulative
landforms consist only of talus covered by gravitational deposits, which
are relatively stable. The karstic erosive landforms consist of dolines and
uvalas developed mainly on Guzmantla Formation rocks.
O. Hernández-Rivas et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221

Fig. 5. Lineaments map of southeastern sector of Citlaltépetl volcano. Rose diagrams represent the orientation of lineaments for each morphometric zone, and the
black arrow is the mean vector direction.

8
O. Hernández-Rivas et al.
Table 1
Circular statistical parameters of the linear features. The parameters (mean, standard deviation, mode, median, R and Z values) were calculated by morphometric zone.
Main mode ranges are in bold type. R is the concentration parameter, which measures the mutual degree of alignment of the linear features towards the same direction;
it corresponds to the length of the mean unit vector. The Z values are used to compare the critical Z values in the Rayleigh test for circular uniformity (Zar, 1999). The
statistical test is used to extract P-values from the tables in Batschelet (1981) and Davis (1986). Here P is Critical value to take a decision. If P is less than the preassigned
level, α the null hypothesis is rejected. For P >α, however, randomness (uniform distribution) cannot be excluded.
Morphometric zone Mean Std. Dev Mode
Volcanic Mountain Zone NW09◦ SE 8.8◦ NW20◦ –30◦ SE
NE0◦ –10◦ SW
NW30◦ –40◦ SE
Minor Folded Ranges NW55◦ SE 7.9◦ NW60◦ –70◦ SE, NW50◦ –60◦ SE, NW30◦ –40◦ SE
Cumulative Volcaniclastic Plain NW33◦ SE 4.9◦ NW30◦ –50◦ SE
NW10◦ –20◦ SE
NW50◦ –60◦ SE
4.4. Teteltzingo Lahar deposit
4.4.1. Characteristics of the Teteltzingo lahar deposit (TLD)
Based on field observations and the mapping of morphological fea­
tures, the deposit was divided into three depositional zones: proximal,
medial, and distal (Fig. 1).
4.4.1.1. Proximal zone. The proximal zone is located in the volcanic
mountain zone, characterized by numerous volcanic edifices and vol­
caniclastic deposits downslope. The TLD is confined within E-W oriented
deep valleys, developed on sedimentary rocks and filled with ancient
volcaniclastic deposits (Fig. 7A and B). The TLD was identified in two
outcrops labeled as PO-18-08 and PO-19-37. The deposit is 8–10 m
thick, massive, heterolithological, and poorly sorted. The matrix has
brown, yellow, and copper-brown coloration (Fig. 7C), and incipient
jigsaw cracks were identified in a few clasts (Fig. 7D). It is composed of
angular to rounded clasts of aphanitic to porphyritic lavas, and altered
clasts of up to 94 cm in diameter. Dewatering or fluidization structures
are not present along the TLD.
At point PO-18-08, the TLD lies unconformably on limestone and
shales (Tamaulipas Superior Fm.) and is partially covered by a pyro­
clastic deposit, named Citlaltépetl Ignimbrite by Carrasco-Núñez and
Gómez-Tuena (1997), dated as 8500–9000 years B.P (Fig. 7B). This
ignimbrite forms a sharp discordant contact with the TLD. At PO-19-37
the TLD covers the southern slope of a tributary of the Tliapa-Seco River,
developed on sedimentary rocks covered by block and ash flow deposits
(Carrasco-Núñez and Gómez-Tuena, 1997).
4.4.1.2. Medial zone. The medial zone is located near the valley–slope
break zone (Fig. 8), which marks the limit between the mountain vol­
canic zone and the cumulative volcaniclastic plain. This area consists of
an extensive plain, limited to the east by the folded ranges. The TLD
changes its direction from E–W to NW–SE (Fig. 8), which coincides with
the orientation of the longest and deepest (>40 m) valleys and the main
lineaments.
The TLD was identified in two outcrops (PO-18-01 and PO-19-38)
along the Seco River valley. The deposit in the medial zone is 10–25
m thick, massive light gray to yellow in color, and locally a reddish color
of hydrated iron oxides is observed. It is poorly indurated, hetero­
lithological, supported by a sandy-clayey matrix. Dispersed clasts inside
the matrix, mostly angular to subangular, makes it poorly selected. It is
composed of andesitic and basaltic lava fragments, intrusive rocks, and
