[ BULLETI N of the International Association of ENGINEERING GEOLOGY J

de I'Association Internationale de GEOLOGIE DE L'INGENIEIJR N°14, 233--240 ,KREFELO 1976

j

LAHARS AS MAJOR GEOLOGICAL HAZARDS

LES LAHARS; IMPORTANTS RISQUES GEOLOGIQUES

NEALL V.E., Departement of Soft Science, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand

Summary:

Major loss of life caused by lahars (volcanic mudflows) in historical times has been largely restricted to the Circum-Pacific
region and more particularly to Japan (> 11,650 killed), Indonesia (> 9,300 killed) and Central America (> 1,300 killed). In
addition to such losses of life, widespread damage may occur to buildings, bridges, communication networks and arable land.
A review of the causal mechanisms of lahars, flow behaviour and protective measures, with selected case histories, is therefore
appropriate to an understanding of this major geological hazard.
The potentially most destructive lahars are those involving sudden release of very large quantities of water from crater lakes
or from subglacial lakes. The Icelandic j6kulhlaups, although not strictly lahars, give some idea of the huge discharges of
water that can be released - ephemeral maximum discharge rates have been estimated up to 100,000 m 3/sec, or temporarily
equivalent to the flow of the River Amazon. Other potentially destructive lahars are those resulting from pyroclastic flows
becoming admixed with running or ponded waters.
Of more common but less devastating occurrence are lahars generated by heavy rainfall on the slopes of volcanoes, more
particularly on recently ejected pyroclastics. Historical lahar disasters of this type occur most frequently in tropical regions.
Other initiating mechanisms include melting of snow and ice directly accompanying eruptions, earthquake triggered collapse,
phreatic explosions and directed blasts. Historical lahars generated by these mechanisms have not been responsible for any
considerable loss of life, with the exception of the Shimbara Catastrophe in Japan where a lahar entered the sea producing
tsunamis.
Upon initiation of a lahar, mud, sand and gravel combine with available water to form a high bulk density (> 1,400 kg/m 3)
flow. In some lahars the flow behaviour may approximate to a Newtonian liquid, whilst in others a high concentration
Non-Newtonian liquid is formed with the capability of transporting very large clasts which may each weigh over 200 tonnes.
The formation of a laminar boundary layer at the base of the flow is responsible for a low friction factor that enables some
lahars to travel very large distances (> 100 kin). It also explains how lahar deposits often overlie completely undisturbed yet
easliy erodible materials. This boundary layer can often be identified in many lahar deposits by a fine-grained layer at the
base. The continuous phase of such lahars exhibits strength which retards the sinking of boulders and is responsible for the
unsupported framework and poor sorting of lahar deposits.
Protective measures against loss of life and damage to property are discussed with particular reference to case histories in
Indonesia and New Zealand. Indonesian measures have included siphoning water from the crater lake of Mt. Kelut, effective
warning systems, and preparation of maps showing regions that may be destroyed by lahars. In New Zealand, two principal
centres of Post-glacial lahar activity are Mt. Ruapehu and Mt. Egmont. Since 1861 A.D. eight lahar episodes have been
generated from the craterqake on Mt. Ruapehu, the 1953 lahar being responsible for the "Tangiwal Disaster", when 151
persons were killed. Existing and future protective measures against Mt. Ruapehu lahars are discussed. Mt. Egmont has a long
record of Post-glacial lahar activity. The causal mechanism of some Egmont lahars has been heavy rains, but the existence of a
former crater lake in the summit area cannot be discounted. Based on detailed geological, pedological and botanical investiga-
tions a geological hazards map of the Mt. Egmont region has been prepared.

R6sum~ :

C'est essentielIement autour de I'Oc6an Pacifique que les lahars (coulees de boue d'origine volcanique) ont caus~ de nom-
breuses pertes de vies humaines au cours des temps historiques: plus de I 1 650 morts au Japon, plus de 9 300 en Indon6sie et
plus de 1 300 en Am6rique centrale. Outre ces pertes de vies humaines, de graves d6g~ts peuvent affecter les constructions, les
ponts, les voies de communication et la terre arable. Pour mieux connaftre ce risque g6ologique important, il paraft judicieux
de passer en revue les processus g6n6rateurs de lahars, le comportement des 6coulements et tes mesures de protection
appropri6es, en choisissant des exemples typiques.
Les lahars qui peuvent ~tre les plus destructeurs sont ceux qui lib~rent de tr~s grandes quantit~s d'eau venant de lacs de
crat~re ou de lacs sous-glaciaires. Les j6kulhlaups d'Islande (qui ne sont pas strictement des lahars) donnent une id6e des
6normes quantit~s d'eau qui peuvent ~tre lib6r~es: pendant un temps assez bref, le d6bit maximal a 6t~ ~valu6 ~ plus de
100 000 m 3 ce qui ~quivant au d6bit instantan6 de l'Amazone. Les lahars r~sultat du m61ange de coul6es pyroclastiques avec
des eaux courantes ou stagnantes peuvent ~tre aussi tr~s destructeurs.
Plus communs mais moins d~vastateurs sont les lahars dus h d'importantes pluies sur les pentes des votcans, plus particuli~re-
ment sur des d~pots pyroclastiques r6cents. Pendant l'6poque historique, les catastrophes de ce type affect~rent surtout tes
r6gions tropicales.
Parmi les autres processus g6n~rateurs, on peut citer la fusion de neige ou de glace due ~ des ~ruptions volcaniques, les
effondrements d~clencMs par des s~ismes, les explosions phr~atiques, et les mu6es ardentes. Historiquements les lahars
engendr6s par ces processus n'ont pas 6t6 responsables de grosses pertes de vies humaines, saul en ce qui concerne la
catastrophe de Shimbara au Japon o4 un lahar en p6n6trant darts l a m e r produisit des tsunamis.
Au d~but d'un lahar, boue, sable et graviers se m~langent ~i l'eau disponible pour former une coul6e de grande densit6
 234

