Artigo - The Mackenzie Delta - Sedimentary Processes and Facies of A High-Latitude, Fine-Grained Delta - Sedimentology, 2001

Sedimentology (2001) 48, 1047±1078
The Mackenzie Delta: sedimentary processes and facies

of a high-latitude, ®ne-grained delta
PHILIP R. HILL* 1 , C. PETER LEWIS , SIMON DESMARAIS*,
VA SSEN KAUPPAYMUTHOO* and HASNA RAIS*
*Institut des sciences de la mer de Rimouski (ISMER), UniversiteÂ du QueÂbec aÁ Rimouski, 310 alleÂe
des Ursulines, Rimouski, QueÂbec, G5L 3A1, Canada (E-mail: phill@nrcan.gc.ca)
British Columbia Ministry of Fisheries, PO Box 9359, Stn Prov. Govt, Victoria, BC, V8W 9M2, Canada
(E-mail: Pete.Lewis@gems4.gov.bc.ca)
ABSTRACT
The Mackenzie Delta is a large ®ne-grained delta deposited in a cold arctic

setting. The delta has been constructed upon a ¯ooding surface developed on a
previous shelf-phase delta. There are three principal depositional zones: the
subaerial delta plain, the distributary channel mouth region and the subaqeous
delta. The subaerial delta plain is characterized by an anastomosing system of
high-sinuosity channels and extensive thermokarst lake development. This
region is greatly in¯uenced by the annual cycle of seasonal processes including
winter freezing of sediments and channels, ice-jamming and ¯ooding in the
early spring and declining river stage during the summer and autumn.
Deposition occurs on channel levees and in thermokarst lakes during ¯ood
events and is commonly rhythmic in nature with discrete annual beds being
distinguishable. In the channel mouth environment, deposition is dominated
by landward accretion and aggradation of mouth bars during river- and storm
surge-induced ¯ood events. The subaqeous delta is characterized by a shallow
water platform and a gentle offshore slope. Sediment bypassing of the shallow-
water platform is ef®cient as a result of the presence of incised submarine
channels and the predominance of suspension transport of ®ne-grained
sediments. Facies of the shallow platform include silty sand with climbing
ripple lamination. Offshore facies are dominated by seaward-®ning ®ne sand to
silt tempestites. Sea-ice scouring and sediment deformation are common
beyond 10 m water depth where bioturbated muds are the predominant facies.
The low angle pro®le of the shallow-water platform is interpreted to be the
combined response of a ®ne-grained delta to (1) storm sediment dispersal;
(2) autoretreat as a result of the increasing subaerial and subaqeous area of
deposition as the delta progrades out of its glacial valley; (3) limited water
depth above the underlying ¯ooding surface; and (4) ef®cient nearshore
bypassing of sediment through subice channels at the peak of spring discharge.
Several indicators of the cold climate can be used as criteria for the
interpretation of ancient successions, including thermokarst lake development,
submarine channel scours, freeze±thaw deformation and ice-scour deformation
structures. Permafrost inhibits compaction subsidence and, together with the
shallow-water setting, also limits autocyclic lobe switching. The cold climate
can thus in¯uence stratal architecture by favouring the development of
1
Present address: Geological Survey of Canada, PO Box
6000, Sidney, BC, Canada, V8L 4B2.
Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists 1047
1048 P. R. Hill et al.
regional-scale clinoform sets rather than multiple, smaller scale lobes separated
by autocyclic ¯ooding surfaces.
Keywords Arctic, delta, facies, sedimentary processes.
characteristics that are unique to the high-latitude

INTRODUCTION
setting are evaluated.
Deltas are important sedimentary environments
that show a wide range of morphologies and
BACKGROUND
depositional patterns (Orton & Reading, 1993).
Because they represent the primary locus of
Geological setting
sediment supply to the marine environment,
deltas are particularly sensitive to the changes The drainage basin of the Mackenzie River covers
in controlling variables that give rise to well- an area of 1á8 ´ 106 km2, the river draining the
developed parasequences, systems tracts and northern section of the Rocky Mountains via the
sequences. For this reason, modern deltas provide Athabasca and Peace Rivers, and the Mackenzie
important ground-truthing for the new concepts Mountains, via the Nahanni, Liard and Peel
of sequence stratigraphy and allostratigraphy Rivers, before ¯owing northwards to the Beaufort
(Van Wagoner et al., 1988), and deltaic facies Sea and the Arctic Ocean (Fig. 1a). Seismic data
models based on modern deltas are of fundamen- from the vicinity of the modern Mackenzie Delta
tal interest to sedimentologists (Bhattacharya & and Beaufort Sea indicate that more than 12 km of
Walker, 1992). The variety of modern delta sediments have been deposited in the Beaufort±
morphologies is controlled to a large extent by Mackenzie Basin since Cretaceous times (Dietrich
sediment supply, grain size (Orton & Reading, et al., 1985). However, these sediments were
1993) and the relative dominance of ef¯uent, deposited by ancestral river systems limited to
wave and tide processes (Galloway, 1975). Cli- the region north of the Mackenzie Mountains
mate acts through many of these controlling (Duk-Rodkin & Hughes, 1994). The present con-
factors but, particularly in the case of high- tinental drainage system was only established in
latitude deltas, may directly in¯uence sedimen- the late Wisconsinan as a result of glacial erosion,
tation processes and leave a strong morphological which diverted previously eastward-¯owing riv-
imprint (Walker, 1976, 1983). ers towards the north. The subaerial Holocene
The Mackenzie Delta is one of the world's delta forms a tongue-shaped lowland plain
largest deltas and the second largest Arctic delta between the higher areas of Pleistocene deposits
after the Lena, but it remains probably one of the of the Yukon coastal plain and the Tuktoyaktuk
least understood. The pioneering study of the Lowlands (Fig. 1b; Rampton, 1982, 1988). The
region's geomorphology and Quaternary deposits main part of the delta ®lls a glacial valley that
was conducted by Mackay (1963). Numerous extends offshore as the Mackenzie Trough. This
consultant studies were contracted by BC Hydro trough is ®lled with more than 200 m of late
between 1978 and 1985 in relation to a now- Pleistocene glacial sediment (Blasco et al., 1990)
abandoned hydroelectric project on the Liard overlain by late Pleistocene and Holocene delta
River tributary (for a bibliography, see Wilkins & deposits (Hill, 1996). From the bathymetric con-
Hirst, 1991). Oil exploration led to further interest tours (Fig. 1c), the modern delta wedge appears to
in the delta in the 1970s and 1980s with studies be preferentially in®lling the trough towards the
conducted for environmental and engineering east, re¯ecting the dominant eastward transport
purposes mainly in the offshore area (Dome of sediment in the suspended sediment plume
Petroleum Ltd et al., 1982; Howard & Goodwin, (Hill et al., 1991).
1983). The objective of the present paper is to
provide a synthesis of the seasonally modulated
Fig. 1. Location maps for the Mackenzie Delta.
sedimentary processes, morphology and sedi- (a) Drainage basin. (b) General relief of the area sur-
mentary facies of the Mackenzie Delta, based on rounding the delta, including positions of Laurentide
published work and new data. The delta is placed glacial ice. (c) Detailed map showing offshore bathy-
in a sequence stratigraphic context, and the metry, core and borehole locations and transects
discussed in the text.
Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Mackenzie Delta processes and facies 1049

To the east of the main delta plain, Richards suspended sediment load of the Mackenzie con-
Island, which is often mistakenly included with- sists predominantly of silt and clay, whereas
in the Mackenzie Delta, forms an outlier of older sandy bed material load accounts for 3% of the
Pleistocene deposits containing a mix of glacial, total load (Carson et al., 1998). The annual mean
marine, ¯uvial and aeolian deposits (Rampton, sediment discharge of 1á28 ´ 1011 kg (Carson
1988; Dallimore et al., 1996; Murton et al., 1997). et al., 1998) is approximately half that of the
The East Channel of the Mackenzie River occu- Mississippi (Milliman, 1981). Sediment supply
pies an incised valley that cuts across the varies seasonally in phase with the ¯uvial dis-
Tuktoyaktuk Lowlands east of Richards Island charge, with a winter minimum, a peak in late
and discharges into Kugmallit Bay. This bay is May and early June and a steady decrease during
separated from the main part of the delta by more the summer months. Signi®cant pulses of sedi-
than 50 km but contains a small area of modern ment associated with rainfall events in tributary
delta deposits in the bayhead region. drainage basins can also be detected at the delta
coast (Jenner, 1989).
Hydrology
Climate and sea ice
The discharge of the Mackenzie River is highly
variable over the annual cycle (Fig. 2) and also The delta lies within the taiga and marine tundra
from year to year (Davies, 1975; Harper & Pen- climatological zone of Burns (1973), character-
land, 1982; Marko et al., 1983). The winter ized by long cold winters (January mean monthly
months are characterized by low but continuous temperature ±30 °C) and short cool summers (July
discharge through the main channels beneath an mean monthly temperature 13 °C). During the
ice cover of 1±2 m. During May and early June, winter months, from October to May, both the
the discharge increases rapidly as snow melt distributary channels of the delta and the Beau-
occurs in the tributaries, resulting in the `spring fort Sea are frozen over. In freshwater regions
freshet'. The increasing discharge of relatively (channels and lakes), ice thickness varies from
warm water causes initial over¯ow and then year to year and from region to region, but may
break-up of sea-ice in the vicinity of the distrib- reach up to 2 m on the outer delta. Offshore, the
utary channel mouths. By June, the delta is more saline ice rarely exceeds 1á8 m in thickness
generally free of ice, and the river discharge in the ®rst year, except in regions of pressure
gradually decreases over the open-water season. ridging. Whereas a large area of open water
Typically, several peaks in discharge, related to usually appears in the Beaufort Sea in summer,
high rainfall events in tributary basins, occur over most of the Arctic Ocean is ice covered for the
the summer and autumn months. On the western entire year. The southern boundary of the perma-
side of the delta, the Peel River ¯ows directly into nent ice pack usually lies at »100 km offshore, but
the delta and has a signi®cant effect on the local occasionally moves further south.
hydrology, although its contribution to the total Coupled with the polar pack is a transition
discharge is only 7á8%. zone where ice consists of a mixture of multiyear
The Mackenzie sediment load is ®ne grained, pack ice and ®rst year ice. Landward of the
with a mean grain size in the silt range. The transition zone is the active shear zone where the
Fig. 2. Averaged discharge curve