limestone. In this area, no jigsaw cracks were found. At PO-18-0, the
TLD morphology consists of an extensive terrace surface limited by
limestone rock elevations (Fig. 8A). Along the western slope, a flat upper
surface, typical of lahar deposits and terrace fronts, was observed
(Fig. 8B). A gravitational scarp exposes the stratigraphic relations of the
TLD (~25 m thick). The TLD is intercalated by two fluvial deposits
(Fig. 8C). These deposits are 6–11 m thick, gray, brown, and ochre,
massive and composed of sub-rounded to rounded clasts supported by a
9
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221
Median R n Z P
23
NW71◦ SE 0.35 163 51.11 6.36 × 10−
11
NW71◦ SE 0.39 158 24.03 3.66 × 10−
24
NW40◦ SE 0.56 175 54.88 1.46 × 10−
sandy matrix. The clasts exhibit abrupt variations in particle size in the
vertical and horizontal direction, and are locally imbricated. The upper
and lower contact with the TLD is erosive. At PO-19-38, the TLD was
found along the eastern slope of the Seco River valley, and the deposit
morphology is characterized by an extensive terrace 10 m thick.
4.4.1.3. Distal zone. The distal zone runs from the southern edge of the
city of Córdoba and extends NW–SE near the towns of Yanga and Cui­
tlahuac (see Fig. 1 for locations). This zone is characterized by wide
dissected plains covered in some parts by large, very rounded volcanic
blocks (from 30 cm to 1 m). The TLD (2–4 m thick) was identified in two
outcrops (PO-18-09 and PO-18-10) at the top and on terraces developed
in shallow valleys (<40 m) (Fig. 9A). It forms an alluvial fan of tens of
km2, composed of volcaniclastic deposits, and its apex is located near
Córdoba. This alluvial fan is limited to the north and south by pseudo
cockpit karst hills. The deposit in the distal zone is poorly exposed and
presents slight changes in grain size and texture. It is poorly indurated,
massive, heterolithologic, and matrix-supported, and contains sub­
angular to rounded volcanic and limestone clasts up to 1.5 m in size
(Fig. 9B). The deposit exhibits gray, ochre, and local reddish coloration.
The non-volcanic lithic content in this zone increases in comparison
with the proximal and medial zone.
4.4.2. Shape-fabric analysis of TLD
One representative outcrop was selected in each zone for particle
shape-fabric analysis. The selected outcrops were site PO-18-08 in the
proximal zone, site PO-18-01 in the medial zone, and site PO-18-10 in
the distal zone (Figs. 10 and 11). In the proximal and distal zones, the
base and top contacts of the TLD were unclear; therefore, it was not
possible to determine the thickness of the original deposit, nor to know
whether the sample was collected at the top, the central part or the base
of the deposit. Only in the medial area can it be stated that the samples
were collected in the central part of the deposit.
4.4.2.1. Proximal zone. The site PO-18-08 is located 16 km away from
the volcano’s vent, near the town of Coscomatepec. The clast shape-
fabric of 635 particles is presented in Table 2. Of the particles, 85.6%
(n = 559) are sand-sized particles (3ϕ to 0ϕ), and 76 (14.4%) are gravel-
sized. The rose diagram of the sand fraction shows an isotropic distri­
bution, with the mean vector oriented NW55◦ SE ±51.4◦ and a vector
length R of 0.03, which indicates a low degree of iso-orientation
(Fig. 11). For the gravel-sized fraction (− 1ϕ to − 6ϕ), the rose diagram
shows different trend sets, of which the dominant one is oriented
NW–SE, in the angular range of 20–40◦ . A second minor set, also ori­
ented NW–SE, is observed in the angular range of 70◦ –80◦ . The third set,
also weak, is almost perpendicular to the principal set, and is oriented
NE–SW, at an angular interval of 50–60◦ (see Table 2 and Fig. 11). The
calculated mean vector direction is NW65◦ SE ±21.6◦ , with an R-value of
0.21, which shows a moderate to high degree of particle iso-orientation.
Analyzing sand and gravel together, the mean vector is oriented
O. Hernández-Rivas et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221

Fig. 6. Geomorphological map of the southeastern sector of Citlaltépetl volcano.