m o y e n n e (plus de 1,4). Dans certains lahars, l ' 6 c o u l e m e n t est a p p r o x i m a t i v e m e n t cetui d ' u n liquide n e w t o n i e n , ators que d a n s
d ' a u t r e s lahars, la f o r m a t i o n d ' u n e grande c o n c e n t r a t i o n de liquide n o n - n e w t o n i e n p e u t p e r m e t t r e le d 6 p l a c e m e n t de tr~s gros
blocs p o u v a n t d~passer les 200 t. La f o r m a t i o n d ' u n e c o u c h e limite h 6 c o u l e m e n t laminaire ~ la base de la coulee d i m i n u e le
f a c t e u r de f r o t t e m e n t ce qui p e r m e t ~ certains lahars de p a r c o u r i r de tr~s grandes distances ( p l u s de 100 k m ) . Ceci e x p l i q u e
aussi c o m m e n t des d ~ p 6 t s de lahars p e u v e n t recouvrir des f o r m a t i o n s p r e s q u e i n t a c t e s alors q u ' e l l e s a u r a i e n t p u 6tre facile-
m e n t ~rod6es. Cette c o u c h e limite p e u t s o u v e n t 6tre identifi~e d a n s de n o m b r e u x d 6 p 6 t s de lahars: elle est repr6sent6e p a r u n
h o r i z o n de base ~ grain fin. La phase c o n t i n u e de ce genre de lahars m e t e n jeu u n e force q u i r e t a r d e le d ~ p 6 t des gros blocs;
aussi les s~diments de lahars sont-ils peu s t r u c t u r e s et peu granoclass6s.
Les mesures ~ p r e n d r e p o u r preserver les vies h u m a i n e s et les b i e n s sont discut6es h la lumi~re des e x e m p l e s d ' I n d o n 6 s i e et de
Nouvelle-Z61ande. En Indon~sie o n a siphon~ l ' e a u d u lac de crat#e du M t K e l u t , install6 des syst~mes d ' a v e r t i s s e m e n t
efficaces et pr6par~ des cartes m o n t r a n t les r6gions susceptibles d ' e t r e d 6 t r u i t e s par les lahars. En Nouvelle-Z~lande, d e u x des
p r i n c i p a u x centres d'activit~ de lahars post-glaciaires s o n t le M.t R u a p e h u et le M.t E g m o n t . Depuis 186 I, h u i t m a n i f e s t a t i o n s
I a h a r i e n n e s f u r e n t engendr6es p a r le Iac de crat~re d u M.t R u a p e h u ; Ie lahar de I 9 5 3 est cause d e la <<catastrophe de
Tangiwai>> otl 151 p e r s o n n e s t r o u v ~ r e n t la m o r t . O n discute les m e s u r e s de p r o t e c t i o n e x i s t a n t e s o u ~ c r i e r au M.t ,Ruapehu.
L'activit6 l a h a r i e n n e post-glaciaire d u M.t E g m o n t est c o n n u e depuis l o n g t e m p s . Certains de ses lahars s o n t dus ~ des pluies
i m p o r t a n t e s mais o n ne p e u t pas 6carter l ' h y p o t h ~ s e de l ' e x i s t e n c e d ' u n a n c i e n lac de crat~re. E n u t i l i s a n t les o b s e r v a t i o n s
g6ologiques, p6dologiques et b o t a n i q u e s , o n a p u p r e p a r e r u n e carte des risques g6ologiques de la r~gion d u M.t E g m o n t .

Introduction coarse-grained. The coarser particles constitute the dispersed phase