and envelope for the Mackenzie
River 1974±83, from Water Survey
of Canada data (Arctic Red River,
Fig. 1b; after Lewis, 1988). Typical
ice cover seasons are also shown.
mobile polar pack and transition zone ice move Wave energy in the Beaufort Sea is controlled
against the stationary land-fast ice. The land-fast by the available fetch across open water and the
ice zone forms along the coast and can be divided wind direction. Winter ice cover means that
into two zones. In the ®rst zone, adjacent to the waves are only important during the summer.
coast, where water depths are less than the The wave regime is characterized by wave heights
maximum thickness of ®rst year ice (between 1á5 and periods generally less than 4 m and 8 s
and 2 m), the ice is frozen to the seabed. This respectively (Hill et al., 1991). The strongest
`bottom-fast' ice has a smooth surface, and its winds generally blow from the north-west, and
extent offshore is controlled by the slope of the fetches are commonly longer to the north-west, so
seabed. In the vicinity of the Mackenzie Delta, that wave energy is greatest from that direction.
the bottom-fast ice zone is 10±20 km wide. The Because of the low tidal range of the Beaufort Sea,
second zone, further offshore, comprises ice that storm surges are extremely important in terms of
is attached to the shoreline but not frozen to the both modulating current ¯ows in shallow water
bottom. and facilitating wave attack on the delta coast.
Mapping of log-line deposits in the Kugmallit Bay
region suggests a maximum storm surge level of
Oceanographic setting
2á4 m above mean sea level in the recent past
The distribution of ice during the summer months (Harper et al., 1988).
is variable from year to year, with the edge of
continuous ice cover ranging from a few kilome-
tres to more than 300 km offshore in extreme SEISMIC STRATIGRAPHY
years (Milne & Herlinveaux, 1977). Throughout
the summer, most of the Beaufort Sea shows a The composite section through the Mackenzie
well-developed strati®cation with a plume of Delta (Fig. 3) is based on high-resolution seismic
low-salinity water lying above denser Arctic data from offshore (Hill, 1996) and borehole data
water (Fissel et al., 1987). The surface layer is from the subaerial delta (Johnston & Brown, 1965;
characterized by pronounced horizontal gradients Dallimore, 1992). The modern delta can be seen to
in salinity, temperature and suspended sediment overlie an older delta wedge and ¯ooding surface.
concentration. The tidal range of the Beaufort Sea The older wedge was interpreted by Hill (1996) to
is small, with a mean of 0á3 m and a maximum of be a parasequence of the transgressive systems
0á5 m at Tuktoyaktuk. Under open-water condi- tract associated with latest Wisconsinan glacial
tions, current circulation is primarily wind readvance at »13 000 BP (Tutsieta Lake phase;
driven, although signi®cant current ¯uctuations Hughes, 1987). At this time, sea level was »±70 m
also occur over semi-diurnal tidal and inertial lower than at present, having risen from a
periods (Fissel & Birch, 1984). Sediment distri- lowstand of at least ±140 m (Hill et al., 1985).
bution patterns indicate that the net drift of Two major ¯uvial valleys incised into the Beau-
sediment is eastward from the delta (Pelletier, fort Shelf to the east of the Mackenzie Delta have
1975; Hill et al., 1991). base levels within a few metres of ±70 m (Hill
Fig. 3. Composite late Quaternary stratigraphy of the Mackenzie Delta along the transects shown in Fig. 1 (after Hill,
1996).

et al., 1985; Blasco et al., 1990) and may also be thus requiring a progressive broadening of the
contemporaneous with the Tutsieta readvance. shallow-water platform.
Although Hill et al. (1985) interpreted this valley Based on the observed stratigraphy (Hill, 1996)
incision to be related to a sea-level lowering or and the rate of relative sea-level rise (Hill et al.,
stillstand, it is also possible that the incision was 1993), the change from progradation to transgres-
caused by increased outwash discharge from the sion took place within the last 3500 years. Over
Tutsieta Lake ice front (Hill, 1996). the same time period, relative sea level has risen
After glacial retreat, relative sea-level rise at a constant rate (1 mm a±1), close to the eustatic
continued, and a ¯ooding surface (marked late rate (Hill et al., 1993). This suggests that isostatic,
Wisconsinan ¯ooding surface on Fig. 3) formed tectonic and compaction components of subsi-
above the parasequence (Hill, 1996). Subse- dence are insigni®cant. This has considerable
quently, the modern delta prograded seawards signi®cance for the later discussion of the Mac-
to its present position forming a highstand kenzie Delta as a model for large ®ne-grained
systems tract. A radiocarbon date indicates that deltas.
the delta had prograded as far as Inuvik (Fig. 1) by
6900 + 110 BP (Johnston & Brown, 1965). Ther-
mal modelling of the thickness of permafrost THE DELTA PLAIN ENVIRONMENT
indicates that subaerial conditions were estab-
lished at the Unipkat well site, only 25 km from The tongue-shaped subaerial Mackenzie delta
the delta front (Fig. 1), by 4500 BP (Taylor et al., plain (Fig. 1b) is a complex system of intertwined
1996). These dates imply a decreasing net pro- channels, delta lakes, levees and low alluvial
gradation rate of »30 m a±1 between Inuvik and ¯ats. It has a long axis of 210 km from Point
Unipkat, but of only 5 m a±1 between Unipkat Separation, where the ®rst delta distributary is
and the coast. given off, to the Beaufort Sea and a mean width of
The overall geometry of the highstand systems 62 km. From two primary input rivers, the Mac-
tract can be divided into three sections: the kenzie and Peel, with a total width of about
prograding delta wedge beneath the subaerial 2á25 km, the channel network expands down the
delta and shallow submarine platform, a zone of delta until 57 active output distributaries, over
relatively thin prodelta deposits and the deep- 86 km in total width, discharge into the Beaufort
water basin beyond the hinge point of the Sea (Lewis, 1988). Channel levee heights (Fig. 4)
underlying transgressive parasequence where decline from over 9á0 m above late summer water
the succession thickens markedly (Fig. 3). levels in the south to less than 1á5 m on the
Within the progradational delta wedge, a northern lower plain. The delta plain can be
strong, gas-enhanced re¯ector below the seabed divided into two subregions (Fig. 5): the upper
has been interpreted as a possible ¯ooding plain, lying above direct tidal or marine in¯uence
surface (marked late Holocene ¯ooding surface and thus dominated by river processes; and the
on Fig. 3), thus de®ning two highstand parase- lower plain, lying within the zone of marine
quences (Hill, 1996). This interpretation is based in¯uence. Driftwood deposits, interpreted as
on the presence of converging re¯ectors forming a marking the landward limit of storm surge ¯ood-
healing phase-type wedge at the clinoform hinge ing and associated wave action, de®ne the
point of the gas-enhanced re¯ector and weakly boundary between the two subregions. The limit
developed onlap. The ¯ooding surface cannot be of storm surge ¯ooding also corresponds with an
followed onshore because it is masked by pro- abrupt decrease in levee height (Fig. 4), which
gressively shallower gas layers. However, shore- also marks the northern limit of white spruce. On
face retreat is the predominant process over much the lower plain, the highest surfaces are commonly
of the delta front today, with mean shoreline dominated by willow or alder communities.
erosion of 2á1 m a±1 (Harper, 1990). The postula-
ted ¯ooding surface is interpreted to be related to
Seasonality of processes
this shoreface retreat, marking a change in the
progradation pattern of the delta. Above the Sedimentary processes on the delta plain are
interpreted ¯ooding surface, the modern delta controlled to a large degree by the strong seasonal
wedge is characterized by prograding clinoforms variations in temperature and discharge (Fig. 2).
with a progressively lower gradient. This implies Ice begins to form in mid-September as air
that subaqeous delta progradation continues at temperatures drop below 0 °C while, at the same
the same time as transgressive shoreface retreat, time, discharge decreases towards the winter
Fig. 4. Longitudinal pro®le of