10
O. Hernández-Rivas et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221

Fig. 7. TLD proximal zone. A) Río Tliapa-Seco valley composed of sedimentary rocks, partially colmated with Teteltzingo lahar deposit. B) Discordant contact
between TLD and Citlaltépetl Ignimbrite. This contact was previously reported by Carrasco-Núñez and Gómez-Tuena (1997). C) ~8 m thick veneer deposit of
Teteltzingo lahar. D) Jigsaw cracks of TLD.

Fig. 8. TLD medial zone. A) Río Seco valley partially colmated with the Teteltzingo lahar deposit forming a terrace. B) Teteltzingo lahar deposit forming a flat surface
at the top typical of lahar deposits. C) Teteltzingo lahar deposit intercalated in two fluvial deposits.

11
O. Hernández-Rivas et al.
Fig. 9. TLD distal zone. A) Teteltzingo lahar deposit forming a 4 m thick terrace. B) Subangular to rounded limestone clasts, up to 1.5 m diameter size.
Fig. 10. Stratigraphic columns of the Teteltzingo lahar deposit. The distal zone columns are vertically exaggerated compared to the proximal and medial zone. The
topographic profile was mapped in Fig. 11.
NW60◦ SE ±29.9◦ , and the calculated vector length R of 0.05 points to a
low degree of iso-orientation. These results indicate that in the proximal
zone, most particles are randomly oriented; however, the gravel fraction
has a stronger shape-fabric than the sand-size material.
4.4.2.2. Medial zone. The directional shape-fabric analysis was carried
out on two samples of the PO-18-01 outcrop, located 32 km away from
the volcano, near Córdoba. It consisted in measuring a total set of 1098
elongated clasts, of which 92% (n = 1021) had sand grain-size. The
mean orientation for sand-sized particles is NW67◦ SE ±17.7◦ . The rose
diagram displays a mode in the NW–SE direction at an angular interval
of 70–80◦ . The increase in the R-value to 0.07 and the decrease in the
standard deviation from the proximal to the medial zone point to an
increase in iso-orientation of the cast shape-fabric with distance; how­
ever, this value still indicates a low degree of iso-orientation (see
Table 2). The rose diagram for gravel-sized particles (n = 77) revealed
multiple modes. The dominant mode is oriented NW–SE, in the angular
12
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221
interval of 40◦ –60◦ . Other modes are oriented almost perpendicular to
the main set, towards NE–SW in the 70◦ –80◦ and 10◦ –20◦ angular in­
tervals. The R-value is 0.18, which reveals a moderate-high degree of
iso-orientation (0.15–<0.30). The mean value is oriented NW50◦ SE
±24.8◦ and the degree of iso-orientation of the gravel-size particles
decreases (see Table 2 and Fig. 11). The shape-fabric analysis of the total
particles measured in the medial zone sample shows a predominant
direction of NW70–80◦ SE, with a mean of NW64◦ SE ±16.4◦ and an
R-value of 0.07 (low degree of iso-orientation).
4.4.2.3. Distal zone. The shape-fabric analysis was carried out for the
PO-18-10 site, located 65 km away from the source. A total of 710
particles were analyzed, and 92% (n = 622) of them correspond to sand
grain-size. Sand-sized particles show a preferred orientation in the
NW–SE direction, at an angular interval of 20◦ –60◦ . The R-value of 0.20
indicates a moderately high degree of iso-orientation and the mean
value orientation is NW36◦ SE ±8◦ . These values and the lower standard
O. Hernández-Rivas et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221

Fig. 11. Shape-fabric analysis of Teteltzingo lahar map. Each rose diagram represents the particle orientations measured by grain size (sand and gravel) and
depositional zone. A) Proximal zone, B) Medial zone and C) Distal zone. The black arrows represent the mean vector direction.

