CLIMATE AND LAKE-LEVEL HISTORY OF THE NORTHERN ALTIPLANO, BOLIVIA, AS RECORDED IN
HOLOCENE SEDIMENTS OF THE RIO DESAGUADERO
PATTIE C. BAUCOM* AND CATHERINE A. RIGSBY
Department of Geology, East Carolina University, Greenville, North Carolina 27858, U.S.A.
e-mail: rigsbyc@mail.ecu.edu
ABSTRACT: Strata exposed in terraces and modern cutbanks along the
Rio Desaguadero contain a variety of lithofacies that were deposited
in four distinct facies associations. These facies associations document
a history of aggradation and downcutting that is linked to Holocene
climate change on the Altiplano.
Braided-stream, meandering-stream, deltaic and shoreline, and la-
custrine sediments preserved in multi-level terraces in the northern Rio
Desaguadero valley record two high-water intervals: one between 4500
and 3900 yr BP and another between 2000 and 2200 yr BP. These wet
periods were interrupted by three periods of fluvial downcutting, cen-
tered at approximately 4000 yr BP, 3600 yr BP, and after 2000 yr BP.
Braided-river sediments preserved in a single terrace level in the south-
ern Rio Desaguadero valley record a history of nearly continuous flu-
vial sedimentation from at least 7000 yr BP until approximately 3200
yr BP that was followed by a single episode (post–3210 yr BP) of down-
cutting and lateral migration.
The deposition and subsequent fluvial downcutting of the northern
strata was controlled by changes in effective moisture that can be cor-
related to Holocene water-level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca. The de-
position and dissection of braided-stream sediments to the south are
more likely controlled by a combination of base-level change and sed-
iment input from the Rio Mauri.
INTRODUCTION
The Altiplano of Bolivia has been occupied by large lakes since the Early
Quaternary. Paleoshoreline studies indicate that it was the site of at least
five expansive paleolakes (Lakes Mataro, Cabana, Ballivian, Minchin, and
Tauca), prior to the existence of Lake Titicaca, the world’s highest great
lake (Servant 1977; Clapperton 1993b). Lake Titicaca is smaller and exists
at an average elevation considerably lower than the Pleistocene paleolakes.
Nevertheless, water-level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca continue and have
contributed to a complicated and interesting Holocene lake-level history.
This history, along with ice-core data (Thompson et al. 1984; Thompson
et al. 1988; Thompson 1998) and anthropogenic evidence from the regions
surrounding the lake (Binford et al. 1992) is being used by scientists work-
ing in the area to reconstruct both regional and global climatic changes.
The most recent studies have used seismic data and sediment cores from
the lake (e.g., Wirrmann and Mourguiart 1992; Seltzer et al. 1998; Baker
et al. 1997; Baker et al. 1998; Abbott et al. 1997a) to reconstruct this
climate history and to document changes in the level of Lake Titicaca.
Today, Lake Titicaca is linked to lakes and salars in the southern Alti-
plano by a single outlet, the Rio Desaguadero. It seems logical that sedi-
mentation, erosion, and terrace development along this river would respond
to the Holocene lake-level and climatic changes. This study attempts to
characterize that fluvial response by examining the Holocene history of
sediments exposed in terraces and cutbanks of the modern Rio Desaguadero
valley.
Except for reconnaissance work by Servant (1977) and Lavenu (1992),
Rio Desaguadero strata have not previously been analyzed in the context
of paleoclimatology. Our work shows that the sediments preserved in the
* Present address: USGS, 384 Woods Hole Rd., Woods Hole, Massachusetts
02543, U.S.A. e-mail: pbaucom@usgs.gov
JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARY RESEARCH, VOL. 69, NO. 3, MAY, 1999, P. 597–611
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Desaguadero terraces record both seasonal precipitation changes (indicated
by interbedded coarse- and fine-grained strata preserved in modern cutbank
exposures) and longer-term water-level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca (pre-
served in multiple terrace exposures dissected by fluvial downcutting). Dur-
ing lake highstands, when Lake Titicaca was not a closed-basin lake, fluvial
and lacustrine sediments accumulated on the downstream areas of the Al-
tiplano. During the intervening times of low lake level, these sediments
were dissected, exposing ancient sediments as terrace remnants. The lateral
and vertical facies relationships preserved in terraced sediments offer a
unique opportunity to examine the effects of lake-level and climate changes
on fluviolacustrine deposition. Our work also provides insight into the re-
lationship between precipitation and evaporation in the Altiplano lake and
river system, offering an alternative approach with which to investigate the
Holocene water-level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca.
GEOMORPHIC AND CLIMATIC SETTING
The Bolivian Altiplano is a tectonically quiescent plateau situated be-
tween the fold-and-thrust belt of the eastern Cordillera and the active arc
of the western Cordillera. It spans 200,000 km2, extends from 168 to 228
S latitude and 658 to 698 W longitude, and has an average altitude of 4000
m (Wirrmann and de Oliveira Almeida 1987).
The Rio Desaguadero valley lies very near the center of the Altiplano
and has been little affected by tectonic activity during the Holocene. At its
closest, the river valley is 75 km from the marginal ranges, and the Ho-
locene fluvial and lacustrine strata within the Desaguadero valley are flat
lying. Seismically imaged late Quaternary strata in Lake Titicaca are also
flat lying, exhibiting no intrabasinal surface faulting and no young folding
(G.O. Seltzer, Syracuse University, and P.A. Baker, Duke University, per-
sonal communication). Approximately 10 m of regional-scale longitudinal
tilting has occurred in the central Altiplano (south of the Rio Desaguadero)
over a distance of about 100 km during the last 13,000 years (B.G. Bills,
NASA Goddard, personal communication; Bills et al. 1994). If extrapolated
northward, this implies a maximum of about 5 m of tilting distributed along
the length of the river over the time period recorded in the strata discussed
here. The regional geophysical data, the flat-lying nature of Quaternary
strata in Lake Titicaca, and the flat-lying nature of Desaguadero strata all
suggest that tectonics probably did not have a significant influence on Ho-
locene sedimentation in this area.
The northern and central parts of the Altiplano are occupied by two large,
permanently flooded lakes, Lake Titicaca and Lake Poopo. The more arid
southern part contains the great salars (salt pans), Coipasa and Uyuni. The
surface of Lake Titicaca lies at 3810 m above sea level, and the lake
occupies an area of about 9000 km2 (Clapperton 1993a). Inflow into the
lake is predominantly from rivers fed by glaciers and snowfields of the
Cordillera Real to the east and the Cordillera Apolobamba to the north.
Under the present hydrologic situation, evaporation accounts for more than
90% of the water loss from the lake. The only outflow is the Rio Desa-
guadero. The Rio Desaguadero flows 390 km southward from Lake Titicaca
to Lake Poopo, a shallow lake (, 6 m deep) (Fig. 1). During wet periods
Lake Poopo empties into the Salar de Coipasa and, in turn, to the Salar de
Uyuni (elevation 3657 m).
Annual precipitation on the Altiplano is highly correlated with the annual
cycle of atmospheric convection in the central Amazon basin and with the
deep convection that develops over most of tropical South America in the
 598 P.C. BAUCOM AND C.A. RIGSBY
austral summer (Lenters and Cook 1997; Philander 1996). The annual cycle
results in seasonal water-level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca. During the dry
season (between May and October) the water level falls by about 75 cm.
It rises a comparable amount during the wet season. Larger fluctuations
(up to 5 m this century) occur on about a decadal time scale in response
to events such as El Niño, which is often associated with a prolonged dry
season on the Altiplano and a lake-level drop (Martin et al. 1993).
Because the Rio Desaguadero is the only outlet for Lake Titicaca, lake-
level history has had a dramatic influence on the river. Similar to the clas-
sification of several modern river systems (e.g., the Squamish, Cimarron,
Williams, and Red Rivers) described in detail by other workers (Brierley
1989, 1991; Brierley and Hickin 1991; Shelton and Noble 1974; Smith and
Smith 1984; Schwartz 1978), the modern Rio Desaguadero is a transitional
fluvial system. From its headwaters at Lake Titicaca to its terminus at Lake
Poopo, Rio Desaguadero displays end-member morphologies characteristic
of a marsh, a meandering river, and a braided river, as well as non-end-
member braided and meandering channel morphologies (Baucom and Rigs-
by 1996, 1997). Of particular interest to this study is the fact that the
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FIG. 1.—Location of Lake Titicaca, Rio
Desaguadero, and Lake Poopo on the Altiplano
of northern Bolivia and southern Peru.
gradient in the northern part of the river basin is very low (0.00012) and
that during times of prolonged high water, this marshy region of the river
basin merges with the southernmost part of Lake Titicaca, becoming so
wet that it is difficult to distinguish the river from a southern extension of
the lake. During the Holocene, the Rio Desaguadero was a very different
system, affected by much larger-scale climate and Lake Titicaca water-
level changes than those known from the modern instrumental record (e.g.,
Abbott et al 1997a; Cross et al. in press; Seltzer et al. 1998). It is reasonable
to expect that the sediments of that ancient river system provide a record
of the high lake levels and of the timing of lake-level changes.
METHODOLOGY
Terrace and modern cutbank exposures were mapped and measured us-
ing standard sedimentologic techniques. Emphasis was placed upon the
identification and description of lateral and vertical facies changes as in-
dicated by variations in grain size, sedimentary structures, bed morphology,
and the presence of interbedded lacustrine sediments. After terrace expo-
 CLIMATE AND LAKE-LEVEL HISTORY, NORTHERN ALTIPLANO, BOLIVIA 599