channel water surface (solid line),
estimated for a discharge of
10 900 m3 s±1 at Arctic Red River
(Fig. 1b), a typical September pre-
freeze-up ¯ow (after Parkinson &
Holder, 1982) and levee elevation
(dashed line). Note sharp decrease
in levee crest elevation on lower
subaerial plain (after Lewis, 1988).
Fig. 5. Division of the subaerial

delta plain into upper and lower
sections, also showing the approxi-
mate position of the tree line (after
Lewis, 1988).
minimum. Lakes generally begin to freeze ®rst, be major ice-jamming, particularly at sharp bends,
followed by secondary channels and, ®nally, constrictions and shoals in channels. This results
major channels, with ice cover being complete in rapid back-up of the river and very high water
by mid-October to early November. The ice levels, leading to diversion of water and sediment
thickens progressively through the winter and into delta plain lakes and, in extreme cases, to
gradually restricts the ¯ow of water through major ¯ooding of large portions of the delta plain.
channels and into lakes. Burn (1995) has docu- The signi®cance of ice-jamming is illustrated in
mented short-lived water-level increases in early Table 1 (Lewis, 1988), which shows that, in East
winter that are related to ice formation, resulting Channel at Inuvik, maximum daily water levels
in increase in ¯ow resistance and back-up in the occurred very close to the date of ice clearance,
lower delta plain. Smaller channels and lakes even in those years when Mackenzie River
may become completely blocked by the thicken- discharge peaked several weeks later.
ing ice cover so that ¯ow is reduced to zero. The nature, pattern and rate of distributary
Most larger channels, however, remain connected channel break-up and ice clearance can vary
to the main Mackenzie River discharge and, considerably from year to year, but the process
although ¯ow is reduced in winter, a signi®cant generally begins in the south-west and extends
discharge is maintained year round. north and east over a period of 6±10 days.
Spring on the Mackenzie Delta, as on other Flooding of the delta surface is more complex:
arctic/subarctic deltas, is dominated by ice break- lakes connected to channels tend to ¯ood ®rst on
up and related ¯ooding, accentuated by the south the northern lower plain (Parkinson & Holder,
to north progression of spring melt. In mid-April 1982), but overbank ¯ooding, controlled as it is by
to early May, daily mean air temperatures over the jam-induced water levels, progresses by and large
lower Mackenzie valley rise above 0 °C, and water from south to north. Maximum water levels
begins to pond along the edges of river channels. generally decrease from south to north because
On the delta, rapidly increasing discharge from of ¯ow dispersal but, because bank heights
the south in May (Fig. 2) encounters thicker ice, decline even more rapidly (Fig. 4), the net effect
less affected by spring melting, and therefore more is more widespread ¯ooding near the delta front,
resistant to break-up and removal. The result can decreasing southward towards the head of the
Table 1. Peak discharge and water levels between 1966 and 1984 and date of ice clearance at Inuvik.
Mackenzie at Norman Mackenzie above Arctic East Channel at Inuvik

Wells (WSC 10KA001) Red (WSC 10LA003) (WSC 10LC002)
Max. daily discharge Max. daily discharge Max. daily water level
Year 19- m3 s)1 Date m3 s)1 Date m Date End of ice conditions
66 20 800 June 20 ± ± 7á4 June 5 June 9
67 22 500 June 4 ± ± 8á6 June 6 June 5
68 25 000 June 30 ± ± 7á8 June 6 June 8
69 17 400 June 17 ± ± 7á2 June 2 June 4
70 20 600 July 22 ± ± 7á7 June 3 June 3
71 21 500 June 24 ± ± 8á8 May 31 June 2
72 25 500 July 25 ± ± 10á4 June 7 June 12
73 24 800 June 23 26 600 June 26 9á0 May 30 May 31
74 27 500 May 26 30 300 May 30 8á3 June 6 June 9
75 30 300 May 24 34 000 May 28 8á6 June 3 June 4
76 22 000 July 6 32 000 May 24 8á3 May 29 June 8
77 28 300 May 17 29 200 June 12 8á0 May 31 June 10
78 24 100 May 20 28 300 June 5 8á0 June 9 June 15
79 24 900 July 9 28 600 May 31 8á5 May 31 June 10
80 ± ± 26 400 May 29 7á3 June 4 June 7
81 ± ± 28 300 May 24 7á6 May 24 May 30
84 19 800 June 15 22 100 June 19 ± May 28 June 3
Mean 23 940 June 14 28 630 June 4 8á3 June 2 June 7

delta. In 1980, for example, Blachut et al. (1985) The planform of individual channels ranges
reported 98% water coverage on the lower plain, from straight to tortuously meandering, although
62% in the northern upper plain and 35% on the channel sinuosity generally exceeds 1á5 (Lapo-
southern upper plain. In some years, however, inte, 1984). Mackay (1963) compared channel
the ¯ooding sequence can be in¯uenced by an width and various meander properties for 39
event that affects the entire delta plain surface: in small and large distributaries and found that they
both 1961 and 1982, as much as 95% of the are comparable with values found in temperate
surface was inundated because of major ice jams climate meander systems. Most major channels
in Middle Channel, the largest delta distributary. have thalweg depths of the order of 5±10 m,
The ®nal phase of the spring ¯ood period on whereas smaller channels are generally shallower
the Mackenzie Delta Plain is the post-break-up with thalweg depths of 2±3 m.
¯ood recession. Channel water levels drop rap- A striking characteristic of many channel
idly as ice jams release. This results in maximum meanders on smaller channels is the presence of
¯ow velocities exceeding 1á0 m s±1 (Lapointe, scour holes up to 20 m deep (Lapointe, 1986).
1986). Drainage from the delta plain surface and These are associated in some cases with amphi-
lakes begins simultaneously, but lags behind theatre-shaped channel widening. The origin of
distributary channel ¯ow because of the limited these scour holes has never been clearly deter-
size of the connecting channels and the relatively mined, but their extreme depth and location in
high resistance to overbank ¯ow offered by the meander bends suggest that they may be related
vegetation (Slaney & Co. Ltd, 1974). to peak ¯ows associated with ice-jam release.
Summer ¯ow in the main distributary channels This has not, however, been veri®ed by direct
is primarily controlled by the upstream discharge observation.
and is most commonly characterized by a general These characteristics all support an aggrada-
decrease from the snow melt peak, interrupted by tional, anastomosing model for delta plain devel-
brief increases associated with storm events in the opment consistent with a raising of relative base
Mackenzie Valley and tributary basins (Fig. 2). level (downstream control; Mackin, 1948) and
Although the peak discharges associated with stable channels (Smith & Smith, 1980). This
these summer events may exceed the spring model also implies an important role for overbank
discharge, water levels do not generally come sedimentation, a role that is consistent with the
close to those caused by ice jams, and extensive ice-jam-induced overbank ¯ooding described pre-
delta plain ¯ooding does not occur. These events viously (Lewis, 1988). In the anastomosing
do, however, contribute to the sediment supply to model, prominent channel levees would be
lakes connected with the main channels (see expected, especially when channels are as laterally
below). stable as they are on the Mackenzie delta plain.
Levees are present in the upper delta plain, where
they can readily be identi®ed by contrasting
Channel characteristics
vegetation characteristic of higher and drier soil
The distributary channel network on the Mac- regimes. Gill (1971) and Parker et al. (1973)
kenzie Delta plain is anastomosing in form with presented data indicating that levees on the upper
an overall predominance of bifurcation (Fig. 6). delta plain have increased in height by an average
This has resulted in the development of ®ve of 0á3±0á45 m over the last 100 years. Their
major distributary channels and the many secon- elevations relative to normal summer channel
dary channels that form multiple channel mouths water levels (Fig. 4) and to adjacent interdistrib-
at the delta front. In total, these channels occupy utary environments decrease rapidly towards the
just under 20% of the delta plain surface (Blachut delta front, however, and they are absent on
et al., 1985). The pattern of channels appears to the lower delta plain. This may be explained by
have been stable over recent historical time. the limited quantities of sand in transport in the
Mackay (1963) was able to recognize and trace decelerating ¯ow near the delta front as levee
extensive segments of the routes through the delta construction is promoted by the presence of
followed by A. Mackenzie in 1789 and J. Franklin coarse suspended load.
in 1825. The presence of large ice wedges
(Mackay, 1963) and spruce trees over 500 years
Delta plain lakes
old (Cordes et al., 1984) on the delta plain also
suggest that channel shifting has been minimal The most striking characteristics of the Mackenzie
over recent time. delta plain surface is the thousands of interdis-
Fig. 6. (a) Digitally enhanced composite Landsat and ERS-1 satellite image of the delta plain (for location, see
Fig. 1b) showing anastomosing channel form. (b) Details of lakes and channel connections from the area indicated by
the white box. Image courtesy of the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing.
tributary lakes and the complex interconnections some areas and, over much of the upper delta
between those lakes and distributary channels. plain, 30±50% of the total surface is occupied by
Mackenzie Delta lakes are typically small (mean lakes. Even on the lower plain, where densities are
surface area 0á12 km2) and shallow (mean depths less and broad vegetated ¯ats appear to contain
in summer 0á5±3á0 m and maximum rarely in only a few large lakes (Fig. 6a), close examination
excess of 5 m; Mackay, 1963; Lewis, 1988). Lake reveals numerous small ponds <0á01 km2.
density (given as the number of lakes >0á01 km2 This abundance of interdistributary lakes
per unit area of delta plain) exceeds 3 km±2 in is typical of ®ne-grained high-latitude deltas
(Reimnitz & Bruder, 1972; DupreÂ, 1982), primar- closure tend to be much larger, however, avera-
ily because of cold climate effects including the ging 3á3 times the mean surface area of those with
presence of perennially frozen ground. Mean closure.
annual ground surface temperatures on the sub- Sedimentation processes are fundamentally
aerial Mackenzie Delta plain range from ±2 to different for each lake type. With no connection
±4 °C (Mackay, 1974), and perennially frozen to the main distributary channels, the dominant
ground extends to depths of almost 100 m in mechanism for sediment transport to lakes with
areas distant from water bodies (Taylor et al., closure is by overbank ¯ooding. For most of the
1996). delta plain, where levee heights are relatively
The majority of Mackenzie Delta lakes appear high, overbank ¯ooding and associated sedimen-
to have formed and are partly maintained tation occur only during the spring period when
by thermokarst (thaw subsidence) processes, discharge is near maximum and ice-jamming
although lakes of other genetic types (e.g. levee contributes to raising water levels. On the lower
¯ank, meander scroll and abandoned channel plain, however, where levee heights are minimal,
lakes) are also present. Thermokarst lakes form ¯ooding can also occur during summer rainfall
because of the warming in¯uence of surface events and from backwater effects caused by
standing water and the resultant thawing of storm surges on the Beaufort Sea (Jenner & Hill,
subsurface perennially frozen ground containing 1991, 1998).
ice. Any disturbance to the subaerial surface that The small channels that connect lakes with no
causes water ponding or the destruction of closure are usually perched, with a sill height
vegetative cover (e.g. ice-wedge polygon forma- well above the distributary channel ¯oor. Over-
tion, scour by ice during overbank ¯ooding) can bank sediment input does occur, but most of the
signi®cantly increase mean ground temperatures annual sediment input is delivered through these
in the shallow subsurface (Smith & Hwang, 1973). channels. The supply depends on the sill height
This, in turn, will cause a local increase in the with respect to maximum and minimum water
thickness of the seasonally unfrozen or `active' levels in the distributary channels. During high-
layer. Perennially frozen ground on the subaerial water conditions, especially in the spring, there is
Mackenzie plain, particularly in the near surface, a net in¯ow of sediment-charged water to the
is known to contain varying amounts of excess ice lake. As water levels diminish through the
(i.e. ice volume that exceeds pore volume of the summer, the ¯ow reverses, and there is a net
unfrozen sediment; Mackay, 1966). As a result, out¯ow of water from the lake to the distributary
active layer thickening leads to thaw consolid- channel (Lewis, 1988; Marsh & Hey, 1989; Fergu-
ation and to the formation and continued deep- son & Marsh, 1991). By this time, much of the
ening of depressions in the delta plain surface. sediment load has been deposited in the lake
The maximum warming effect and, thus, the (Ferguson & Marsh, 1991). Some is deposited
maximum disturbance to permafrost occurs when indirectly, initially on lake ice and then on the
water depth exceeds the greatest thickness of lake bed after ice melting. Walker (1970) has
winter ice cover: 1±2 m for the Mackenzie Delta. observed large amounts of sediment deposited on
Mackay (1963) de®ned two major types of delta lake ice during the prebreak-up ¯ood on the
lakes on the basis of hydrological regime. Lakes Colville River Delta in Alaska. Summer rainfall
with closure are isolated from direct channel events that raise water levels signi®cantly may
effects except during periods of overbank ¯ood- reactivate water in¯ow and associated sediment
ing. Lakes with no closure (described as `tapped' input depending on the sill depth of the connect-
lakes by Walker, 1983) open out onto or are ing channel.
connected by channels to delta distributaries and The sediment that is delivered to Mackenzie
are subject to channel effects for much or all of lakes with no closure during periods of in¯ow
the open-water season. Individual lakes may have leads to the construction and progradation of
no closure for all or only a portion of their life small lacustrine deltas and thus to the extension
history. Lakes with closure are most abundant on of the connecting channels out into the lakes.
the Mackenzie Delta. Lewis (1988), on the basis of This can isolate portions of the original lake
a statistical map analysis, estimated that 76% of a basin, subdividing it into a number of smaller
total lake population of just under 24 000 are lakes both with and without closure. At a late
lakes with closure. On the lower plain, where stage in the in®lling process, when the water
levee heights are lowest and the lakes are recently depth is small, some reworking of the sediments
formed, almost 90% are closed. Lakes with no by waves and currents to form cuspate bars has
been observed (Lewis, 1988). Eventually, com- Lacustrine facies