deviation suggests that the iso-orientation of the sand-sized clasts in­
creases with distance from the source. The gravel-sized elongated par­
ticles (n = 88) show a mean value of NW53◦ SE ±0.26◦ . The rose
diagrams show a polymodal distribution with a NW–SE preferential
orientation in the angular range of 20◦ –30◦ . Secondary modes are ori­
ented in the NW–SE direction, in an angular range of 40◦ –50◦ , and
NE–SW, in an angular range of 30◦ –40◦ . The R-value is 0.26, which is a
moderate-high degree of iso-orientation (see Table 2 and Fig. 11).
The overall shape-fabric analysis of the distal zone particles shows a
predominant NW–SE direction, in the 20◦ –60◦ range. The mean orien­
tation is NW47◦ SE ±7.4◦ and the R-value is 0.20 (moderate-high degree
of iso-orientation).
5. Discussion
The Teteltzingo debris avalanche and lahar was generated in the
volcanic mountain zone. The contrasting difference in elevation be­
tween the volcanic mountain zone and the cumulative volcaniclastic
plain (>3000 m), in conjunction with the hydrothermal alteration and
normal-faulted basement, caused the instability of the oldest edifice of
Citlaltépetl volcano, called “Espolón de Oro”, 16.5 ka ago (Carra­
sco-Núñez et al., 2006).
The geomorphological map (Fig. 6) and the morphometric parame­
ters of the volcanic mountain zone reflect the geomorphological pro­
cesses associated with the construction and destruction episodes of the
volcanic cone: the remnants of older volcanic edifices, the collapse-scar
related to the Teteltzingo event, and the cumulative volcanic landforms
represented by domes, lava flows, and pyroclastic deposits (Höskuldsson

13
O. Hernández-Rivas et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221

Table 2
Circular statistical parameters of the particles of TLD. The parameters (mean, standard deviation, mode, median, R and Z values) were calculated by depositional zone
(proximal, medial and distal) and grain-size (sand and gravel). Main mode ranges are in bold type. The iso-orientation classes were adapted from Moreno-Chávez et al.
(2018). R is the concentration parameter (here called iso-orientation). It measures the mutual degree of alignment of the particles towards the same direction; it
corresponds to the length of the mean unit vector. The Z values are used to compare the critical Z values in the Rayleigh test for circular uniformity (Zar, 1999). The
statistical test is used to extract p-values from the tables in Batschelet (1981) and Davis (1986). Here P is Critical value to take a decision. If P is less than the preassigned
level, α the null hypothesis is rejected. For P >α, however, randomness (uniform distribution) cannot be excluded.
Zone Grain size Mean Std. Dev Mode Median R n Z P Class

Proximal Sand NW55 SE◦

51.4◦
– NW56 SE
◦
0.03 559 0.50 0.65 Low
Gravel NW65◦ SE 21.6◦ NW20◦ –40◦ SE, NW70◦ –80◦ SE, NE50◦ –60◦ SW NW75◦ SE 0.21 76 3.35 0.035 Moderate-high
Total NW60◦ SE 29.9◦ – NW84◦ SE 0.05 635 1.58 0.206 Low
Medial Sand NW67◦ SE 17.7◦ NW40◦ –60◦ SE NW82◦ SE 0.07 1021 5.00 0.0067 Low
Gravel NW50◦ SE 24.8◦ NW40◦ –60◦ SE NW70◦ SE 0.18 77 2.49 0.082 Moderate-high
NE70◦ –80◦ SW, NE10◦ –20◦ SW
Total NW64◦ SE 16.4◦ NW70–80◦ SE NW81◦ SE 0.07 1098 5.38 0.0046 Low
Distal Sand NW36◦ SE 8.0◦ NW20◦ –60◦ SE NW67◦ SE 0.20 622 24.88 1.6 × 10− 11 Moderate-high
Gravel NW53◦ SE 0.26◦ NW20◦ –30◦ SE, NW40◦ –50◦ SE, NE30◦ –40◦ SW NW64◦ SE 0.26 88 5.94 0.0026 Moderate-high
Total NW47◦ SE 7.4◦ NW20◦ –60◦ SE NW66◦ SE 0.20 710 28.4 4.63 × 10− 13 Moderate-high