TABLE 1.—Sample number, location, lithofacies, dated material, and radiocarbon TABLE 2.—Summary of lithofacies described in this study.
and calibrated radiocarbon ages for all the samples used in this study.
Facies Sedimentary
Sample Litho- Material Radiocarbon Calibrated Code Description Structures Interpretation
Number Location facies Dated Age (yr) Age (yr)
Gmsh Gravel, massive, matrix-sup- Horizontally bedded, locally Channel fill, bar deposits
LD-mc 168 589120S, 688 479190W Fmol *gastropods 2380 6 35 2125 6 85 BP ported channelized
CII-1 178 149290S, 688 639330W Fmp wood 4020 6 50 4530 6 120 BP Smg Sand, fine to coarse, locally None Channel fill, bar deposits
CIII-1 178 159240S, 688 369060W Fmp wood 4210 6 50 4670 6 100 BP dispersed pebbles
CIII-3 178 159240S, 688 369060W Fmp wood 3750 6 50 4140 6 160 BP Spw Sand to silty sand, localized Planar, wavy, to ripple lami- Deltaic sediments
QC-1 178 129070S, 688 409530W Fmol *gastropods 4085 6 50 4280 6 140 BP clay balls nated
QC-2 178 129070S, 688 409530W Fmol *gastropods 3540 6 40 3900 6 100 BP Fpwr Silt, mud, clay with mud Planar, wavy, ripple or climb- Overbank and/or flood plain,
QC-3 178 129070S, 688 409530W Fml *gastropods 3890 6 95 3950 6 300 BP drapes ing-ripple lamination and inactive channel or deltaic
PKI-2 178 129190S, 688 409390W Fil *gastropods 4035 6 60 4240 6 170 BP convolute bedding sediments
PKI-3 178 129190S, 688 409390W Fmol *gastropods 4265 6 60 4525 6 125 BP Fmt Silt or mud with rare sand and None, mottled Soil
NT-I 178 129190S, 688 409390W Fmp wood 6125 6 65 7000 6 100 BP locally dispersed pebbles
HC-N 178 129190S, 688 409390W Smg wood 3150 6 75 3390 6 180 BP Fmp Mud or silt, massive, sandy, Locally laminated Overbank and/or flood plain
local pebble stringers
Notes: Dates over 6000 yr BP may be larger than the correction capabilities of the calibration program. Fsm Silt, massive Planar laminated Overbank and/or flood plain,
* A reservoir correction (Abbott et al. 1997) of 250 years was substracted from the radiocarbon age of all inactive channel or deltaic
gastropod samples prior to calibration.
sediments
Fml Mud, massive Planar laminated Overbank and/or flood plain,
inactive channel or deltaic
sediments
sures were identified and mapped, the sediments composing the terraces Fmol Clay, blue to blue-gray, muddy Thinly laminated Lacustrine sediments
were described in detail, key elevations were surveyed, and datable organic with evaporite layers and
material was sampled. mollusks common
Fmoo Mud, brown, massive, mol- Locally, wavy laminated Deltaic sediments
Although gastropods are present in most of the lacustrine sections, dat- lusks and ostracods rare
able organic material is scarce. Where present, it consists of small amounts Fil Mud, interlayered green-gray Poorly laminated Interbedded lake and deltaic
to blue-gray, sandy to silty sediments
of disseminated organic detritus (woody material, peat, and charcoal) with- upsection, mollusks common
in the slightly sandy mud lithofacies of the fluvial strata. Eleven samples
yielded a sufficient quantity of material for dating. These samples were
subjected to radiocarbon analysis at the National Ocean Sciences Accel-
erator Mass Spectrometry Facility (NOAMS), Woods Hole Oceanographic and Fmt) are common in FA-A and two (Fpwr and Fsm) are present only
Institution. Radiocarbon ages were normalized to a d13C 5 225‰ (rela- locally. Lithofacies Fml is a massive to parallel-laminated mud that is typ-
tive to PDB) and reported with all errors quoted 6 1 standard deviation. ically interbedded within other muddy, sandy, and gravelly lithofacies.
OxCal 2.18 (Stuiver and Kra 1986) was used to convert the conventional Lithofacies Fmp is a sandy mud to sandy silt with locally abundant isolated
radiocarbon ages to calibrated years BP. Dates derived from gastropod pebbles (Fig. 5A). Lithofacies Fmt, common to all FAs, is a massive, mot-
samples were corrected (prior to calibration) for reservoir effects using the tled silty mud with rare sand and rare isolated pebbles. The less common
250 year correction determined by Abbott et al. (1997a) for gastropods lithofacies Fpwr is a planar- to wavy- to ripple-laminated mud. Lithofacies
from Lake Huiñaimarca, the southernmost restricted part of Lake Titicaca, Fsm is rare in FA-A, but is present locally as isolated 25-cm-thick beds of
which discharges directly into the modern Rio Desaguadero. Discussion in massive to planar-laminated silt. All fine-grained lithofacies in FA-A are
the text focuses on the 2s calibrated range; both calibrated and uncalibrated laterally continuous, rarely . 10 cm thick, and contain rare disseminated,
ages for all samples used in this study are presented in Table 1. woody organics and local organic-rich lenses.
The sandy component of FA-A is dominated by lithofacies Smg, a mas-
FACIES ASSOCIATIONS sive fine- to coarse-grained sand with locally dispersed pebbles (Fig. 5B).
Smg is present both within interbedded sequences and as part of fining-
Terrace exposures along the Rio Desaguadero contain a diversity of lith- and coarsening-upward packages. This lithofacies is typically only a few
ofacies preserved in four distinct facies associations (FAs): braided-stream
deposits, meandering-stream deposits, deltaic and shoreline deposits, and
lacustrine deposits. The lithofacies that constitute these FAs (Table 2) were TABLE 3.—Description, dominant lithofacies, and depositional environment of the
classified on the basis of grain size, sedimentary structures, biological com- facies associations preserved in cutbank and terrace exposures of Rio Desagua-
ponents, and stratigraphic position, following the procedures of Miall dero.
(1978) as modified by Rust (1978). The lateral and vertical distribution of
lithofacies, along with their characteristic groupings, formed the basis for Facies
association
Dominant or characteristic
lithofacies Description
Depositional
Environment
the FA definitions (Table 3). Descriptions of the FAs and their character-
A Gmsh, Smg, Fml interbedded, locally laminated braided-stream deposits
istic lithofacies, as well as interpreted depositional environments, are pre- muds, silts, sands, and
sented below. gravels that compose local
fining- and rare coarsening-
upward sequences
Braided-Stream Deposits (FA-A) B Fsm, Fmt, Fml local Fpwr massive to planar-laminated meandering-stream deposits
silts and muds, commonly
Braided-stream deposits include the coarsest-grained strata identified in compose fining-upward se-
quences
this study and are well exposed at three locations along the northern, cen- C Spw, Fpwr, Fmoo stacked coarsening-upward deltaic and lake-shoreline sed-
tral, and southern parts of the Rio Desaguadero, near the towns of Calacoto, deposits of laminated mud, iments
Huito Churo, and Nequela, respectively (Fig. 2). FA-A strata are typified silt, and sand, and interbed-
ded laminated mud, silt,
by thick (0.5 m to . 1 m) deposits of interbedded sand, mud, and gravel and sand, and convolute
and by stacked fining- and coarsening-upward sequences (Fig. 3, 4, 5). The bedding
D Fmol massive, thin-bedded, light lacustrine muds
lithofacies that constitute these interbedded sediment packages are de- blue to blue-gray, mollusc-
scribed below in order of decreasing abundance: fine-grained lithofacies, rich clay with evaporitic
sandy lithofacies, and gravelly lithofacies. layers, plant debris, and
rare ostracods
Description of Lithofacies.—Three fine-grained lithofacies (Fml, Fmp,