plete in®lling may occur.
The typical lacustrine facies consists of lamin-
On many temperate and tropical deltas, clastic
ated silty clay with low organic carbon content.
mineral material is only a secondary component
Graf Pannatier (1997) identi®ed three lacustrine
of the sediment in interdistributary basins, greatly
lithologies: (1) centimetre-scale dark brown or
exceeded in importance by accumulated organic
black sandy silt layers alternating irregularly
material, primarily in situ plant remains. Under
with centimetre-scale light brown silty clay
these conditions, delta plain lakes are rapidly
layers; (2) millimetre-scale dark brown silty clay
converted into marsh. A signi®cant factor in the
laminae alternating with centimetre-scale light
continued survival of lakes on arctic/subarctic
brown silty clay layers; and (3) massive light
deltas such as the Mackenzie is a pronounced
brown silty clay with rare millimetre-scale to
decrease in the relative importance of organic
centimetre-scale black silty layers. Lakes on the
accumulation. Organic matter in Mackenzie lake
upper delta plain show all three lithologies,
bottom sediments sampled by Cordes et al. (1984)
whereas lakes on the lower delta show only
ranged from 2% to 6% by weight, and similar
types 1 and 3.
values have been measured beneath modern
In the thick-bedded lithology (1), the darker
subaerial interdistributary surfaces. Extensive
layers are signi®cantly coarser than the lighter
peat accumulations have not been observed.
layers, containing a greater proportion of silt,
sand and vegetal debris, the latter including leaf
Delta plain facies fragments and aquatic macrophytes.
Channel-®ll facies
Facies model
Little is known about the characteristics of
A delta plain facies model is presented in Fig. 7.
channel-®ll deposits on the delta plain. The
It is based on the premise of delta aggradation
variety of channel forms suggests that the in®ll
where the lower delta plain morphology evolves
would be variable. Active channel ®ll would
into upper delta plain morphology through
probably resemble other ®ne-grained anastomo-
aggradation of levees and thermal subsidence of
sing river deposits (Collinson, 1996). Abandoned
lakes. Some aspects of the stratal architecture are
channel ®ll would probably be similar to that of
inferred from processes.
thermokarst lakes (see below).
Delta plain facies overlie channel mouth facies
to be described in the next section. The delta
Levee facies
plain environment can be divided into channel,
Levee deposits consist of predominantly clayey levee and lacustrine environments. As aggrada-
silt with minor proportions of sand in irregular tion proceeds, the channel becomes stabilized by
beds from 1 to 10 cm in thickness (Graf Pannatier, the development of levees. The levee facies
1997). These beds are separated by very thin characterizes the region between the channel
layers of organic detritus containing leaves, bark and thermokarst lakes, decreasing in thickness
fragments and roots. Irregular bed boundaries and away from the channel. Levee deposits show
vertical fractures are common, indicating subae- signs of freeze±thaw and, in the upper delta plain,
rial exposure and freeze±thaw. they will be cut by root structures.
Fig. 7. A facies model of the upper