and Robin, 1993; Rossotti and Carrasco-Núñez, 2004; Carrasco Núñez,
1997; Alcalá-Reygosa et al., 2018).
The characteristics of the linear features in the volcanic mountain
zone provide insights into the factors associated with the collapse. The
relationship between the structural controls and mass movements have
been previously recognized by Henderson and Saintot (2011). They
found that key structures and structural processes influence suscepti­
bility to mass movement (rockslides) on a regional scale. In the study
area, Concha-Dimas et al. (2005) studied the interplay between the
regional deformation structures on limestone rocks that make up the
pre-volcanic basement, and the eastern and southeastern direction of the
sector collapses of Citlaltépetl. These authors identified two major sets
of regional lineaments, NW40◦ SE and NE55◦ SW, related to faults and
fractures that deformed the sedimentary basement and the current
volcanic edifices, particularly the Cofre de Perote – Pico de Orizaba
chain. Instability of the volcanic edifice was induced, triggering debris
avalanches such as the one that was the origin of the Teteltzingo lahar
event.
The regional morphological lineaments identified by Concha-Dimas
et al. (2005) and the geological structures from the Mexican Geological
Survey (2001; 2002) (NW–SE, NE–SW, and E–W) are located only in the
mountain volcanic zone and in the minor folded ranges. The conjugated
pattern of the NW–SE and NE–SW lineaments influenced the direction of
the collapse (Concha-Dimas et al., 2005), whereas the direction of the
debris avalanche and the Teteltzingo lahar was determined by the lin­
eaments in the E–W direction in the proximal zone and NW–SE in the
medial and distal zones.
Once in motion, the flow was confined within deep, narrow valleys
oriented mainly in the E–W direction and secondarily in the NW–SE
direction. The characteristics of the proximal zone of the deposit, such as
the presence of hummocks (Carrasco-Núñez et al., 1993; Carra­
sco-Núñez and Gómez-Tuena, 1997) and the scarce jigsaw cracks
observed at an outcrop scale, together with the moderate to high degree
of iso-orientation of the gravel-sized particles and the random orienta­
tion of sand-sized particles, suggest that the transformation from a
debris avalanche to debris flow occurred in this area. The erosive con­
tacts between the TLD and the limestones and the block and ash flow
deposits indicate that along this zone, the flow was in an erosive regime
(Fig. 10).
At the end of the deep, narrow valleys, around 23 km from the vol­
cano, the Teteltzingo lahar entered a wider and narrower valley partially
filled with volcaniclastic deposits and bounded by minor folded ranges
and pseudo cockpit karst hills conformed by limestones and shales. The
geomorphologic map shows the remnants of these sedimentary rocks,
expressed as crests (Fig. 6). These morphological characteristics, the
slope break zone and the sharp change in flow direction from E–W to
NW–SE marks the transition from the proximal to the medial zone. In
this zone the characteristics of the TLD, such as the flat surface and the
massive deposit structure, with dispersed clasts supported by a sandy-
clayey matrix, suggest a full transformation to a cohesive debris flow.
The higher degree of iso-orientation compared to the proximal zone,
revealed by the clast shape-fabric, supports this observation. Further­
more, the thickness of the TLD increases up to 25 m, in contrast with the
proximal zone where the deposit is around 10 m thick. The particles
analyzed have a preferential orientation towards NW–SE that matches
the flow direction and the regional lineament trend as well (Figs. 5 and
11).
The abrupt changes in flow direction and thickness along the TLD
could be attributed to the morphologic and structural variations of the
paleo-valleys. The difference in thickness between the medial zone and
the proximal zone can be partially explained by the presence of a very
steep, irregular topography characterized by ridges and deep valleys of
the basement folded rocks, covered by ancient volcaniclastic deposits,
near the volcanic edifice. The high slopes and deep valleys suggest that
erosive processes predominate in the proximal zone, and that many of
the ancient deposits located in these valleys have largely eroded and the
original thickness cannot be observed. The abrupt topography could
have channeled the debris avalanche in the proximal areas which, in
conjunction with the higher slopes and clay content, produced greater
mobility (Sarocchi et al., 2019). The slope break could have a crucial
role in the greater thickness in the medial zone as shown by Pohl et al.’s
(2020) experiments. Moreover, the emplacement of subsequent pyro­
clastic deposits near the volcano (e.g., Citlaltépetl ignimbrite) may have
played an important role in the observed thickness of the TLD and its
later erosion.
At 51 km from the source, the Teteltzingo lahar flowed over a wide,
low-angled slope valley previously colmated by volcaniclastic and epi­
clastic material that make up the extensive plain in the distal zone
(Figs. 4 and 10). The lower slope generated a low-energy relief where
complete deposition of the lahar occurred. The limestone boulders,
identified in the distal zone, could be attributed to the selective incor­
poration of coarse clasts along the flow paths on the medial zone low-
angle slopes. Similar erosive patterns of debris flows on gentle slopes
were observed by Major and Voight (1986). Additionally, regional linear
features observed on the cumulative volcaniclastic plain are oriented
NW–SE (30◦ –50◦ angular interval). These values are similar to the
orientation of sand-sized and gravel-sized particles with modes also
oriented NW–SE (20◦ –60◦ angular interval) obtained from the
shape-fabric analysis.
The clay content within the TLD (Carrasco-Núñez et al., 1993) had a
strong influence on the flow behavior. Palmer et al. (1991) attributed
the transformation of debris avalanches into debris flows to the presence
of hydrothermally altered material and water sources such as springs,
aquifers and watercourses that drain from volcanoes. In addition, high