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 600 P.C. BAUCOM AND C.A. RIGSBY
centimeters thick. It is present as laterally continuous beds and, rarely, as
discontinuous sand lenses.
The only gravel lithofacies in the study area is found in FA-A. Litho-
facies Gmsh is locally channelized (Fig. 5C) but is typically a horizontally
bedded, matrix-supported, sandy gravel in beds 2–12 cm thick (Fig. 5D).
Within individual beds, the gravels are moderately sorted with angular to
moderately rounded clasts ranging from 2 mm to 3 cm in diameter; clasts
up to 6 cm are present locally. It is interbedded with the sandy and fine-
grained lithofacies described above and in coarsening- and fining-upward
sequences.
Interpretation.—FA-A was deposited by a sandy braided fluvial system
with localized coarse-grained sedimentation (recognized by rare, isolated
gravels and abundant pebble stringers) from surrounding highlands. Evi-
dence supporting this interpretation includes distinct grain-size variations,
the presence of complexly interbedded coarse and fine sediments, stacked
fining- and coarsening-upward sequences, abundant gravel layers, and the
scarcity of primary sedimentary structures in the sandy lithofacies. The
sedimentary packages of FA-A suggest preservation of complexly inter-
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FIG. 2.—Location and facies association (FA)
designations of the 13 Rio Desaguadero
measured sections used in this study. Note that
names in italics are section location names, not
specific town locations.
calated bar and channel sequences (Miall 1978; Reineck and Singh 1980).
Interbeds of fine sand, silt, and mud, such as lithofacies Fsm and Fml,
record overbank deposition or sedimentation from suspension in active
channels. The intervening coarser units, such as lithofacies Gmsh and Smg,
are channel deposits (Miall 1982). Pebble stringers and channelized gravels
more likely represent winnowed lags on scour surfaces (Reading 1996).
The fining- and coarsening-upward units preserved in FA-A record chan-
nel and bar sequences that suggest cyclical fluctuations of energy regimes,
probably related to annual to millennial-scale fluctuations. Generally, fin-
ing-upward sequences are a product of sedimentation in channels (Miall
1982; Reineck and Singh 1980), but may also develop as a response to
waning water flow over bars and channels as they accrete, accompanied by
(or in response to) migration of the active channel (Davis 1983). The coars-
ening-upward units of FA-A are most likely associated with progradation
or downstream migration of bar deposits (Miall 1982). As a bar forms, the
coarse material is deposited in the central axis and upstream end of the
bar, thus grain size decreases upward and downstream (Leopold and Wol-
man 1957). Once formed, the bar may grow forward by slipface avalanch-
 CLIMATE AND LAKE-LEVEL HISTORY, NORTHERN ALTIPLANO, BOLIVIA
FIG. 3.—Legend for measured stratigraphic sections. Facies codes and descriptions
are in Table 2.
ing, riffle migration, or accretion of new bar structures superimposed upon
the previously deposited bars (Cant and Walker 1978; Reineck and Singh
1980). In the Rio Desaguadero strata, however, the preservation potential
of coarsening-upward sequences is low because of penecontemporaneous
bar erosion resulting from lateral migration of channels. This low preser-
vation potential explains the scarcity of coarsening-upward sequences.
FIG. 4.—Measured sections characteristic of FA-A (braided-stream sediments). Arrows indicate fining- and/or coarsening-upward sequences. See Figure 2 for section
locations, Figure 3 for legend, and Table 2 for lithofacies descriptions.
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601
The scarcity of primary sedimentary structures in the sandy lithofacies
of FA-A is related to braided-stream depositional processes. Sediment de-
position in a braided stream results from large and rapid fluctuations in
river discharge, abundance of coarse sediment, a high rate of sediment
supply, and easily erodible banks (Shelton and Noble 1974; Cant and Walk-
er 1978). Under these conditions, bar structures form during periods of
high discharge as the channel is rapidly choked with bedload. A rapid drop
in velocity causes instantaneous deposition. Consequently, sediments are
poorly sorted, and sedimentary structures, other than channelized gravel
beds and laminated muds, are not preserved. This was likely the case for
the braided-stream deposition recorded in the sediments of FA-A.
Meandering-Stream Deposits (FA-B)
Facies association B (FA-B) is exposed at four locations in the northern
reaches of the Rio Desaguadero, near the towns of Callapa, Nazacara, and
Janko Wichinca (Fig. 2). This FA is characterized by 1.3-m-thick sedi-
mentary packages dominated by fining-upward sequences and interbedded
silt and mud (Figs. 3, 6). The fining-upward sequences are commonly over-
lain by sediments of FA-A. FA-B is distinguishable from FA-A by the
absence of complexly interbedded sediments, the lack of gravel, the dom-
inance of fining-upward sequences, and a more homogeneous, finer grain-
size distribution (Figs. 4, 6).
Description of Lithofacies.—The dominant lithofacies in FA-B are Fsm,
Fml, and Fmt (Table 2). Lithofacies Fsm consists of massive to laminated
quartzose silt in beds ranging from a few centimeters to 1 m thick (Fig.
7A). It occurs as the basal unit of fining-upward sequences and as thin
 602 P.C. BAUCOM AND C.A. RIGSBY