At 10.21 p.m. on Christmas Eve, 1953, the Wellington to Auckland
express was about to cross the Whangaehu River railway bridge at
Tangiwai in the centre of the North Island of New Zealand. About
two hours before, a sudden discharge of thousands of tons of water
from the crater lake on Mr. Ruapehu at about 2,500 m altitude, had
generated a 5 m high flood wave which was roaring down the steep
slopes of the mountain. Becoming admixed with boulders and sand,
the flood wave had formed a lahar (or volcanic mudflow) which
spread across the lower, gentler slopes of the volcano at about
16 km/hr. On reaching Tangiwai, twenty-four kilometers from
source, the lahar weakened the central pier of the bridge causing it
to collapse as the express was crossing. The engine and carriages
plunged into the torrent, killing 151 persons in the world's sixth
largest railway disaster. Only afterwards at the Board of Inquiry did
the New Zealand public learn about the violent and destructive
nature of lahars. One of the primary interests of the Board, besides
investigations on the design of the bridge, was to ascertain how this
lahar originated and what protective measures could be taken to
prevent a recurrence of such a tragedy (Stilwell, et.al. 1954).
Recent studies from many volcanic regions now indicate a growing
awareness of the role of lahars in volcanic landscapes and that such
phenomena constitute a major geological hazard to the environment
(Crandell 1971; MacDonald 1972, Kesel 1973). Considerable loss of
life in historical times has resulted from lahars, particularly in the
c i r c u m - P a c i f i c r e g i o n a n d m o r e especially in Japan
(> 11,650 killed), Indonesia (> 9,300) and Central America
(> 1,300). In addition to such losses of life, widespread damage may
occur to buildings, bridges, communication networks and agricul-
tural land. So, what is a lahar, what is the nature of lahar flow
behaviour, how do lahars originate and how can tragedies such as
the Tangiwai Disaster be averted in the future?
Definition
The Indonesian term "lahar" was probably first used in English
literature by Escher in 1922. He proposed that volcanic mudflows
be classified according to whether (a) there had been an eruption
through a crater lake producing a hot mudflow (a true lahar), (b)
there had been melting of an ice-cap producing a j6kulhlaup (from
Icelandic literature) or (c) there had been a cold mudflow generated
by heavy rains on loose materials (a murgang). The term lahar was
quickly accepted into English literature for all three types of flow
(Scrivenor 1929, Grange 1931, Cotton 1944), but not until 1949
did Van Bemmelen give a more precise account of Indonesian lahars
and a def'mition which was "a mudflow containing debris and
angular blocks of chiefly volcanic origin". Since then the term seems
to have acquired a wider meaning to include "a flowing mixture of
rock debris and water" (CrandeU 1971) chiefly of volcaniclastic
materials on the flank of a volcano (Gary, et. al. 1974) thus avoiding
the textural designations mudflow or debris flow. In addition, the
term has been extended to include deposits that have resulted from
these flows (Crandell 1971).
Flow behaviour
Upon initiation of lahars, clay, silt, sand and gravel combine with
available water to form high concentration fluids which are often
of the flow and are dominated by frictional and inertial effects
whereas the finer particles constitute the continuous phase and are
dominated by cohesive forces. As the solid concentration increases,
so the turbulent flow of a Newtonian liquid is suppressed and quasi-
plastic or Bingham plastic behaviour is attained, exhibiting largely
laminar flow. Such high concentration liquids show a high yield
strength, high bulk densities (about 2,000 kg/m 3 ) and high apparent
viscosities that vary with velocity (Fisher 1971). These properties
retard the sinking of clasts and aid the transportation of very large
boulders, which may each weigh over 200 tonnes (Waldron 1967).
The resulting deposits are poorly sorted, show large fragments
resting unsupported in a finer matrix i.e. are "frozen", and may
contain elongate fragments which are roughly aligned parallel to the
base. A basal laminar boundary layer develops in some Iahars often
associated with inverse grading of the resultant deposit (Schmin-
ke 1967).
Explanations for this phenomenon differ and may result from either
dispersive forces, displacement processes or a pressure differential
within the flow. One of the remarkable features of such lahars is the
capacity to erode on higher steeper slopes where presumably
velocity is greatest, but on lower gradients they are able to spread a
thin veneer of debris across extensive areas without destroying
readily erodible materials beneath (Crandell 1957).
Origins of l a h a r s
The mechanisms of lahar generation are many and varied. On the
basis of the source of water incorporated in historical lahars, five
natural genetic groupings are recognised. Other mechanisms have
been proposed to explain very large thicknesses of pre-historic
laharic breccias, but these are not discussed in this paper.
1. Collapse of crater lakes
The f'trst lahar type is that produced by an eruption through a crater
lake (the type lahar) or from a non-volcanic collapse of a crater take
enclosing wall. It is potentially the most destructive form of lahar
because it may involve the sudden release of very large quantities of
water. The Icelandic j6kulhlaups (although not now strictly
regarded as lahars) give some idea of the huge discharges of water
that can be suddenly released from natural storage, and ephemeral
maximum discharge rates have been estimated up to 100,000 m3/
sec, or temporarily equivalent to the flow of the River Amazon
IThorarinsson. 1957). Lahars of the crater lake type have most
commonly occurred in the circum-Pacific region (Fig.l) and have
been responsible for more loss of lift, than any other type oflahar
(except for the "Shimabara Catastrophe" of 1792 in Japan). Of 56
lahars on 16 Indonesian volcanoes, recorded by Van Padang (1951)
and Zen and Hadikusumo (1964, 1965) about 80 % were associated
with volcanoes having had a crater lake and they were responsible
for more than 95 % of lahar casualties.
Well documented cases of historical crater lake type lahars come
from Indonesia, New Zealand and Central America. The most
famous example is the summit crater lake of Mr. Kelut in East Java.
Since 100 A.D., 27 lahars are thought to have resulted from erup-
tions in the crater lake, six of them resulting in over 5,400 casualties
(Zen and Hadikusumo 1965). The infamous lahar produced in I919