delta plain showing probable levee
and lake-in®ll stratigraphy. See text
for detailed explanation.
Lacustrine deposits make up a large proportion (1994) described the morphology at the mouth of
of the delta plain volume. Initial in®ll of a newly East Channel, which ¯ows into Kugmallit Bay
formed lake basin on the lower delta results from (Fig. 1). In the main delta, the coastline consists of
overbank ¯ooding. The lowermost in®ll (1 in lobate vegetated islands separated by broad fun-
Fig. 7) would consist of relatively thick-bedded nel-shaped channels (Fig. 8a). In Kugmallit Bay,
silt and silty clay beds (type 1 lacustrine facies) the channel mouth has a similar morphology,
grading laterally into the levee facies and forming a bayhead delta within the con®nes of the
upwards into types 2 and 3 lacustrine facies. microtidal bay (Fig. 8b). Jenner (1989) noted two
The predominance of mineral grains over organic sets of channels: deep (>5 m) primary distrib-
matter is characteristic of all these deposits. In utaries such as Reindeer Channel and Nonsuch
certain cores from the upper delta plain, the dark/ Channel (Fig. 9a), which carry signi®cant river
light couplets of type 2 have been shown by 137Cs out¯ow; and shallow (1±2 m) secondary channels,
dating to be annual layers and are probably which form as a result of bar accretion.
related to spring ¯ooding (Graf Pannatier, 1997). Several primary channels extend up to 15 km
Type 1 and 3 layers are not annual and may beyond the coastline, forming submarine distrib-
represent, respectively, shallow, higher energy utaries incised into the delta platform (Fig. 9).
lakes where sedimentation is interrupted by These channel extensions provide conduits for
erosional episodes and disconnected, protected winter ¯ow through the bottom-fast ice zone.
lakes where only the largest ¯ood events supply Because of their shallow depth, secondary chan-
sediments. nels are likely to be frozen to the bottom during
Basal deposits are likely to be deformed as a the winter.
result of synsedimentary thaw subsidence and The vegetated islands are generally fronted by
freeze±thaw processes before the lake becomes erosional bluffs with elevations up to 1 m above
suf®ciently deep to be insulated from winter mean sea level. Comparison of air photographs
temperatures. In a study of thermokarst lake indicates that delta bluffs in the main delta are
deposits from non-deltaic areas of the Beaufort retreating at a mean rate of 2á5 m a±1 (Harper,
Sea coast, Murton (1996) observed synsedimen- 1990). Vegetation on the channel margins and
tary reverse faults in the basal in®ll unit. outer rim of the islands is commonly sparse. Bluff
When a connection is established to a distrib- tops are covered with log debris as well as recent
utary channel, the predominant sedimentation silt and clay, deposited during ¯ood stage or
pattern will be lacustrine delta progradation (2). storm surge inundation of the islands. The
Although no speci®c facies data are available predominant vegetation is willow (Salix spp.),
from this ®ll type, it is likely to consist of medium horsetail (Equisetum sp.) and sedges (Cypera-
to thin, graded beds of silt and very ®ne sand. If ceae). The interiors of the islands are character-
this sedimentation ends in isolating a smaller ized by stands of willow on relatively dry ground
lake with closure, the in®ll will probably become separated by marshy depressions that contain a
®ner grained (3), consisting of annual silty clay predominantly sedge vegetation but also dead
layers (type 2 lacustrine facies) or more massive willow trunks, indicating that the ground was
mud (type 3 lacustrine facies). Finally, as the lake previously drier. Ground-probing radar pro®les
becomes close to complete in®ll, wave reworking indicate that permafrost is absent below these
of sediments is observed to form small bars (4). As depressions, whereas it is present in surrounding
the lake becomes in®lled, it will freeze to the areas (Desmarais, 1994). For these reasons, the
bottom in winter, and permafrost aggradation will depressions are interpreted to be thermokarst
recommence (Mackay, 1963), resulting in further features that may represent an early stage in
deformation of the deposits through the develop- thermokarst lake development.
ment of ice wedges and ice segregation. Newly accreted, emergent bars are generally
absent except in the interior of the larger embay-
ments where storm surge back®lling is the dom-
THE CHANNEL MOUTH ENVIRONMENT inant process (Jenner & Hill, 1998). Many channel
mouths are, however, characterized by subaqeous
Morphology bars emergent only at very low tide (Fig. 8).
Whereas most of the channel-mouth bars of the
The channel mouth morphology of the main
main delta are depositional features, several of
Mackenzie Delta has been studied in detail by
those in Kugmallit Bay are interpreted to be the
Jenner (1989) and Jenner & Hill (1998). Desmarais
erosional remnants of earlier deposits (Fig. 9b).
Fig. 8. Typical channel-mouth morphologies. (a) Air photo mosaic of the Ellice Island area (from Jenner, 1989).
(b) Composite Landsat and ERS-1 image of Kugmallit Bay, courtesy of the Canada Centre for Remote Sensing.
The seaward front of the small island in the centre right of the image is eroding at several metres per year.
The eroding shoreline of delta mouth is-

Winter
lands, drowned morphology and the back®ll-
ing character of sedimentation, together with With the exception of a few spot measurements of
measured coastal retreat rates, all indicate that ice thickness and water properties by the ®rst
the channel-mouth regions of the Mackenzie author, the main delta west of Richards Island has
Delta are undergoing transgression. This not been studied in detail during the winter.
results in limited water depth for sediment However, Kauppaymuthoo (1997) carried out a
accumulation and friction-dominated ef¯uent detailed study of the mouth of East Channel in the
dynamics. late winter, several weeks before the period of
peak discharge. The study focused on the main
submarine channel that extends into Kittigazuit
Ef¯uent dynamics
Bay, the inner part of Kugmallit Bay (Fig. 9b).
As seen in Fig. 2, the discharge of the Mackenzie This channel is in full continuity with East
River shows a marked seasonality with low ¯ow Channel and is therefore active all year. In winter,
during the winter, a spring peak and a decreas- it is con®ned both upwards and laterally by the
ing trend during the summer. The seasonality of presence of ice.
sedimentary processes at channel mouths is The morphology of the channel, as determined
further reinforced by the ice cover that forms from ground-probing radar pro®les and drilled
in channels and in the nearshore zone. Because holes, is shown in Fig. 10b. The ice thickness at
the Mackenzie River ¯ows northwards, snow the time of the survey (in 1994) varied between
melt occurs in the drainage basin and ¯uvial 1á4 and 1á8 m. The channel is steep sided and
discharge increases while ice is still present at bound laterally by ledges of 0á5 m depth, this
the channel mouth. This means that the spring depth being taken up by ice in the winter.
freshet is a particularly dynamic period when Longitudinally, the channel decreases in depth
®eld measurements are next to impossible. seaward from 8 m to 2 m (measured from the
Quantitative studies of ef¯uent processes are surface of the ice) within a distance of 18 km. The
thus limited to winter and summer. ¯oor of the channel is characterized by irregular

Fig. 9. Sketch maps of submarine

distributaries from Canadian
Hydrographic Service charts 7662
and 7663. (a) Nonsuch and Reindeer
channels. (b) East Channel. Depths
shown in metres.
relief with an apparent amplitude of »14 cm and Beyond the channel, the seabed slopes gradu-
an average apparent spacing of 12 m in the cross- ally seawards, giving the impression of a broad
channel direction. Low-angle subbottom re¯ec- distributary mouth bar (Fig. 10b). At the shallow-
tors associated with this relief suggest that small est point of this bar along the measured pro®le,
subaqeous dunes are present on the channel ¯oor. the ice thickness decreased, and the water col-
The apparent bedform heights are lower than the umn was less than 0á5 m thick. In areas surround-
normal range of subaqeous dunes (Ashley, 1990). ing the channels, the ice was mostly observed to
Detailed surveying of the channel terminus in be frozen to the seabed.
1994 suggested that it has been displaced 330 m The water temperature in the channel in late
laterally towards the west compared with Cana- April 1994 was close to 0 °C, and the salinity was
dian Hydrographic Service soundings in 1976 zero. There was therefore no salt water intrusion
(Fig. 9b). into the channel. This is in strong contrast to
Fig. 10. Summary of subice chan-