FIG. 5.—Lithofacies characteristic of FA-A. A) Sandy silt of lithofacies Fmp. Note the presence of pebble stringers. B) Lithofacies Smg overlying lithofacies Fsm. C)
Stacked channel sequences of lithofacies Gmsh. D) Channelized, continuous, and discontinuous units of lithofacies Gmsh. See Figures 4 and 10 for measured sections,
Figure 2 for section locations of FA-A, Figure 3 for legend, and Table 2 for lithofacies descriptions.

interbeds within lithofacies Fml. Lithofacies Fml, a planar-laminated mud,
also occurs within fining-upward sequences, typically overlying lithofacies
Fsm. Lithofacies Fpwr occurs locally atop fining-upward sequences. It is
characterized as a planar- to wavy- to ripple-laminated mud with common
mud drapes (Fig. 7B). The only sandy lithofacies in this FA (Smg) occurs
locally at the base of a fining-upward sequence.
Interpretation.—FA-B records deposition in a meandering river. This
FA is dominated by thick (approximately 0.6 m to . 2.5 m) overbank
and/or floodplain deposits (lithofacies Fsm, Fml; Fig. 6). Bar deposits are
less common. Evidence for the meandering-river interpretation includes the
relatively homogeneous grain-size distribution within the FA-B vertical
sections, the presence of thick overbank deposits and fining-upward se-
quences, and the absence of interbedded channel and bar lithofacies.
Thick overbank and floodplain deposits are present in all measured sec-
tions of FA-B. Brierley and Hickin (1991) demonstrated that meandering
and braided systems are distinguishable by examination of their respective
overbank and floodplain sediments. Their analysis of the Squamish River,
a transitional river in Canada, reveals that modern floodplain sediments
consistently increase in thickness from the river’s upstream braided reach
to its downstream meandering reach. Meandering channels similarly dem-
onstrate slower rates of lateral shifting than braided channels. The stacked
channel and bar sequences typical of braided rivers do not appear in FA-
B. Instead, thick accumulations of floodplain sediments (lithofacies Fsm,
Fml) are present. These fine-grained accumulations, along with the fining-
upward sequences distinctive of this FA, are typical of meandering-river
sediments (Allen 1970; Shelton and Noble 1974; Cant 1978; Reineck and
Singh 1980).
Deltaic or Shoreline Deposits (FA-C) and Lacustrine Deposits (FA-D)
The strata that constitute FA-C and FA-D record deposition in lacustrine,
lake shoreline, and deltaic environments. FA-C consists of coarsening-up-
ward sequences of brown clay overlain by interbedded silt and sand and
planar-, wavy-, and ripple-laminated mud with convolute bedding and sand
interbeds. This FA is present at three locations in the northernmost terraces
of the Rio Desaguadero, near the town of Parko Kkota (Fig. 2). Although
the dominance of both sand and mud lithofacies makes this FA similar to
FA-A and FA-B, FA-C contains no gravelly lithofacies and is characterized
by lithofacies with more abundant and variable sedimentary structures
(Figs. 8A, B, C). Furthermore, FA-C is always associated with the blue
muds of FA-D (either stratigraphically above or laterally continuous with
it) and consistently coarsens upward. FA-D occurs beneath FA-C in the
Parko Kkota locations and beneath meandering-stream deposits (FA-B) at
Nazacara and Janko Wichinca (Fig. 2).
Description of Lithofacies.—FA-D is characterized by massive, thin-
bedded, light blue to blue-gray, gastropod-rich clay with thin, in situ evap-
oritic layers, plant debris, and rare ostracods (Lithofacies Fmol; Fig. 8E).
These clayey strata typically thin upward. Where both FA-D and FA-C are
present, the strata are characterized by a coarsening-upward sequence of
mud, silt, and sand (Figs. 3, 9). In those sequences, Fmol is overlain by

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 CLIMATE AND LAKE-LEVEL HISTORY, NORTHERN ALTIPLANO, BOLIVIA 603

FIG. 6.—Measured sections characteristic of

FA-B (meandering-stream sediments). Arrow
indicates fining-upward sequence. See Figure 2
for section locations of FA-B, Figure 3 for
legend, and Table 2 for lithofacies descriptions.

either lithofacies Fil or lithofacies Fmoo. Fil is a greenish-gray to blue-
gray, poorly laminated mud that grades into a brown, coarsening-upward,
sandy mud. Gastropods and plant debris are abundant and ostracods are
rare within Fil. Fmoo is a massive, dark brown, slightly silty clay with
minor disseminated organic detritus, common gastropods, and rare ostra-
cods (Fig. 8D). The next lithofacies in this coarsening-upward sequence is
lithofacies Fpwr. As in FA-B, Fpwr is composed of silty and muddy sed-
iments with planar, wavy, and ripple lamination. In FA-C, however, Fpwr
is also characterized by climbing-ripple lamination and convolute bedding,
is more common than in FA-B, and is typically overlain by lithofacies Spw
(Fig. 9). Lithofacies Spw, common in this FA, contains planar, wavy, and
ripple lamination with localized mud clasts (Fig. 8B). It is typically up to
45–50 cm thick and is often interbedded with lithofacies Fml. Lithofacies
Smg is less common. Where present, Smg is thinly bedded (about 2 cm)
and unstructured (Fig. 9).
Interpretation.—FA-D was deposited in a lacustrine environment that
was locally infilled by fluvial progradation (FA-C). Evidence for this in-
terpretation includes the presence of thick accumulations of blue, gastro-
pod-rich mud overlain by brown mud that coarsens upward into sand with
interbedded mud, and by the coexistence of muddy sediments dominated
by abundant lithofacies Fpwr with convolute bedding and interbedded sand
layers. Deposition and preservation of blue to dark brown sediments gen-
erally indicate a reducing environment associated with saturation, whereas
red, yellow, orange, and brown sediments are indicative of an oxidizing
environment and are often associated with unsaturated, dry environments
(Miall 1996). Hence, the blue clayey muds with gastropods (FA-D) indicate
two possible depositional environments: a lacustrine environment or a poor-
ly drained backswamp or floodplain environment. It follows that FA-C may
represent a lacustrine deltaic environment or crevasse-splay sedimentation
atop a backswamp environment. Both depositional environments are ca-

FIG. 7.—Lithofacies characteristic of FA-B. A) Massive silt of lithofacies Fsm. Note the presence of thin soil layers. B) Laminated silt of lithofacies Fpwr. This lithofacies
is preserved locally in meandering-stream sediments at the base of the Calacoto terraces (C-II and C-III). See Figures 6 and 10 for measured sections, Figure 2 for section
locations of FA-B, Figure 3 for legend, and Table 2 for lithofacies descriptions.