14
O. Hernández-Rivas et al.
clay contents buffer grain interactions, reduce sedimentation rates, and
inhibit pore pressure dissipation by reducing permeability and diffu­
sivity inside the flows (Scott et al., 1995; Pierson, 1995; de Haas et al.,
2015). All of these factors may have contributed to the extreme mobility
of the Teteltzingo lahar event, with a runout of 110 km.
Clast shape-fabric analysis has proven to be a useful tool in doc­
umenting flow properties and transformations (Valentini et al., 2008;
Bernard et al., 2019; Zrelak et al., 2020). Our results show that the de­
gree of iso-orientation (R) depends on the distance of the samples from
the source and the particle size. The R-values increased from 0.05 in the
proximal zone of the deposit to 0.20 in the distal zone. Moreover, the
highest degree of iso-orientation was found in coarse particles (gravel
grain-size) in all the samples analyzed. This fraction had a polymodal
distribution in the three zones, displaying conjugated or perpendicular
arrangements. The sand particles had a lower degree of iso-orientation
that could be attributed to the influence of local variations in the flow
conditions. There is evidence on experimental debris flows (Van Steijn
and Coutard, 1989; Major, 1998) and natural debris flows (Larsson,
1982; Innes, 1983) that suggests preferential iso-orientation parallel to
flow direction. This fits our results, since the medial and distal zone
samples correspond to the lateral zones of the deposit, and the mean
direction of the particles matches the flow direction. Major (1998), in
large-scale flume experiments, reports the orientation of the particles’
long axes, perpendicular to the flow direction, observed on the outside
of the deposit front. In contrast to this, we found a preferential orien­
tation sub-parallel to the direction of flow in the distal area of the de­
posit. In any case, these data do not contradict our observations because
our sample was likely not collected from the outside of the front of the
deposit, but rather in a distal area.
The strong degree of iso-orientation observed (high R-values) has
been associated in the literature with a significant laminar sheared flow
developed prior to deposition in mudflows (Lindsay, 1968) or within the
depositional regime in ignimbrites (Capaccioni and Sarocchi, 1996;
Valentini et al., 2008). In volcanic debris avalanches, the trends found in
clast orientation along the basal contact with the substrate show a
conjugated arrangement similar to the results of the gravel fraction in
the TLD in the proximal and medial zones (Bernard and van Wyk de
Vries, 2017; Zrelak et al., 2020). The rate of fabric development has been
modeled as a function of the vertical velocity gradient in viscous flows
by Lindsay (1968).
Further and detailed studies are needed to associate the observed
changes in the clast shape-fabric with the debris avalanche to debris
flow transformation, as well as to interpret the conjugated patterns
found in the gravel fraction of the TLD. The developed fabric reflects the
relationship of multiple and complex factors evolving in space and time,
such as the geomorphology of the area, the flow transport, and deposi­
tional mechanisms. Furthermore, the current Citlaltépetl cone is prone
to collapse, as its upper slopes exceed 30◦ (Siebert 1996) and the summit
shows a high degree of fracturing and hydrothermalism (Zimbelman
et al., 2004). In this context, it is important to map not only the
geological and geomorphological characteristics of the volcano summit
(e.g., Palacios and Vázquez-Selem, 1996; Palacios et al., 1999;
Alcalá-Reygosa et al., 2018) but also the areas that have been affected by
ancient large avalanches and debris flows and to study the factors
influencing the emplacement mechanisms.
6. Conclusions
In this paper, several types of data have been presented with the
purpose of contributing to an understanding of the interplay between