AH R RI INS
• M E L T I N G OF SNOW A N Q ICE A C C O M P A N Y I N G E R U P T I O N S
P H R E A T I C EXPLOSIONS OR DIRECTED BLASTS
Fig. 1 : Global distribution of volcanoes with historical lahars in which the initiating mechanism is recorded. Some occurrences have been
omitted from the m a p where the initiating m e c h a n i s m is in doubt.
is best documented. Prior to the eruption about 38 million m 3 of
water were stored in the lake but all of this was expelled during the
eruption together with sand and lava blocks forming h o t lahars.
These raced down the major valleys at speeds o f up to 64 k m / h r and
spread onto the surrounding plain travelling up to 38 k m from
source. In the t o w n o f Blitar, 24 km from Mr. Kelut, the mudflow
was up to 2.5 m high. Within 45 minutes the flow had ceased;
5 1 1 0 h u m a n lives were lost, 104 villages totally or partially
destroyed and 131 k m 2 were covered by irregularly distributed
groups o f boulders protruding through sand and m u d (Scri-
venor 1929). The resultant desposits totalled between 40 and
100 million m 3 (Escher 1922).
In 1966 violent eruptions on Mt. Kelut again expelled a b o u t 20
million m 3 of water and in one river, lahars reached a m a x i m u m
height o f 25 m as they travelled over 31 k m to cover 45 k m 2
(Hadikusumo 1967). There are m a n y other examples o f crater lakt
f o r m e d lahars in Indonesia. Kawah Idjen contains 36 million m 3 o f
strongly acid waters which were all expelled in January 1817
resulting in m a n y casualties (Van Padang 1951, 1968). The 1822
lahar from Mt. ~alounggoung is attributed to collapse of a crater
lake (Escher 1925). Hot water and m u d expelled during a five h o u r
eruption descended major river channels and overflowed t h e banks
as a burning torrent that carried away over 4,000 persons. These
lahars travelled over 24 k m distance and left behind 100 million m 3
of bluish m u d and stones that buried houses and plantations
(Lyell 1867). It is considered that before 1838, there was a lake in
the crater o f Mt. Raung, and in 1638, 1730 and 1838, e n o r m o u s
mudflows inundated the nearby plain o f Rogodjampi (Van Padang
1951, 1968).
In the Caribbean too, lahars have been generated by eruptions from
the crater lake o f La Soufri~re on the island of St. Vincent in
May 1902, (Bullard 1962, Robson and Tomblin 1966), and one o f
the initial lahars formed during the eruption o f Mt. Pel6e m a y have
involved an eruption through a steaming lake (Anderson and Flett
1903, Robson and Tomblin 1966). Similarly formed lahars are
recorded during the 1579 eruption of Hakusan in Japan
( K u n o 1962) and the 1 8 9 8 - 1 9 0 0 eruptions of Una Una in the
Celebes (Van Padang 1951).
But n o t all lahars generated from crater lakes are triggered by
volcanic activity. Non-eruptive mechanisms such as earthquakes,
glacier movements and erosion may lead to collapse o f a crater lake
retaining wall. Two well known examples occurred on Mt. Kelut in
1875 (Escher 1922) and on Mt. Ruapehu in t 9 5 3 . At the s u m m i t o f
235
-
Mt. Ruapehu, the 0.29 k m ~ crater lake overflows across an ash
barrier and discharges t h r o u g h an ice-cave before emerging in the
upper c a t c h m e n t o f the Whangaehu River. The lahar generated on
24 December 1953 is t h o u g h t to have been triggered by water
seeping through the ash barrier and beneath the original ice-cave,
leading to a sudden collapse. The ice-cave became rapidly enlarged
to 30 m height and 45 m width at the entrance, as the crater lake
waters dropped 6 m in 150 minutes. A b o u t 340,000 m 3 o f water
were initially released forming a floodwave that filled a channel
32 m wide to a depth of 6.7 m . This wave spread o u t across an
alluvial fan at about 16 k m / h r before being channelled into the main
course o f the Whangaehu River (Healy 1954, O'Shea 1954).
At Tangiwai, the initial flow f o r m e d a dense wave o f water and
boulders 6 m deep that reached an estimated peak discharge of
a b o u t 850 m 3/see. The m i n i m u m density o f the flow is estimated to
have been 1,400 kg/m 3 (Healy 1954). Five tonne concrete blocks
from the railway bridge were carried 140 m downstream and a 125
t o n n e pier was carried 64 m to a position where its centre o f gravity
was nearly 2 m higher than it was originally. As the train plunged
into the torrent, three railway carriages floated downstream, one
being carried 2.4 km. Most of the reamining 1.5 millioia m ~ o f water
spilled more slowly from the lake following the m a x i m u m discharge
(Stilwell et al. 1954). More recently major explosions have ejected
water from the R u a p e h u crater lake in 1969, 1971 and 1975
¢Fig. 3). On April 24 last year, an estimated 1.5 million m 3 o f water
were ejected as 4 lahars whic/~ -~'!owed radially from the summit,
destroying water supplies, chairlift e q u i p m e n t and flooding a hydro-
electricity tunnel under construction, miraculously while tunnellers
were changing shifts (Nairn 1975).
In Central America, the former capital o f Guatemala, Ciuadad Vieja,
was destroyed by a lahar on September 1541. Evidence points to
the crater of Mt. Agua having been a former lake basin, and an
i m m e n s e ravine is clearly visible indicating the violent discharge o f a
former crater lake which had possibly formed during heavy rains
(Cotton, 1944, Meyer-Abich 1956).Over 1300 persons were killed,
including Gobernadora D o n n a Beatrix, the first w o m a n head of
government o n the American c o n t i n e n t (Kalijarvi 1962).
In terms o f loss o f h u m a n life, lahars created by release of water
from crater lakes do constitute a major geological hazard. Their
danger lies in the very large quantities of water that can be released
during their sudden formation and the variety o f both volcanic and
non-volcanic triggering mechanisms.
 236