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 604 P.C. BAUCOM AND C.A. RIGSBY

FIG. 8.—Lithofacies characteristic of FA-C (deltaic and lake-shoreline sediments) and FA-D (lacustrine muds). A) Planar, wavy, ripple, to climbing-ripple lamination of
lithofacies Fpwr in FA-C. B) Planar- to wavy-laminated sand of lithofacies Spw in FA-C. C) Convolute bedding preserved locally in lithofacies Fpwr at the base of FA-
C. D) Brown mud of lithofacies Fmoo in FA-C (deltaic silt and mud). E) Blue mud of lithofacies Fmol in FA-D (lacustrine mud). Note the gastropod and evaporite layers
at the top of Fmol and the sharp contact between lithofacies Fmol and lithofacies Fmoo. See Figure 9 for measured sections, Figure 2 for locations of FA-C and FA-D,
Figure 3 for legend, and Table 2 for lithofacies descriptions.

pable of producing the sediment types and sedimentary structures charac-
teristic of these FAs. Similar sedimentary sequences have been described
by other workers (Ridgeway and Decelles 1993; Smith and Putman 1980)
and interpreted as deposition by anastomosing systems. There are distinct
differences, however, between the lacustrine and overbank sediments of an
anastomosing system and the ones preserved in FA-C and FA-D. For ex-
ample, in an anastomosing system, black organic-rich material (roots casts,
plant fragments, leaf imprints, etc.) is abundant and lacustrine muds are
almost always interbedded with sand and silt layers as a result of frequent
overwash and/or channel avulsion (Smith 1983; Ridgeway and Decelles
1993). The . 1.1 m thick, uninterrupted deposit of the blue-lacustrine mud
of FA-D contains no clastic interbeds and no plant remains; it is indicative
of a ‘‘permanent’’ small lake, not of a wetland frequented by overwash
sedimentation. The FA-C and FA-D sequence is similar to, but significantly
smaller in scale than, coarsening-upward mudstone and sandstone facies
described by Ridgeway and Decelles (1993) and by Van-Dijk et al. (1978),
which also record the progradation of fluvial systems into lacustrine basins.
Additional evidence of a prolonged lake at Parko Kkota is supported by
the FA-C strata in measured section QC-m (Fig. 9). These sediments are
laterally continuous with lithologically homogeneous shoreline sediments
and have geometric relationships suggestive of a paleolake that was infilled
by deltaic sedimentation. Convolute bedding and planar-, wavy-, and rip-
ple-laminated sand and silt within the QC-m sediments also supports the
interpretation of a paleoshoreline (Figs. 8C, 9; Link and Osborne 1978).
Convolute bedding can be produced by several mechanisms that are as-
sociated with current activity and rapid sedimentation, the most common
being liquefaction or sediment overloading (Reineck and Singh 1980). Con-
volute bedding has been observed in fluviatile environments, especially
floodplain and point-bar sediments where there is a source of sand and mud
associated with episodic deposition (Reineck and Singh 1980). Here, how-
ever, they are associated with the shoreline of the lake that deposited the
blue muds of FA-D. Sediments of QC-m were probably deposited in a
paleo–floodplain or marsh environment that was subsequently reworked by
waves to produce a lacustrine shoreline. The horizontally laminated sand
and the laterally continuous bench-like geometry of the QC-m outcrop fur-
ther support agitation by small waves and local reworking of a shoreline
(Link and Osborne 1978). The deposition of sands and muds was most
likely episodic and related to cycles of fair-weather and flood conditions,
resulting in sediment dewatering and the preservation of convolute bedding
(Martel and Gibling 1991), and to the formation of distributary channels
feeding into the lake. Such channels incise levee and other backswamp

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 CLIMATE AND LAKE-LEVEL HISTORY, NORTHERN ALTIPLANO, BOLIVIA
FIG. 9.—Measured sections characteristic of FA-C and FA-D. Arrows indicate fining- and/or coarsening-upward sequences. See Figure 2 for section locations, Figure 3
for legend, Table 2 for lithofacies descriptions, and Figure 10 for complete PK-composite measured section.
deposits, and typically form small, delta-like distributary systems that shal-
low away from the main channel (Miall 1996).
FLUVIAL HISTORY
The lateral and vertical distribution of FAs in the Rio Desaguadero ter-
races record two distinct fluvial histories for the Rio Desaguadero valley,
one for the northern Rio Desaguadero and one for the southern Rio De-
saguadero. This distinction warrants their separate discussion. In the north,
the exposed Holocene-age terraced sediments include all of the FAs just
described, and multiple terrace levels are present. In the south, only one
terrace level is present, and all of the exposed terraced sediments are braid-
ed-river sediments (FA-A). This difference in terrace configuration and
sediment depositional environment is coincident with the presence of an
important tributary, the Rio Mauri, which drains a watershed composed of
Tertiary volcanic terrain of the western Andes and adds a large volume of
sediment and water to the Rio Desaguadero system.
Terraces of the Northern Rio Desaguadero
The terraced sediments north of the Rio Mauri preserve lacustrine, del-
taic, and fluvial strata above a modern-day meandering reach of the Rio
Desaguadero. Radiocarbon dates from the Calacoto and Parko Kkota ter-
races (C-II, C-III, PK-composite, and QC; Table 1) allow lithologic and
chronologic correlation of lacustrine (FA-D) and deltaic sediments (FA-C)
with meandering-river and braided-river sediments (FA-B and FA-A; Fig.
10). The radiocarbon dates indicate that the lacustrine and deltaic sedi-
mentation at Parko Kkota was contemporaneous with meandering-stream
and braided-stream deposition downstream at Calacoto. The correlation be-
tween these laterally distinctive environments is also supported by physi-
cally traceable gastropod layers and blue lacustrine muds at Parko Kkota
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605
(sections QC, PK-composite), the distinct contact between lacustrine and
deltaic sediments at Parko Kkota, and a similar distinct and physically
traceable contact between braided-stream and meandering-stream sediments
at Calacoto. This correlation, along with our lithofacies analysis and the
radiocarbon dates for all of the northern terraces (Fig. 10; Table 1), provide
the basis for the following fluvial-history reconstruction of the northern Rio
Desaguadero valley.
Between approximately 4700 and 4000 yr BP, the northern part of the
Rio Desaguadero at Parko Kkota was dominated by a lacustrine environ-
ment (Fig. 11A). The area of the ancient Parko Kkota lake cannot be de-
termined exactly, but an approximation was made by examining the lateral
extent of lacustrine and deltaic sediments outcropping along PK-composite
and QC, and by examining the local geomorphology. The depth of the
Parko Kkota paleolake is also difficult to estimate, but sediment thickness-
es, traceable blue muds, and surveyed elevations provide a means for in-
terpretation. The thickest exposed accumulation of lacustrine mud is 1.1 m
(FA-D at QC; the base of section is not exposed) at an elevation of 3795
m (between the FA-D and FA-C contact; Fig. 9). The shoreline strata in
section QC-m are at 3798 m and are 1.8 m thick (Fig. 9). The blue mud
thins and becomes blue-green to green-brown downstream, toward PK-
composite, and pinches out entirely between PK-composite and the Cala-
coto terraces. In situ evaporite layers in the upper part of the blue mud at
both QC and PK-composite indicate periods of extensive drying. Root casts
or siltstone lenses that would suggest that the lake was shallow enough for
bottom sediments to support plants are absent. Together, these observations
suggest that the Parko Kkota lake was at least 4 km long, approximately
0.5 to 2 km wide, and at least 4.1 m deep, and that it underwent periods
of evaporation before being completely infilled with clastic sediment. At
Janko Wichinca, the presence of gastropod-bearing mud (undated) at the
same elevation as the Parko Kkota lake (3798 m) suggests that the lake
 606 P.C. BAUCOM AND C.A. RIGSBY

FIG. 10.—Chronologic and stratigraphic correlation diagram for the northern Rio Desaguadero terraces, including FA-D and FA-C at Parko Kkota with FA-B and
FA-A near Calacoto.

FIG. 11.—Paleogeographic reconstructions of

the northern and southern parts of the paleo Rio
Desaguadero as interpreted from sediments and
radiocarbon dates. A) Holocene reconstruction of
the northern Rio Desaguadero based on
correlation of the Parko Kkota (QC, QC-m, PK-
composite) and Calacoto (C-II, C-III) terraces, as
shown in Figure 10. B) Holocene reconstruction
of the southern Rio Desaguadero based on
sediments and radiocarbon dates from the Huito
Churo (HC-N, HC-S) and Nequela (NT) terraces.