nel morphology and winter ®eld
measurements of ef¯uent dynamics
in Kittigazuit Bay. (a) Location map.
(b) Morphology and oceanographic
parameters along the transect (note
that measurements of the channels
are from the ice surface and do not
necessarily correspond to hydro-
graphic depths, although compari-
sons of a few spot measurements
suggest that they are close). S,
salinity (parts per thousand); T,
temperature (°C); SSC, suspended
sediment concentration; V, velocity.
(c) Compilation of instantaneous
current speeds in near-surface
water along the pro®le, measured at
low tide. Note the acceleration of
the out¯owing current in the region
of ice-constricted ¯ow across the
bar top.
smaller Arctic rivers such as the Colville, where slightly more than 1 m from the base of the ice.
salt water penetrates tens of kilometres inland The mean speed of the channel current was
(Walker, 1973), and an indicator that signi®cant 17 cm s±1 in the downstream direction. There
discharge occurs year round in the Mackenzie. was no reversal or modulation of the current at a
Offshore of the mouth bar, strong salinity strati- tidal frequency, although the current speeds
®cation developed beyond a water depth of ¯uctuate at a higher frequency, possibly related
»4á5 m (Fig. 10b). At the most distal station, some to the propagation of large-scale turbulent eddies
50 km from the river mouth, bottom-water salin- in the channel (Kauppaymuthoo, 1997).
ities ranged from 13 to 27. The surface layer was Currents were also measured offshore in the
made up of fresh water at 0 °C, and the pycno- strati®ed water column at depths of 3 m and 5á5 m
cline was sharp, with the depth varying between below the ice surface (1á2 m and 3á7 m, respect-
4á5 m and 5á5 m according to the semi-diurnal ively, below the bottom of the ice, the latter being
(M2) tide. »0á7 m from the bed). Because the current meters
Current speeds within the channel were meas- were possibly within the boundary layer, absolute
ured at 3 m below the surface of the ice, i.e. at current speeds do not necessarily represent the
maximum ¯ow. Nevertheless, at 3 m depth, cur- during the early freshet period. The following
rent speeds rotated on an M2 frequency reaching a interpretation of freshet and break-up processes
maximum speed of 18 cm s±1 and a vector mean is based on extrapolation of the conditions
towards the north (offshore) at 3 cm s±1. Near- observed just before the freshet and estimates
bottom currents had a maximum speed of of current velocity based on discharge curves
21 cm s±1 and a strongly bimodal tidal ellipse (Kauppaymuthoo, 1997).
with a principal axis in the north-west±south-east Flow would initially be channelled offshore in
direction. The vector mean velocity was 1 cm s±1 the submarine channels and as a turbulent plane
to the south-west, indicating intrusion of bottom jet over the mouth bar as in winter. In the early to
water towards the channel mouth. mid-stage of increasing discharge before break-
Instantaneous current measurements were up, current velocities would reach threshold
made through the ice at various positions along conditions for sediment movement in the distrib-
the transect (Fig. 10a) at low tide when the space utary channels. Acceleration of the current over
between the ice cover and the seabed was minimal the distributary mouth bar would probably lead to
and the salt wedge was displaced towards the increasing sediment erosion and entrainment,
offshore. The measurements were made at 3 m potentially before the ice cover is removed.
below the ice surface. These data indicate that Whereas the timing of break-up in relation to
there was a strong acceleration of the current at the potentially erosive under-ice ¯ows is unclear and
channel terminus as the water depth decreased, is probably variable from year to year, this period
with a maximum of 37 cm s±1 at the bar top where provides the greatest potential for seaward-direc-
the water had to pass through the narrow gap ted sediment transport and bar migration.
between the ice and the bottom (Fig. 10c). It was As the river level continues to rise, the increas-
also noted that the ice was less thick by a few ing pressure of the discharge and the buoyancy of
centimetres in this bar top area, possibly indica- the ice cover would lead to a ¯exure of the ice in
ting erosion of the ice base. Beyond the bar, the the regions of the channel and bar and, eventu-
current speed decreased with distance. ally, to rupture of the ice at points where it is
Suspended sediment concentrations measured frozen to the bottom. The result is ¯ooding of the
at the same stations ranged from 3 to 12 mg l±1. river onto the ice surface. Extensive over-ice
These very low values indicate negligible sedi- ¯ooding during the early to mid-stage of the
ment transport during the winter. This is in freshet has been documented by Pilkington and
agreement with current speeds in the channel Associates (1990). Regions of several hundred
that are below the critical velocity for sediment square kilometres can be ¯ooded around each of
movement for ®ne sand (Kauppaymuthoo, 1997). the primary distributary channels. Nevertheless,
These data on winter ef¯uent dynamics are calculations of the volume of water that ¯oods
summarized in Fig. 10b. In the distributary onto the surface of the ice indicate that it is a
mouth area itself, there is no salt wedge penetra- small proportion of the total Mackenzie River
tion, so that inertial and frictional forces pre- discharge. The major part of the discharge con-
dominate and the out¯ow is homopycnal. The tinues to ¯ow through the subice channels,
shallowness of Kugmallit Bay limits turbulent bypassing the shallow-water zone where bottom-
diffusion to the horizontal, so that the ef¯uent fast ice is present.
type tends towards being a plane turbulent jet. Reimnitz et al. (1974) have documented the
However, the ice cover largely limits the ef¯uent phenomenon of strudel scour on Alaskan Arctic
expansion to the region beyond the bar. In deeper deltas, where ¯ood waters drain back through the
water, salt wedge penetration occurs, and buoy- ice in plug-hole-type vortices. Despite an exten-
ancy forces become dominant, the out¯ow sive search of archived satellite images and ®eld
becoming hypopycnal. missions to ®nd strudel scour holes on the ice
seaward of the Mackenzie Delta (Dickins, 1987;
Freshet and break-up Pilkington & Associates, 1990), no such features
have been found. The only observations of water
There are very few direct observations and no
drainage from the ice surface recount ¯ow down
measurements of channel-mouth processes that
elongated cracks (Pilkington & Associates, 1990).
occur at break-up, because of the logistic dif®-
Eventually, the nearshore ice melts out, form-
culties of working from a weakening ice cover.
ing melt lagoons along the delta shoreline (Dic-
The winter study, however, provides important
kins, 1987). Strong ¯ow is likely to continue along
insight into the processes that should occur
the submarine extension of the channel, with
horizontal turbulent diffusion occurring across is resuspended on the shallow-water platform,

the surrounding shallow-water regions. water levels are raised in the outer channels and
landward sediment ¯ux occurs on the ¯ood tide.
Open-water season
Current meter moorings with temperature and Facies
salinity sensors were installed in Nonsuch Chan-
A detailed description of distributary mouth
nel in 1987 (Jenner & Hill, 1991). Ef¯uent dis-
facies in the main delta was presented in an
charge is almost uniquely unidirectional, but
earlier paper by Jenner & Hill (1998). A brief
current speed ¯uctuates strongly at the M2 tidal
summary is given here. The evolution of the
frequency (Jenner & Hill, 1991). Current speeds
channel-mouth area is typi®ed by the emergence
varied from 40 to 70 cm s±1. For most of the
and accretion of broad lobate bars, typical of
period of measurement, the water in the channel
frictionally dominated river mouths (Wright,
remained exclusively fresh, indicating no
1977). The secondary channels that diverge
intrusion of sea water but, during periods of
around the bars become abandoned and in®lled
strong north-westerly winds, the current ¯owed
as a result of landward transport of offshore
up-channel for short periods, and the water tem-
sediment during storms. Four principal facies
perature decreased indicating mixing with marine
associations were identi®ed (Fig. 11).
waters. A very small increase in salinity was noted
The channel-®ll association consists of very
during one event. These conditions were also
®ne, relatively well-sorted sand showing ripple
associated with storm surges that increased water
lamination, grading upwards into thin sets of
levels by 50±60 cm (Jenner & Hill, 1991).
rippled sand, silt and clay. These facies represent
Salinity and temperature measurements made
the latter stages of secondary channel back®ll and
in the offshore area seaward of Kugmallit Bay in
the progressive decrease in ¯ow through the
1983 showed that, under fair-weather conditions,
channel as the channel dimensions decreased.
a 1- to 2-m-thick layer of near-fresh water (salinity
The bar accretion association consists of ripple-
less than 5) extends over the inner shelf (Hill &
drift, cross-laminated ®ne sand to silt interbed-
Nadeau, 1989). Hypopycnal conditions are thus
ded with ®ning-upward sets of ®ne sand to clay
established further offshore as the ef¯uent mixes
characterized by wavy bedding and ¯asers of mud
horizontally with shelf water and forms a stable
and particulate organic matter. This association is
surface layer of intermediate salinity water.
interpreted to be deposited during ¯ood stage
However, under storm conditions, the offshore
(whether ¯uvial or storm in origin), the ¯asers
strati®cation is destroyed by vertical mixing, and
being deposited under waning conditions.
the water column becomes well mixed. The data
The bar emergence association includes thin,
from Nonsuch Channel (Jenner & Hill, 1991)
parallel and wavy beds of ®ne sand to clay in a
suggest that, during the more violent storms,
®ning-upward succession. These facies are also
turbulent mixing extends into the channel itself.
associated with plant roots increasing in abun-
At the same time, large quantities of sediment are
dance upwards and are therefore interpreted to
put into suspension offshore (Hill & Nadeau,
represent progressive subaerial emergence and
1989), and this sediment is transported shore-
vegetation of the channel-mouth bars.
wards when there is a reversal of current.
The storm bed consists of a graded, 10-cm-
In summary, the shallow-water conditions at
thick, very ®ne sand bed that cuts across the other
the mouths of the major channels impose a
associations. It has an erosional base in many
frictionally dominated ef¯uent dynamic (Wright,
locations and is also locally convoluted, suggest-
1977). Although the river mouths and outer delta
ing rapid deposition. It is interpreted as the
channels are tidally in¯uenced and experience
product of an intense storm event associated with
current reversals, little or no salt-wedge intrusion
an extreme surge.
occurs within the channels under moderate river
¯ow conditions. The water mass overlying the
shallow-water platform consists of low-salinity
THE SUBAQEOUS DELTA ENVIRONMENT
water, and strati®cation only develops several
kilometres seawards of the submarine extensions
Morphology
of the channels. Storms cause mixing of saline
offshore waters with the fresh ef¯uent, destroying Seaward of the channel mouth environment, the
strati®cation. At the same time, bottom sediment inner shelf slopes more or less uniformly offshore

Fig. 11. Distributary mouth facies associations interpreted from core and pit analysis, Ellice Island area (after Jenner
& Hill, 1998). Location of sections shown in Fig. 8.
to the 5 m isobath, forming a shallow-water Sidescan sonar records show intense ice gou-
platform (Fig. 1c). The inner part of this platform, ging of the sea¯oor seaward of 3 m water depth,
in water depths <2 m, falls within the bottom-fast with the scour intensity increasing in deeper
ice zone and is therefore seasonally frozen. Unlike water (Fig. 12). Ice gouging occurs when the keels
other Arctic deltas (Reimnitz & Bruder, 1972; of ice ridges and ¯oating ice ¯oes become
DupreÂ, 1982), however, there is no signi®cant grounded on the sea¯oor and plough through
morphological break at the offshore limit of this the seabed sediments (Barnes et al., 1984). The
zone. Submarine channels extend from several decrease in scour intensity with decreasing depth
primary channels across this zone and terminate can be explained by the combined effects of large
at »2 m water depth. As discussed in the previous ¯oes becoming grounded before entering shallow
section, this suggests that they act as conduits of water and the greater degree of wave reworking in
winter ¯ow through the bottom-fast zone. shallow water.
Seaward of the 5 m isobath, the seabed slope
increases signi®cantly and forms a low-angle
Processes
prodelta slope that gradually converges with the
¯oor of the Mackenzie Trough. The 10 m isobath Detailed measurements of wave and current
forms an almost linear front oriented NE±SW. processes immediately off the main delta are
Seaward of this depth, the isobaths diverge lacking. Beaufort Shelf sedimentation processes
signi®cantly towards the north, re¯ecting the are dominated by summer and autumn storm
eastward drift of ®ne sediments in the Mackenzie activity. The winter period is characterized by
River plume. An increased thickness of accumu- 100% ice cover, and currents are assumed to be
lation in this region is con®rmed by isopach maps weak over most of the shelf at this time of year.
of modern delta deposits (McGregor GeoScience, Wave conditions in the summer and autumn are
1986). controlled by the fetch of open water, which
Fig. 12. Sidescan sonar records

showing ice gouging on the subaq-
eous delta with progressive
increase in scour density offshore.
(a) 10 m water depth. (b) 5 m water
depth. (c) 2á5 m water depth.
Locations of pro®les are shown in
Fig. 1c. North to the left in all cases.
typically increases over the summer as temper- favours the generation of high wave conditions.
atures increase. The most signi®cant storms Major resuspension of sediment occurs in near-
occur in the months of September and October shore regions during storms (Hill & Nadeau,
when the combination of the frequent passage of 1989; Hill et al., 1991), which occur several
low pressure systems and the maximum fetch times per year.