Fig. 2 : Tangiwai Railway Bridge after the lahar of 24 December 1953. Note area upstream of bridge (between pine
forests on either side of river) covered by lahar deposits; railway engine in foreground. Photo by kind permission
of Mr. G. Stewart.

Fig. 3 : Mt. Ruapehu, New Zealand on 23 June 1969 after an eruption through the crater lake produced a lahar (to the
right).Photo T.R. Ulyatt, formerly N.Z. Geological Survey.
 237
2. Admixing of nu6es ardentes with water
Nu6es ardentes often form mudflows upon admixture with ponded
or flowing waters, or with concurrent rainstorms. The historical
occurrences of this lahar type are almost entirely confined to the
island arcs of the circum-Pacific margin (Fig.l). However, these
lahars and their resultant deposits are seldom described in detail,
perhaps due to more interest in the spectacular glowing avalanches
that generate them. However, the danger from these mudflows is
appreciated in the example of the 5th August 1783 eruption of Mt.
Asama. A nu6e ardente that rushed down the northern foot of the
volcano dammed the river Agatuma-gawa. Within an hour the river
overtopped the dam and caused it to collapse, the debris forming a
hot mudflow that travelled more than 80 km and killed 1,300 per-
sons (Aramaki 1956). Combination ash flow - mudflows have also
accompanied a number of eruptions in Guatemala. In 1929, on
Santa Maria volcano, mudflows that were generated by glowing
avalanches travelled more than 100 km (Sapper and Termer I930;
Anderson 1933; MacDonald1972). More recently lahars were
triggered by ash flows on Volcano Fuego in 19.71 and 1973 (Bonis
and Salazar I973) and on Santaguito in 1973, (Bonis and
Rose 1973). Attention has been drawn to mudflows and floods
resulting from this mechanism, because they often cause more
damage than the pyrolastic flows that initiate them. Similar source
lahars are recorded from Indonesia (Van Padang 1951), Kamchatka
(Vlodavetz and Piip 1959) and Ecuador (Hantke and Parodi 1966).
An excellent example of lahars produced by rainstorms accom-
panying nu6es ardentes comes from Mt. Mayon in the Phillipines. In
1968 large incandescent billowing flows apparently generated
torrential rainstorms, probably triggered in part by nucleation of
dust rising from the flows. Minutes after their descent, nu6e
aredente deposits acted as a source of large quantities of sand and
mud that formed both hot and cold mudflows further downslope.
One mudflow was observed to have formed after the beginning and
continued during the descent of four separate nu6es ardentes
(Moore and Melson 1969).
3. Action of heavy rain
Rain lahars (murgangs of Escher 1922) are formed where heavy
rains fall upon erupted volaniclastics and are particularly extensive
where recent ejectamenta has accumulated to sufficient thickness to
bury pre-existing groundcover. They typically occur in equatorial
latitudes and temperate zones of high rainfall (Fig.l) and constitute
some of the earliest volcanic mudflows recorded by man. The
ancient town of Herculaneum, 10 km from Mt. Vesuvius, was buried
by over 20 m of an unstratified fine ash, lava and pumice containing
lahar deposit in 79 A.D. (Bullard 1962). Similar mudflows have
accompanied all the violent eruptions of Vesuvius devastating
numerous towns and villages, particularly in 1631 (Perret 1924).
After the 1951 explosive eruption of Mt. Lamington and the 1958
eruptions of Manam in Papua-Nex~ Guinea, thick layers of
scoriaceous lapilli and blocks scattered around the volcano summits
acted as a huge sponge and apparently prevented runoff for several
weeks. Eventually a saturation point was reached and destructive
streams of mud and stones descended onto the surrounding flat
land, cutting 9 m deep gorges en route, overnight. At Lamington,
the torrents of viscous mud periodically descended the water
courses in almost complete silence, apart from the rumbling impact
of large boulders (Taylor 1958 and pers.com). Similar lahars were
formed on the steep north-eastern slopes of Volcan Fuego
(Guatemala) in September 1963 (Bohenberger et al. 1971) and
immediately after the 1963 eruption of Mr. Agung in Bail. The Mt.
Agung lahars devastated much valuable agricultural land with coarse
gravel, and killed 200 people where lahars left their river courses at
corners (Zen and Hadikusumo, 1964).
Following a series of ash eruptions of Irazgt Volcano in Costa Rica,
that began in March 1963, the summit region became buried by ash.
Burial of the vegetative cover led to increased runoff, but in
addition a thin hard impervious crust then formed on the top of the
ash deposits. This led to exceedingly high runoff rates, sometimes
95-100 % of the precipitation, and in channels high water flows
incised into the loose soft ash beneath. This led to a series of mud-
flows in the Rio Reventado catchment that drains to the south-west
of Iraz~ endangering the city of Cartago. The most disastrous debris
flow occurred on 9 December 1963, when a violent rainstorm
triggered a massive flow that discharged at about 407 m3/sec, in
places reaching over I2 m high. Spreading out unto an alluvial fan,
the lahar devastated 3 kin: adjacent to Cartago, killing 20 persons
and destroying 300 houses. The damage was estimated at more than
U.S. S 3 1/2 million (Ulate and Corrales 1966, Waldron 1967).
More than 90 debris flows occurred during the 1964 rainy season,
40 in the Rio Reventado. The mudflows were most often very thick