geomorphological features and their spatial variability in the occurrence
and transport of large-magnitude debris flows, using the Teteltzingo
lahar deposit as a case study. The regional geomorphological studies
combined with a local directional shape-fabric analysis of the TLD were
a useful tool to accomplish this goal.
15
Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221
The morphometric regional linear features and geomorphological
map provided information on the distribution, extension, and dynamics
of the elements of the landscape on a regional or mesoscale. This
approach enabled the study area to be divided into three zones char­
acterized by different morphometrics, geological characteristics, and
orientation of the regional linear features. The predominant NW–SE
linear directions, obtained from the lineaments map and rose diagrams,
give evidence of the control of the regional structures over each
morphometric zone. Subsequently, the identification of landforms
within each of these zones enabled us to understand the geomorpho­
logical evolution of the area in relation to the processes that have
occurred in the past and its current dynamics. The geomorphological
map integrates all the landforms and processes associated not only with
the destruction and accumulation of materials but also with their current
state of conservation.
Our results show that the degree of iso-orientation developed in the
TLD is dependent on distance from the source and particle diameter. The
iso-orientation values were found to increase from the proximal to the
distal zone of the deposit. Moreover, the highest degree of iso-
orientation was found in the gravel grain-size in all the analyzed sam­
ples. This coarser granulometric class also shows a polymodal distribu­
tion with a conjugated or perpendicular pattern, confirming greater
sensitivity of the coarser clasts to the stress field present in the flow at
deposition.
This interdisciplinary information shows an interesting multi-scale
relationship between data derived from geomorphology, sedimen­
tology and the texture of the deposit. Although these are preliminary
studies, it is important to note that these data coincide with data pro­
vided by scale experiments and that similar trends have been observed
in other cohesive debris flow deposits, encouraging further deeper
studies of this type. The use of this information to distinguish between
debris avalanche and debris flow transformation requires further
investigation, but the data obtained are promising.
This work is also a first approach to describing the sedimentary
environment in which the Teteltzingo lahar was emplaced. The evidence
presented here suggests an interplay between geo­
morphological–structural controls and their spatial variability, and the
distribution of large-magnitude lahars, and highlights the importance of
a multi-scale vision of the phenomenon of mass movements that pro­
vides evidence of how morphological and sedimentological character­
istics are linked and could affect the generation and dynamics of future
flows.
Funding
Funding was received from the DGAPA-PAPIIT IA106317 “Dinámica
de flujos de escombros cohesivos y su reproducción a través de simu­
laciones numéricas” project, and from the Royal Society of London,
United Kingdom, Newton Advanced Fellowship Grant NAF\R2\180833.
Declaration of competing interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge “Paleosols Laboratory of the Institute of Geology”,
“Sedimentology Laboratory of the Institute of Geophysics”, UNAM, and
MC. Jaime Diaz Ortega for their support with consolidation of the
samples. We also thank Dr. Jose Juan Francisco Castillo Rivera (Institute
of Geology - UASLP), the three anonymous reviewers, and Dr. Pablo
Forte for his kinds review of the manuscript and their helpful comments.
O. Hernández-Rivas et al. Journal of South American Earth Sciences 109 (2021) 103221

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