Facies troughs generally consist of ®ne to very ®ne sand,

silt and plant debris.
Shallow-water facies
Several of the coarser and thicker sand beds
In water depths of 1 m or less, in the region of show broadly diverging laminae, low-angle trun-
bottom-fast ice, the seabed is frozen in winter, but cation surfaces and downlapping or draped
melts again in the summer. Sediments were laminations overlying the truncation surfaces,
recovered from this region by drilling from the typically in sharp-based, 5- to 8-cm-thick beds
ice surface in winter. The cores contain beds, of ®ne to very ®ne sand. These characteristics are
lenses and veins of massive ice. The dominant indicative of hummocky cross-strati®cation
lithology is ®ne to very ®ne sand characterized by (Fig. 14e). In some beds, they grade both from
wavy lamination and climbing ripple cross-lam- and into wave ripple cross-laminated intervals.
ination in individual sets of 1 cm thickness, with Climbing ripple lamination is also quite abun-
concentrations of detrital organic matter and dant, generally as ripple drift bedding (Fig. 14f).
small (4 mm) tabular mud clasts (Fig. 13a). Gra- Commonly bidirectional, the ripple set bounding
ded beds, with an average thickness of 6 cm, a surfaces are 1±1á5 cm apart and climb at an angle
lower interval of ®ne sand to silt and an upper of 10° to 15°. The ripple troughs, which downlap
interval of silt with very thin horizontal lamina- onto the bounding surfaces, commonly contain
tions, are also present. In slightly deeper water high proportions of particulate organic material,
(1á2 m), the seabed was unfrozen at the time of making the troughs appear as irregular dark
sampling. The lithology is similar to that of bands. Less commonly, steeply inclined sand,
shallower water, consisting of very ®ne sand beds clay and particulate organic laminae in beds
up to 10 cm thick interbedded with millimetre- »4 cm thick, with truncated upper surfaces, are
scale clay beds. observed. Several examples of convolute bedding
are also found at this water depth.
Platform facies At 4 m water depth (Fig. 13b, core 30), coarse
beds with an average thickness of 4 cm are
In 3 m water depth, the deposits consist of
present and contain primary sedimentary struc-
graded beds of ®ne to very ®ne sand and silt,
tures, but they are siltier and separated by thicker
averaging 4 cm but reaching up to 21 cm in
intervals of mud than the sediments at 3 m water
thickness, separated by centimetre- to milli-
depth. Erosional structures and basal mud clast
metre-scale silty clay interbeds (core 27, Fig. 13b
lags are rare, although the sand beds have sharp
and c). The sand and silt beds contain abundant
bases. The predominant primary sedimentary
particulate organic matter, commonly in discrete
structure in the sand beds is planar lamination,
laminae, and show a variety of erosional and
although wave ripple cross-lamination, trough
depositional structures attesting to a high-energy
cross-lamination and climbing ripple lamination
depositional environment. The bases of individ-
are present in minor proportions. Particulate
ual beds are commonly sharp and truncate
organic matter is abundant in several sand beds
underlying beds, forming amalgamation surfaces.
as discrete laminations, particularly within the
Sole marks and load structures of centimetre
planar-laminated beds. Mud intervals are vari-
scale are common on basal surfaces. In two
able in thickness, ranging from a few millimetres
observed cases, the erosional surfaces cut down
up to 30 cm. The thicker mud intervals are
several centimetres into underlying sediments at
homogeneous or ®nely mottled but grade up-
a steep angle (Fig. 14a and b), suggesting the
wards in the basal part from cross-laminated,
presence of a gutter (Whitaker, 1973; Myrow,
very ®ne sand into massive, ungraded mud
1992a). Mudclasts are common in the sand beds,
(Fig. 13b, core 30). Some beds contain 1±2 cm
primarily as tabular rip-up clasts forming layers
rounded patches of organic-rich mud and milli-
of gravel-sized material at the base of beds
metre-scale angular mud clasts ¯oating within
(Fig. 14c).
the mud matrix.
The tops of several beds have a symmetrical
ripple form (Fig. 14c) and are interpreted to be of
Prodelta and deep-water facies
wave ripple origin. These ripples have heights of
1±2 cm and wavelengths of 7±10 cm. Trough Progressing into deeper water, the sediments
cross-lamination (Fig. 14d), formed by small become generally ®ner grained, and the coarser
wave or current ripples, is abundantly present beds become thinner (Fig. 13b, cores 33±91). By
in sets 2±5 cm thick. The laminae forming the 5 m water depth, the coarsest beds consist of

Fig. 13. Sedimentology of cores along a dip section (offshore to the right) across the subaqeous delta. (a) Shallow-
water facies; cores collected through the ice cover in winter. (b) Platform facies (cores 27 and 30) and prodelta facies
(cores 33 through 91); vibracores (note difference in length scale from (a). (c) Detailed sedimentology of platform
facies (core 27). The location of the core transect is shown in Fig. 1c.
sharp-based, parallel and cross-laminated silts, Major storms occur several times per year
up to 4 cm thick (Fig. 13b, core 33). These beds (HeÂquette & Hill, 1993) and account for the
generally have sharp ¯at or rippled tops. More observed erosion of the delta coastline. It is
typically, in these water depths, silt beds are therefore likely that storms have an important
only millimetres thick and are both continuous effect in the shallow-water region. Sediments
and lensoid. These very thin silt beds pass deposited in less than 3 m water depth during
upwards into intervals of mud up to 20 cm fair-weather conditions would, in all probability,
thick. The thicker mud intervals are deformed be resuspended during storms. However, during
by ice scour. the waning phase of the storm, when redeposition
In water depths >5 m, the lithology becomes occurs, the river out¯ow would probably be the
more mud rich (Fig. 13b, cores 97, 94 and 91). dominant in¯uence.
Centimetre-scale silt beds and lenses continue to Numerous features of the sediments from the
be common. Where not affected by bioturbation, deeper delta platform, including interbedded
the silt beds are sharp based and graded coarse and ®ne beds, sharp/scoured bases,
(Fig. 15a). Most beds, however, show some degree gradational tops, lags (in this case, abundant
of bioturbation, ranging from discrete burrows mud clast layers), wave-generated undulatory
(Fig. 15b) to complete homogenization of the bed. lamination and possible gutter casts, are diag-
By 10 m water depth, the sediments consist nostic of erosion and sedimentation under
almost entirely of bioturbated silty clay with rare storm conditions (Fig. 13; Table 1 of Myrow,
silt beds or lenses. 1992b). The abundance of structures, the wel-
The MTW01 borehole drilled close to the ded nature of beds and the lack of ®ne beds at
hingeline of the underlying transgressive parase- 3 m water depth suggest that storms rework the
quence wedge (Figs 1 and 3) contains a 20-m- seabed regularly and subject the bottom to
thick sur®cial succession of bioturbated mud strong oscillatory currents. Sedimentary struc-
(Moran et al., 1989). Piston cores from the deep- tures generated by oscillatory ¯ows include
water basin seaward of this borehole show a wave ripples and hummocky cross-strati®cation
similar facies (Vilks et al., 1979). High-resolution (Southard et al., 1990). Bidirectional climbing
seismic pro®les show abundant evidence for ice- ripple sets at this depth attest to high rates of
scour deformation in these deep-water ®ne- deposition and current reversal, probably the
grained sediments (McGregor GeoScience Ltd., in¯uence of tidal currents over the duration of
1986), but the deformation is often dif®cult to single storm events.
observe in cores because of the lack of primary The thick silt beds at 4 m water depth are
sedimentary structures. interpreted to be the result of deposition from
hyperpycnal under¯ows. These beds have char-
acteristics similar to deep-sea muds that McCave
Interpretation and facies model
& Jones (1988) interpreted to be the deposits of
The shallow-water region shoreward of 2 m decelerating turbidity currents where turbulence
water depth is a zone of sediment bypassing is damped by extreme concentrations of suspen-
(Myrow, 1992b). This occurs by several mech- ded sediment. Hyperpycnal under¯ows have
anisms. First, during winter and the spring been observed offshore of the Huanghe Delta,
freshet, much of the inner platform is covered China (Wright et al., 1990), where the ¯ows were
by bottom-fast ice, which prevents deposition. triggered by tidal ¯ows and storm waves resus-
During this period, river out¯ow and sediment pending suf®cient amounts of sediments to
transport is entirely channelized out to the 2 m produce excess density. Suspended sediment
isobath. Even through the summer, when ice is concentrations in the order of 10±100 kg m±3
no longer present, a large proportion of the were measured in this case. Similar concentra-
sediment load is probably transported by chan- tions have been recorded in the Beaufort Sea just
nelized ¯ow, although turbulent exchange with east of the main delta during major storm events
the adjacent coastal waters releases suspended (Hill & Nadeau, 1989). It is therefore likely that
sediment to the inner platform. Deposition of hyperpycnal ¯ows could be generated offshore of
climbing ripple sets in this region suggests the Mackenzie Delta.
rapid deposition from suspension, under ¯ow The decrease in the number and thickness of
with little wave in¯uence. Depositional pro- coarse-grained beds in an offshore direction is
cesses may therefore be dominated by river related to the corresponding decrease in the
out¯ow. strength of oscillatory currents with increasing