and pasty near their termingJ margins much like thick flowing con-
crete, but some became thin and watery. Sediment concentrations
ranged from 20 % to almost 80 % by weight. Boulders 2 - 3 m in
diameter were common in all flows, the largest known to have been
transported weighed at least 200 tonnes (Waldron 1967).
4, Melting of snow and ice accompanying eruptions
Lahars initiated by pyroclastics or lava flows melting snow and ice
are most common in higher latitudes and throughout the Andes
(Fig. 1). The most numerous occurrences are in Japan, Kamchatka
and the Americas. Mt. Cotopaxi in Ecuador has a long record of
lahars generated by this mechanism. Between 1532 and 1904 at
least 21 lahars accompanied lava or pyroclastic extrusive eruptions.
During the 1877 eruption, lahars cut 4 0 - 5 0 m deep channels in ice
before descending gulches and spreading onto the surrounding plain
to form a great lake of mud. A maximum velocity of 50 km/hr was
obtained by one lahar that is thought to have travelled 240 km -
the longest distance an historical lahar flow is known to have
travelled (Anderson 1933). Only the mudflows produced by melting
of snow and ice during the 1956 Bezymianny eruption travelled a
comparable distance (Gorshkov 1959).
Lahars of this type have also occurred frequently in recent times in
Chile. In 1961, three mudflows caused by melting of ice and snow
were observed on Mt. Calbuco; one flow totalling over
3,000m3/sec. (Klohn 1963). Similar flows are recorded from
ViUarica in 1964 (25 persons killed) (Katsui 1967) and 1971 when
15 persons were killed (Gonzalez-Ferran 1973) and from Mt.
Hudson in I97I (Tobar 1973) (3 persons killed).
In the 1926 eruption of Tokachi-dake in Japan, melting of snow
produced a mudflow as a precursor to a later pyroclastic flow
ejection. The mudflow attained a speed of 180 km/hr and on
reaching the town of Kami-Hurano, 144 persons were drowned and
29 km2/inundated (Mural 1960, Kuno 1962). The resultant deposits
were later investigated by Mural (1960) and detailed mechanical
analyses showed the clear distinction in sorting, median size values
and size distribution variability between the mudflow deposits and
the subsequent pyroclagtic flow deposits.
On 19 May 1915, a mudflow descended the north-east side of
Lassen Peak in California. Suggested causes include water pouring
out from within the mountain (Loomis, 1926), and melting of snow
by a downward blast of hot steam, by rain or by hot ashes. Finch
(1929, 1930) concluded and Williams (1932~p. 3 2 4 - 9 ) c o n f i r m e d
that it had formed by lava flows melting snow. Immediately after
the mudflow Loomis observed that the lahar varied between 200
and 800 m in width and was about 5 m thick. Rocks up to 6 m
diameter were carried 6 km from the mountain. Earlier mudflows
from the peak are also recorded, including one 500 years ago.
5. Phreatic explosions or directed blasts
Lahars generated by phreatic explosions or directed blasts are also
largely restricted to the circum-Pacific but although widely reported
in the literature they are seldom described in detail. Of the many
lahars recorded in Japan, Indonesia and. the United States and
ascribed to this origin, only the Bandai-san collapse in Japan and the
post-glacial lahars from Mt. Rainier (Crandell 1963, 1971; Crandell
and Fahnestock 1965; Crandell and Mullineaux 1967; Crandell and
Waldron, 1956) and Mt. St. Helens (Mullineaux and Crandell 1962)
in the United States have detailed published descriptions of the
Iahar deposits.
Perhaps the most devastating lahar on record was phreatic in origin.
In 1792 about 15,900 people were killed or wounded by the
collapse of the eastern segment of a peak called Mayuyama to the
east of Unzendake on the Shimabara Peninsula in Japan. Known as
the "'Shimabara Catastrophe" in old Japanese manuscripts, the main
debate has been as to whether the collapse was a result of earth-
quakes or a volcanic explosion. The catastrophe occurred during the
night of 21 May 1792, six months after the initial eruption of the
Unzen volcanoes had commenced. The catastrophe occurred during
the warm season, there was no snow about and no heavy rains were
recorded beforehand. The high death toll was due in part to the
 238
mudflow (9,745 killed) but also to a tsunami generated by the
event, that killed a further 5,443 persons. It appears that parts of
the flow did not travel rapidly and one resident was carried eastward
about 1 km together with his cottage, over a period of 3 1/2 hours.
One of the most striking features observed after the event was the
upwelling of ground waters through cracks in the surrounding rock
(Omori, 1907; Kobayashi pers.com). The difficulty in assessing the
importance of volcanic explosion, earthquakes or upwelling of
ground waters as a triggering mechanism at Shimabara can also be
recognised elsewhere. At White Island, New Zealand, in 1914, a
lahar was generated by an inward collapse of the high crater rim
(Ward 1922, Bartrum 1926). It is difficult to assess whether the
collapse was triggered by earthquakes which led to admixing of the
landslide debris with waters in hot pools on the crater floor or
whether one explosion caused the collapse which buried the main
vent and a second phreatic explosion transformed the debris into a
lahar. Whichever explanation is accepted, it is clear that the events
occurred in quick succession as 14 sulphur miners on the island were
never seen again.