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 CLIMATE AND LAKE-LEVEL HISTORY, NORTHERN ALTIPLANO, BOLIVIA
FIG. 12.—Measured section of lacustrine (FA-D) and meandering-river (FA-B)
sediments in modern cutbank at Janko Wichinca.
may have been even larger than is indicated by the PK and QC terraces
(Fig. 12).
The paleolake was adjacent to (and flooded by) a meandering river (as
recorded in the Calacoto terraces) much like the modern Rio Desaguadero
in this area (Fig. 11A). The lack of evaporite layers in the lower blue muds
indicates that the lake was probably permanent early in its history. Abun-
dant pottery shards around the paleolake (paleoshoreline) perimeter further
support the hypothesis of a prolonged freshwater lacustrine environment
and represent rare and important evidence of abundant early human pop-
ulation in the region. This environment may have been similar to modern
conditions along the shoreline of Lake Titicaca and in the northernmost
segment of the modern Rio Desaguadero (characterized by marshy inun-
dated areas and small lakes), where a large human population currently
prospers.
The Parko Kkota paleolake strata exposed in terraces QC and PK-com-
posite are overlain by the deltaic sediments of FA-C. The deltaic sediments
are thickest (. 4 m thick), and the contact between the deltaic sequence
and the underlying lacustrine muds is the sharpest, at QC (Fig. 10). This
indicates that the main distributary of the paleo–Rio Desaguadero was prob-
ably near the QC terrace and that sedimentation began abruptly in this area.
Rapid infilling of the lake is also suggested by the presence of convolute
bedding (Fig. 8C). Floodplain sediments dissected into a wave-cut shoreline
(as discussed previously) suggest that the paleo-Desaguadero existed ap-
proximately 50 m north of the modern river system. Eventually, the river
migrated southward, filled the lake with sediment, and occupied its present
position (Fig. 11A). Fluvio-deltaic sedimentation began sometime after
3900 6 100 yr BP and lasted until at least 3300 yr BP (judging by the
sediment accumulation rate estimated from terrace C-III; Table 1).
The lateral progradation of the stream and the subsequent infilling of the
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607
lake indicates a rapid change in the entire depositional system. The sharp
contact between the lacustrine and deltaic sediments and the absence of
lacustrine sediments above this contact suggest that the lacustrine period
was followed by an abrupt increase in sediment load or discharge (and,
possibly, increased seasonality of precipitation). Subsequently, at least two
episodes of fluvial downcutting occurred, exposing upper PK-composite
and QC (approximately 4000 yr BP) and the lower PK-composite (approx-
imately 3600 yr BP). These are the maximum ages of downcutting. Esti-
mated sediment accumulation rates suggest that the second episode of
downcutting may not have occurred until approximately 3300 yr BP.
During the lacustrine sedimentation at Parko Kkota, meandering-river
sedimentation was occurring at Calacoto (Fig. 11A). The lower 1.25 m of
strata at C-II and C-III were deposited by a meandering river (Fig. 10).
Radiocarbon dates suggest that the sediments of C-II and C-III were de-
posited contemporaneously. The small-scale stratal variations between C-
II and C-III most likely record the lateral facies changes that are commonly
associated with river systems. The sharp contact between lake and deltaic
sediments at Parko Kkota (FA-D and FA-C) is correlative with the contact
between meandering-river and braided-river sediments at Calacoto (FA-B
and FA-C; Fig. 10). Soil formation and fluvial downcutting followed the
cessation of braided-river and deltaic sediment accumulation. If that ces-
sation was contemporaneous, the maximum age of downcutting (calculated
from sedimentation rates) is between 3800 and 3300 years—probably also
contemporaneous with the youngest downcutting at QC and PK-composite.
There is no record of fluvial deposition (in either the northern or southern
Rio Desaguadero) after this second downcutting episode. At Nazacara,
however, blue gastropod-rich lacustrine muds are present in the modern
cutbank (Fig. 13). These muds are identical to, but younger than, the non-
evaporitic muds at QC and PK-composite. Gastropods from the Nazacara
lake strata yield a calibrated age of 2125 6 85 yr BP (Table 1), indicating
that the 3300 yr BP downcutting was followed by another high-water la-
custrine episode. Downstream of these lakes (especially south of the Rio
Mauri, which provides even more water and sediment to the system) this
high water interval may have resulted in erosion rather than deposition.
The exact timing of the desiccation of the lake is difficult to establish, and
no evaporite layers are present in the strata. The age of the lake strata and
their position in the modern cutbank, however, indicate a third, post–2000
yr BP episode of fluvial downcutting in this region.
Terraces of the Southern Rio Desaguadero
The terraces preserved south of the Rio Mauri confluence, at Huito Churo
(HC) and Nequela (NT), record a different fluvial history. The sediments
in these terraces record braided-stream and alluvial deposition similar to
that of the modern southern Rio Desaguadero system, and suggest that
channel morphology and depositional processes in this region have not
changed significantly since 7000 6 100 yr BP, the oldest date recorded in
the southern Rio Desaguadero terraces (0.70 m from the base of the Ne-
quela terrace; Table 1). The terraces also suggest that (1) the river has
migrated southward to reach its modern position (as indicated by the po-
sition of the Nequela terrace relative to the modern river channel; (Fig.
11B), (2) only one episode of fluvial downcutting has occurred south of
the Rio Mauri, and (3) deposition has been nearly continuous in this region.
It is important to note, however, that the large sediment load and abundant
alluvial-fan sedimentation in this area could have resulted in buried terraces
and overlapping or inset alluvial deposits such as those noted by Leopold
et al. (1964) for similar fluvial systems. Nevertheless, our data suggest that
braided-stream deposition was occurring prior to 7000 yr BP (Table 1) and
that a single episode of fluvial downcutting occurred sometime after 3210
yr BP, the age of the youngest strata dated in the southern terraces (1.6 m
from base of HC-N; Table 1). Although the relationship between precipi-
tation and sedimentation rate is not fully understood, it has been studied
by many workers (for example, Wilson 1973; Yair and Enzel 1987; Graf
 608 P.C. BAUCOM AND C.A. RIGSBY
FIG. 13.—Measured section of lacustrine (FA-D) and meandering-river (FA-B)
sediments in modern cutbank at Nazacara.
1988), and several general relationships are fairly well established. Wilson
(1973) demonstrated that, although increased rainfall usually results in in-
creased sediment yield, increased seasonality of precipitation often results
in increased fluvial erosion. Smith (1994) recognized similar relationships
in Quaternary strata of the arid southwestern United States, where he
showed that erosion (fluvial downcutting and terrace dissection) occurred
during wet, tectonically quiescent periods, such as those that may have
occurred in the Rio Desaguadero valley around 2200 yr BP. It is likely
that the same high water levels that led to the deposition of lake strata in
the low-relief, northern part of the Rio Desaguadero (at Nazacara) resulted
in fluvial erosion in the higher-relief, southern part of the river valley.
DISCUSSION
The mechanisms responsible for the fluvial dissection and eventual ex-
posure of the Rio Desaguadero depositional facies are most likely related
to climate. Climate changes affecting both discharge and vegetation may
alter the hydrologic regimen of a river, including the delivery of both water
and sediment to the river system (Bull 1991; Leopold et al. 1964; Smith
1994). In many cases, a combination of tectonic and climate change occurs
simultaneously to produce fluvial downcutting and subsequent terrace de-
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velopment. Because as presented above, only minor tectonism has been