Mudflows produced by steam explosions near the summit of
Bandai-san cone have occurred in 1806. t808 and i888 and by
collapse of sotfataric decayed rocks in 1954 (Kuno 1962). In the
catastrophic eruption of 1888, about 15-20major explosions
destroyed the peak of Kobandai, generating an 0.25 km 3 mudflow
that killed 460 persons. The flow is reported to have moved like a
lahar but whereas some authors believe it to have been a dry flow,
Cotton (1944) stated that the material dislodged was thoroughly
saturated with water and became rapidly brecciated.
Minimization o f lahar hazards
The difficulty in reliably predicting the occurrence of lahars,
because of their many different volcanic and non-volcanic origins,
allows only a very short warning time of an impending lahar hazard.
There are three major approaches in which lahar damge can be
minimised. The first approach is rapid recognition and rapid evacua-
tion of areas involving high risk, a procedure that was developed
early on in this century in Indonesia. Such a warning system was
largely based on visual observations, which are generally only
effective during daylight hours and in good weather. However at
Mt. Ruapehu all the 1953, 1971 and 1975 lahars occurred at night
and the need for a 24 hour warning system is indicated.
After the 1953 Tangiwai Disaster, the New Zealand Railways
Department built a special lahar warning device 13 km upstream
from the Tangiwai railway crossing. Due to the unpredictable nature
of conditions in a lahar, the high solid content of a lahar flow and
the general inaccessibility of the river, it was necessary for a
sensitive warning installation to be estabIished. This involved con-
struction of a concrete pylon, alongside the river, which on its
downstream side is fitted with pairs of electrodes at 30 cm vertical
intervals, each protected by a lead dome and recessed within the
pylon to prevent damage by debris. Due to the low pH waters (often
pH 2.6) draining the crater lake, any rise in acidic waters in the river
is detected by the electrodes which are linked to a visual display
panel in a railway station, 8 km distant (Stevens). Should the acid
waters rise rapidly an audible alarm is given and rail traffic can be
temporarily halted until the Tangiwai bridge is inspected and
declared safe.
A more elaborate early lahar warning system to protect skiers and
climbers at high altitudes on Mr. Ruapehu has recently been
proposed. The system involves comparison between two seismic
signals, one from a shelter near the summit and the other from a
point 20 km away. When a signal exceeds the threshold equivalent
of a magnitude 3.8 earthquake beneath the crater lake, an alarm
would be given and inspection of the two seismic records would
show whether the earthquake had originated close to the summit or
whether it was a regional event. The threshold of magnitude 3.8 is
taken from previous seismic records as signalling the likelihood of an
eruption capable of producing a lahar. Identification of an eruption
~ ould be detected by sensors at the summit and a wire mesh system
built into the roof of a hut near the lake which has previously been
damaged by ejecta. Final confirmation of a lahar would be given by
damage to cables at points on the northern ski slopes and from a
water level indicator in the upper Whangaehu Valley (Hewson and
Latter 1976). Only if all these events are indicated in sequence
would a general alarm be given. This system would however only
signal lahars triggered by eruptions and then only on the northern
slopes.
The second major approach to reducing the hazard of lahars is to
minimize existing hazardous situations where considerable damage
from lahars can be expected in the future. The recognition of the
danger of large volumes of water in Indonesian crater lakes and the
need to drain them was recognized as early as 1907 (Wing Easton
and Kemmerling1923), and was most effectively solved at
Mt. Kelut by the drainage tunnel system proposed in 1919 and
successfully executed by 1926. The system involved driving a tunnel
under the lowest point of the crater rim to a level just above the
surface of the lake and then lowering the lake waters by a siphon
pipe. This enabled a second drainage tunnel to be constructed where
further siphoning could occur, so reducing the total volume of lake
waters. Whereas in early 1919, 38 million m 3 of water were stored,
by June 1926 there was only 1.8 million m 3 (Van Padang 1960).
During eruptions in 1951 the small amount of remaining water
evaporated and was not large enough to form lahars, but the tunnel
system became filled with pyroclastics. The importance of main-
taining the drainage tunnels was recognised and a further tunnel
system eventually based on a seepage principle completed. However,
in 1965 it was pointed out, that this seepage system was not
successful in lowering the crater lake waters and that 23.5 mil-
lion m 3 of water had accumulated, implying that a dangerous situa-
tion had again developed and should another eruption occur disaster
was imminent (Zen and Hadikusumo 1965). These fears materialised
in 1966 when violent explosions expelled the waters once more
producing hot lahars that led to 282 persons killed or missing
(Hadikusumo 1967). The effectiveness of lowering crater lake
waters to reduce lahar formation is ably demonstrated by this
example. Similar attempts have also been made to lower the crater
lake waters of Kawah Idjen in Indonesia by construction of a sluice
at the lowest point of the crater rim (MacDonald 1972). Before
installation of an early warning system at Mt. Ruapehu, the
possibility of lowering the crater lake waters to a minimum Ievet
should in my opinion, a/so be subjected to a scientific and economic
feasibility study. While not advocating total water removal of the
lake, a central tourist attraction of Tongariro National Park, a reduc-
tion of the 8 - 1 0 million m 3 of water there would be an effective
step in reducing the likelihood of major lahars.
The construction of earth dams to protect valuable land from lahars
and direct their flow elsewhere was begun in Indonesia, as early as
1905. Unfortunately the dam built to protect the River Btitar from
Mr. Kelud lahars was subsequently destroyed in 1919. A new 7.5 m
high dam was constructed, but in 1925 only 2 m of it remained
visible above accumulations of sand from subsequent rain lahars
(Van Padang 1960).
After part of the city of Cartago (Costa Rica) was inundated by the
lahar of the Rio Reventado in December 1963 further lahars were
envisaged, so several protective measures were undertaken. Besides
soil conservation practices aimed at reducing watershed runoff on
the higher slopes of the volcano, two large levees, several kilometers
long, were constructed along the channel, adjoining Cartago, from
which the lahars were flowing. More than 1.5 million m 3 of material
were used in the levee construction which was designed according to
uniform engineering practices where height, width and side slopes
were built to prevent seepage or undercutting. Lahar damage was
then restricted to secondary roads and bridges (Murata et at. 1966,
Waldron 1967). Crandell has also pointed out that some catchments
draining Mt. Rainier have large hydroelectric dams in their course
and that given sufficient warning the reservoir waters could be
drained to accommodate the volume of small lahars.
Because many lahars are not primary volcanic events and may give
no warning for protective measures, the third approach in
minimising lahar hazards is to draw upon existing available informa-
tion on the behaviour and distribution of historic and pre-historic
lahars. It is obviously not possible to imply for certain when lahars
will occur but it is possible to avoid those areas that have been
overwhelmed by lahars in the recent past, as these areas offer the
greatest hazards. In Indonesia maps have been constructed based on
historical records and details of topography, to show areas likely to
be subjected to volcanic hazards, particularly to nu6es ardentes (Van
Padang 1960). At Mr. Rainer, 55 post-glacial lahars have been
recognised and the danger from future flows clearly stated
(Crandell, 1971; Mullineaux 1967). Quaternary geological mapping
(Neall 1973) around the stratovoteano Mr. Egmont, in New Zealand,
together with pedological and botanical studies (Druce 1970) has
recently been interpreted into a volcanic hazards map. It should be
pointed out that although Mt. Rainier and Mr. Egmont are not
 239
actively erupting volcanoes, they offer potentially hazardous areas
because their post-glacial volcanic records show numerous large and
small lahars triggered by various volcanic and non-volcainc
mechanisms. The Egmont hazards map is based largely on th<"
distribution and dating of Late Quaternary lahar deposits mainIy
elucidated by tephrochronology. This information has been inter-
preted into zones which have been overwhelmed by lahars less than
500 years B.P., 500-5,000 years B.P., 5-10,000 years B.P.,
i0-15,000 years B.B. and greater than 15,000 years B.P. It is very
dear from these types of studies that valIey floors and lower
gradient areas downstream from deeply incised river channels are
most susceptible to Iahar damage, some catchments more than
others. It is often in these areas that highways, dwellings and
recreational facilities are Constructed. Repetition of some form of
lahar or flood is almost certain in the less than 500 year B.P. lahar
hazard zone on Egmont, the question is wJaen. With judicious
planning by the responsible authorities concerned for camping
grounds, accommodation houses and major industrial sites, the
damage to life and property can be minimised-
In conclusion, there can be no doubt that volcanic mudflows and
debris flows constitute one of the most frequent hazardous features
of many volcanic environments particularly in high population
density urban and rural areas. With the use of specific volcanic
hazards information made available by earth scientists, engineers
and administrators can make informed decisions about construction
in such hazardous areas.
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge information about lahars on Mt.
Lamington supplied to me by the late Dr. G.A. Taylor of Canberra
and information on the Shimabara Catastrophe of 1792 in Japan
kindly supplied by Professor K. Kobayashi of Matsumoto.
bit. R.W.P. Palmer has provided additional softs information which
has been used in compilation of the volcanic hazards map of
Taranaki. Finally, I express my sincere thanks to colleagues in the
Department of Geology, Victoria University of Wellington, in
particular Professor J. Bradley and Mr. C.G. Vucetich, and in the
Department of Soil Science, Massey University, Palmerston North
who have encouraged and kindled my interest in lahar deposits.
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