noted in this region during the late Holocene (e.g., Bills et al. 1994), cli-
matically controlled changes in discharge are the most likely cause of Rio
Desaguadero deposition and downcutting. The strata preserved in Rio De-
saguadero terraces and cutbanks record valley aggradation followed by flu-
vial incision and channel migration, all of which can be linked (directly or
indirectly) to water-level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca.
The distribution and characteristics of the terraces and terrace sediments
also correspond with the modern hydrologic conditions of the Rio Desa-
guadero. Seasonal water-level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca correlate well
with the discharge variability of the Rio Desaguadero at the Calacoto gaug-
ing station (above the Mauri confluence), indicating that at Calacoto the
river is mostly supplied by the outflow of Lake Titicaca and is affected
significantly by even minor changes in lake level (Guyot et al. 1990).
Downstream of Calacoto, however, the influence of the Rio Mauri prevails,
resulting in a typical maximum of discharge from January to March (wet
season), followed by a slow decrease in discharge, but no marked low-
water periods.
The discharge variations at Calacoto (associated with the minor fluctu-
ations of Lake Titicaca) are recorded in modern cutbank exposures by the
presence of coarse- and fine-grained strata that record a change between
braided and meandering stream types. Because, during the modern instru-
mental period, the small-scale water-level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca
cause discharge changes in the Rio Desaguadero north of the Rio Mauri
that are recorded in modern sediments (Baucom and Rigsby 1996, 1997),
it is reasonable to assume that larger-scale Holocene lake-level fluctuations
were recorded by larger-scale patterns of sediment deposition (during lake
highstands) and by fluvial dissection and terrace development (during lake
lowstands).
The geographic position and sediment composition of the Rio Desa-
guadero terraces complement these data. As discussed, multiple terraces
exist just north and west (upstream) of the Rio Mauri, but only single
terraces are present south of the Rio Mauri. This observation suggests that
the older terraced strata north of the Rio Mauri were influenced by water-
level fluctuations of Lake Titicaca in the same manner (but on a larger
scale) as the modern cutbank sediments at Calacoto. Deposition of the
sediments preserved within the terraces is most likely the result of an in-
crease in regional effective moisture (precipitation minus evaporation) that
resulted in increased sediment and water supply from major tributaries.
This increase in effective moisture also would correspond with a highstand
of Lake Titicaca and increased discharge from the lake to the upper reaches
of Rio Desaguadero. Likewise, each dissection of the terraced sediments
likely corresponded to decreased effective moisture, a drop in the water
level of Lake Titicaca, and a drop in the level of downstream Lake Poopo.
In the southern part of Rio Desaguadero, high water levels in Lake Ti-
ticaca contributed to increases in sediment load and discharge. However, a
drop in lake level or a decrease in precipitation was not necessarily re-
corded as a significant sedimentological change because there was a pe-
rennial source of sediment and water (the Rio Mauri) in the southern Rio
Desaguadero channel. Consequently, terrace formation was difficult be-
cause abandonment of a surface did not occur rapidly enough to isolate the
surface and protect it from erosion. The single, southern terrace level con-
firms this hypothesis. It is likely that terrace formation in this region was
controlled by changes in the amount of water and sediment being carried
down the Rio Mauri.
Paleo–Lake Tauca once occupied the southern Altiplano and reached its
highest level at about 13,000 yr BP (Clapperton 1993a; Bills et al. 1994;
Servant et al. 1995). The exact timing of the desiccation of Lake Tauca is
uncertain, but it probably emptied by 10,000 yr BP and possibly as late as
8500 yr BP (Servant and Fontes 1978; Clapperton 1993a; Bills et al. 1994;
Servant et al. 1995; Sylvestre et al. 1998). Our estimate for the timing of
braided-stream deposition (FA-A) in this area and the subsequent down-
cutting of the southern terraces (; 7000 yr BP and 3200 yr BP, respec-
 CLIMATE AND LAKE-LEVEL HISTORY, NORTHERN ALTIPLANO, BOLIVIA
tively) is consistent with both the age and position of Lake Tauca and the
timing of wet conditions recorded by lacustrine strata in the northern part
of the Rio Desaguadero.
In the northern part of the Rio Desaguadero, as recorded in the terraces
at Parko Kkota, a lake highstand occurred around 4525 yr BP and lasted
until about 3900 yr BP. This highstand resulted in inundation of the Rio
Desaguadero valley and deposition of lacustrine and meandering-river sed-
iments at Parko Kkota and Calacoto (Fig. 11A). The Parko Kkota lake
reached an elevation of at least 3798 m (the maximum elevation of the
lake shoreline sediments in FA-C at this location; Fig. 9; Rigsby and Bau-
com 1997, 1998). This lake-level high was followed by either increased
outflow from Lake Titicaca or flashier discharge in the Rio Desaguadero
valley, either of which could explain the deposition of deltaic sediments
atop lacustrine muds and braided-river sediments atop meandering-river
sediments at Parko Kkota and Calacoto. Sedimentation rates calculated
from dated samples in terrace C-III suggest that the highstand lasted until
at least approximately 3550 yr BP and was followed by dissection of mul-
tiple terraces (preserved along the modern river). The terrace configuration
indicates at least two rapid water-level falls and southward migration of
the Rio Desaguadero after 3300 yr BP. A third high-water episode, re-
corded by the blue lacustrine muds (FA-D) in the Nazacara cutbanks, re-
sulted in a 3819-m-high lake (Rigsby and Baucom 1997, 1998). Subsequent
downcutting occurred after approximately 2000 yr BP. The modern river
occupies the channel carved by this last downcutting episode.
Workers describing the Holocene water-level fluctuations in Lake Hui-
ñaimarca, the southernmost basin of Lake Titicaca, previously postulated
a minor lake-level rise (6–8 m) around 4000 yr BP (Wirrmann and Mour-
guiart 1995) and a rapid 15–20 m lake-level rise around 3500 yr BP, fol-
lowed by a lowstand spanning several centuries and punctuated by several
century-scale lake-level rises (Fig. 14; Abbott et al. 1997a) that are cor-
relative with increase in precipitation recorded elsewhere in the region (Ab-
bott et al. 1997b). Although the timing and magnitude of these rises and
falls correspond with the timing of lacustrine sedimentation and terrace
dissection along the Rio Desaguadero, the reported fluctuations occurred
when the lake was thought to still be significantly below its present level
of 3810 m and, importantly, below its modern spill level of 3804 m. Ad-
ditional studies, utilizing sediment cores and seismic data from the larger
and deeper, main basin of Lake Titicaca (Baker et al. 1998; Cross 1998;
Cross et al. in press; Seltzer et al. 1998) suggest a different magnitude of
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609
FIG. 14.—Holocene lake-level curves and the
elevation and age of lake strata in the Parko
Kkota (PK) and Nazacara (LD-mc) measured
sections. Lake-level curves were constructed
using data from Wirrmann and Mourguiart
(1995) and Abbott et al. (1997a; figure 4).
Water-level data are plotted relative to the 3804
m ‘‘overflow’’ level described by Abbott et al.
(1997a). Error bars (6 m) are used to represent
the variability of lake level over the past century
and/or radiocarbon dating constraints (after
Abbott et al. 1997a, fig. 4).
lake-level change than do the earlier studies, but they tend to confirm that
Lake Titicaca was below the modern spill level until at least 3000 yr BP.
In fact, the Lake Huiñaimarca studies suggest that from 3500 yr BP until
700 yr BP (when the lake once again rose above its modern spill level of
3804 m) the Rio Desaguadero was not an effective outlet from Lake Titi-
caca (Fig. 14).
These lake-level studies based on coring of Lake Huiñaimarca or Lake
Titicaca are excellent for identifying low lake stands and the timing of lake
flooding, but they provide no constraints on the magnitude of lake high
stands. In fact, the maximum lake level obtainable using such data is that
of the modern lake bottom. Our work on strata outside the modern lake
basin is better suited to identifying high lake levels. It also allows us to
identify periods of higher effective moisture, even during times when Lake
Titicaca was below the overflow level. A further complication arises be-
cause the composition and thickness of sediment above bedrock at the sill
separating Lake Titicaca from the Rio Desaguadero is unknown and some
evidence shows that the elevation of the overflow level actually varies
significantly over time, possibly even annually (Ing. Julio Campos, Auto-
ridad de Lago Titicaca, personal communication). It is likely that the over-
flow level has changed in the past; therefore we use the 3804 m elevation
(of Abbott et al. 1997a) here only as a convenient datum. Because the lake
core studies do not provide great insight into how lacustrine, meandering-
river, and braided-river sediments of the paleo-Desaguadero were accu-
mulating on the Altiplano prior to 2000 yr BP, a reexamination of the Rio
Desaguadero fluvio-lacustrine system is warranted.
There are two possible explanations for the major FA changes in the Rio
Desaguadero sediments: (1) changes in the level of Lake Titicaca, probably
responding to precipitation changes (Cross et al. in press), are effectively
causing spill-over into the river, and/or (2) during times when Lake Titicaca
was still below spill level, local precipitation changes resulted in wet pe-
riods that added significant amounts of water to the Rio Desaguadero val-
ley. As discussed, it is likely that sediment cores from Lake Titicaca record
the direction of lake-level rises and falls but not the true magnitude of high
lakestands. If the fluvio-lacustrine sediments deposited by the paleo–Rio
Desaguadero are a product of Lake Titicaca spillover (and not local pre-
cipitation in the river valley), they may record the magnitude of lake high-
stands more accurately than the sediments of Lake Titicaca. This would
explain why only below-present lake levels have been recorded in the la-
custrine record of the last 10,000 years even though a whole spectrum of
 610 P.C. BAUCOM AND C.A. RIGSBY
braided-river, meandering-river, deltaic, and lacustrine sediments accumu-
lated in the ancient Rio Desaguadero valley during this period. Alterna-
tively, if the highstands of Lake Titicaca are accurately recorded by the
data of Abbott et al. (1997a), for example, then lacustrine deposition in the
Rio Desaguadero valley is local and unrelated to Lake Titicaca spillover
but provides insight into the relative importance of changes in evaporation
versus changes in precipitation. Our current data do not allow us to confirm
a direct connection between the Rio Desaguadero strata and Lake Titicaca,
only a correlation between Lake Titicaca rise and increased water supply
and lacustrine sedimentation in the Rio Desaguadero valley. The data sug-
gest, however, that a direct link was possible, and that hypothesis is cur-
rently being invested with further geochemical and provenance studies.
Even if the Parko Kkota, Janko Wichinca, and Nazacara lakes were not
directly connected to Lake Titicaca, their presence in the northern Rio
Desaguadero valley is important. The presence of these lakes, especially in
the absence of significant tectonism, suggests that rises in the level of Lake
Titicaca (even rises that occurred when the lake was below the spill level)
are driven by increases in precipitation, not simply decreased evaporation.
It is likely that the Rio Desaguadero valley lakes correspond to brief in-
tervals (perhaps 250 to 500 years) of increased effective moisture in the
basin. Ice-core data from the Huascaran and nearby Sajama ice caps
(Thompson et al. 1988; Thompson 1998) show temperature changes of only
about 18C in the late Holocene. These small temperature changes are not
enough to cause significant changes in evaporation (Blodgett et al. 1997);
therefore, large lake-level changes must be the result of changes in precip-
itation.
Because increased rainfall is essential for the formation of permanent
floodplain lakes, the Rio Desaguadero lake strata may record periods of
increased precipitation in which Lake Titicaca rose but did not overflow
the spill level. Ongoing work on cores from the deep basin of Lake Titicaca
(Baker et al. 1998; Cross 1998; Cross et al. in press) suggests that Lake
Titicaca rose sometime after 5700 yr BP until 3600 yr BP, fell for approx-
imately 150 yr, and then rose again by 3300 yr BP (possibly up to the spill
level by 3000 yr BP). The timing of these lake-level rises correlates well
with the Parko Kkota and Nazacara lacustrine sedimentation and substan-
tiates our hypothesis of a correlation between the level of Lake Titicaca
and sedimentation in the Rio Desaguadero valley.
SUMMARY
1. Four facies associations, composed of a variety of gravelly, sandy,
and muddy lithofacies, are preserved in terrace exposures along the Rio
Desaguadero. Multiple terrace exposures, recording up to three episodes of
fluvial downcutting, are preserved in the northern reaches of the Rio Des-
aguadero, north of Rio Mauri, whereas single terraces are preserved south
of the Rio Mauri.
2. The sediments preserved in terraces north of Rio Mauri were depos-
ited in fluvial, deltaic, lacustrine, and lake-shoreline environments much
different from the modern river system, indicating dramatic changes within
the fluvial system. Sediments preserved in terraces south of Rio Mauri,
however, are similar to the modern river sediments.
3. In the northern part of the river valley, lacustrine and meandering-
river sedimentation occurred at Parko Kkota and Calacoto, respectively,
between approximately 4500 yr BP and 3900 yr BP and was followed by
deltaic and braided-river sedimentation. These sediments record a period
of wetter-than-modern conditions in the river valley. This wet period was
followed by two periods of downcutting at 4000 yr BP and 3600 yr BP,
interpreted to be related to decreased effective moisture. A final wet inter-
val, recorded by 2000-year-old lake strata at Nazacara, was followed by a
final episode of fluvial downcutting, at 2000 yr BP, which resulted in in-
cision of the modern channel. All of these variations in sedimentation re-
cord important changes in climatic conditions not previously described
from lacustrine sediments of Lake Titicaca.
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4. Sediments preserved in terraces south of the Rio Mauri record braid-
ed-river deposition prior to approximately 3500 yr BP at Huito Churo and
7100 yr BP at Nequela, indicating that the Rio Desaguadero south of the
Rio Mauri has been a braided stream for the entire period recorded in Rio
Desaguadero terraces. The river was aggrading from at least 7100 yr BP
until at least 3500 yr BP. Incision and southward migration occurred after
3500 yr BP.
5. The history of sediment deposition and terrace dissection north of the
Rio Mauri has been controlled by precipitation fluctuations and is either
directly (Lake Titicaca spillover) or indirectly (effective moisture changes
on the Altiplano) correlative with changes in the water level of Lake Ti-
ticaca. South of the Rio Mauri, deposition and dissection are controlled by
the discharge of Rio Mauri, by channel migration, and by fluctuations in
the level of the southern lakes.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This work was supported by grants from the National Science Foundation
(#ATM-9709035) and by the East Carolina University Research/Creative Activities
Grants Committee. We thank the personnel at ALT (Autoridad Binacional Lago
Titicaca), especially Julio Sanjines, Mario Revollo, and Julio Campos, for allowing
us to work in Bolivia and the staff at GEOBOL (Servicio Geológico de Bolivia),
especially Herberto Pérez, who provided access to aerial photographs and maps.
Paul A. Baker, Robin W. Renault, Mark B. Abbott, and Elizabeth Gierlowski-Kor-
desch provided insightful comments on the manuscript.
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