bioturbated mud. This depth can be considered as

Fig. 14. Platform facies. (a) and (b) Possible gutter casts
with erosional wall shown by arrows; note the trunca- the effective storm wave base for the Mackenzie
tion of underlying laminae. (c) Mudclasts (indicated by Delta. Beyond this depth, sedimentation is prin-
arrow) at the base of a hummocky and wave-rippled cipally from suspension, although wind-driven
bed. (d) Ripple trough lamination. (e) Hummocky bottom currents may occasionally be strong
cross-strati®cation. (f) Climbing ripple lamination. enough to cause resuspension (Fissel & Birch,
1984; Hill et al., 1991). Considerable deformation
water depth. The ®ning and thinning trend of these muds is a characteristic of deeper water,
continues offshore until »10 m water depth, this being caused by scouring of the seabed by sea
where the sediment consists almost entirely of ice.
Fig. 15. Prodelta facies. (a) Thin silt beds (arrowed) with thick mud interbeds. (b) Bioturbated mud showing burrow
structures and some residual bedding.

DISCUSSION sening-upward succession climaxing in ®ne sand

tempestites (Fig. 16b). Overlying distributary
A general facies model for the Mackenzie Delta, mouth and delta-plain facies associations would
based on the facies associations described earlier be separated from the subaqeous delta facies by a
in the paper for the subaerial delta plain, the shoreface erosion (ravinement) surface with loca-
distributary mouth environment and the subaq- lized channel scours up to 2 m deep, the latter
eous delta environment, is shown in Fig. 16a. The being formed by incision of submarine channel
dominant characteristics of this model are: extensions. Delta-plain deposits would consist of
(1) predominantly ®ne-grained subaqeous depo- laterally discontinuous, channel scour-and-®ll
sits forming a coarsening-upward succession that and deformed thermokarst lake-®ll facies. The
culminates in ®ne sand tempestites; (2) shoreface preservation potential of the distributary mouth
retreat resulting in a nearshore zone where facies would probably be low as a result of the
erosion predominates over deposition and where dual possibility of obliteration by shoreface ero-
sediment bypassing occurs in early spring below sion and delta plain processes.
the sea-ice cover via submarine channel exten- The Mackenzie Delta provides a useful variant
sions and in summer in the water column through of the delta facies model for two reasons. First, it
inertial out¯ow and progressive reworking of the represents a particular case of a large, ®ne-grained
bed; (3) predominantly transgressive distributary delta being deposited under highstand conditions
mouth deposits; and (4) delta-plain deposits but suffering the initial stages of transgression as
dominated by thermokarst lake-®ll deposits with a result of autoretreat (Muto & Steel, 1992, 1997).
minor channel-®ll and levee facies. Secondly, it is deposited at a latitude where the
The facies succession produced by the Mac- mean annual air temperature is below 0 °C,
kenzie Delta would be characterized by a coar- resulting in permafrost development and numer-
Fig. 16. Schematic summary of the sedimentary deposits of a ®ne-grained cold climate delta. (a) Sedimentary
environments and facies associations. (b) Vertical section.

ous characteristics speci®cally related to the cold relative sea level is inevitable. In addition, the
climate. These aspects are discussed in the delta front became progressively more exposed to
following sections. sediment dispersal by storm waves, reinforcing
the change towards transgression.
Other factors have also favoured the low-
The Mackenzie Delta as a model
inclination subaqeous pro®le of the Mackenzie
of a ®ne-grained highstand delta
Delta. First, the delta prograded over the late
Sediment grain sizes coarser than ®ne sand are Wisconsinan ¯ooding surface for many tens of
rare in the deposits of the Mackenzie Delta. kilometres, limiting the effective basin depth to
Consequently, the delta shows many of the typical less than 70 m (Fig. 3). Water depth is an
characteristics of a ¯uvially dominated ®ne- important in¯uence on the subaqeous slope
grained delta, as described by Orton & Reading because it determines whether frictional or buoy-
(1993). Of particular note is the extremely low- ancy effects dominate river mouth processes
inclination subaqeous pro®le and broad submar- (Wright, 1977; Postma, 1990; Orton & Reading,
ine platform, which together favour wave energy 1993). Given that the water depth above the late
dissipation. Although wave energy in the Beaufort Wisconsinan ¯ooding surface did not exceed
Sea is relatively low as a result of fetch limitation 70 m and was considerably less for much of the
by the permanent ice pack (Hill et al., 1991), most time, frictional effects have probably dominated
of this energy is in the form of storm waves. Only a river mouth processes through most of its Holo-
small proportion reaches the shoreline, most cene history.
being dissipated on the shallow-water platform. The presence of sea ice would also favour the
The result is an intense reworking of the seabed in low subaqeous pro®le. Submarine channel exten-
water depths less than 5 m and the development sions, incised into the shallow-water platform
of a tempestite facies association (Fig. 16). The when winter and early spring out¯ow is restricted
gentle slope also entirely eliminates the develop- by bottom-fast ice, provide a signi®cant method of
ment of delta-front instabilities and gravity pro- river mouth bypassing. The very high ratio of
cesses, in distinct contrast to other deltas with suspended load to total load of the Mackenzie
steeper prodelta slopes (Orton & Reading, 1993). makes bypassing ef®cient and leads to signi®cant
An additional reason for this low subaqeous accumulation of sediment in the deep basin
pro®le relates to the fact that, whereas the offshore (Fig. 3) as well as on the adjacent shelf
Mackenzie Delta has prograded through most of areas (Hill et al., 1991). The relative importance
the Holocene and can be considered to be forming of this high-latitude climatic effect on the overall
a highstand systems tract, morphological evi- morphology and evolution of the delta is dif®cult
dence indicates that transgression through shore- to evaluate. Whereas a shallow-water platform
face retreat is occurring at the delta shoreline and submarine channel extensions are typical
(Hill, 1996). At the same time, seismic evidence features of high-latitude deltas (Walker, 1976;
suggests that progradation is continuing in the Roberge, 1998; Lavoie, 2000; LongueÂpeÂe, 2000;
subaqeous delta (Fig. 3) with the consequent LongueÂpeÂe & Hill 2000), the offshore slope of
effect of widening the shallow-water platform these systems can attain values of nearly 4°
and reducing the average slope of the submarine (Roberge, 1998). In the case of deltas located
pro®le. In effect, the Mackenzie Delta is in a state along the coast of eastern Hudson Bay, Canada,
of transition from highstand to transgressive under conditions of relative sea-level lowering (as
systems tract geometries. This state of transition a result of glacio-isostatic uplift), antecedent
did not result from an increased rate of relative morphology and/or grain size are more important
sea-level rise (Hill et al., 1993) but rather from the controls on subaqeous slope. It is therefore
process of autoretreat (Muto & Steel, 1992, 1997). unlikely that the presence of bottom-fast ice is
For most of the Holocene, the delta prograded the predominant control on the subaqeous slope
within a glacial valley con®ned vertically by of the Mackenzie Delta.
previous in®ll and horizontally by the valley
walls. As the delta both prograded towards the
The Mackenzie Delta as a model
open shelf and began to overtop the adjacent
of a cold climate delta
coastal plain sediments, the subaerial and subaq-
eous area of deposition increased. As pointed out The cold climate of a polar setting leaves charac-
by Muto & Steel (1992, 1997), eventual retreat of teristic features in the preserved sediment record
the delta under these conditions and steady rising of a large delta such as the Mackenzie. Cold
climate indicators (Table 2) are best developed on surfaces. As bars become emergent, incipient
the delta plain, which is subaerially exposed year thermokarst topography develops in the form of
round and where thermokarst topography devel- marshy depressions (Desmarais, 1994). These
ops. The most obvious large-scale feature is the incipient features would have a lower preserva-
thermokarst lake, which forms by progressive tion potential than well-developed thermokarst
deformation of the in®lling sediments as differ- features on the upper delta plain because of their
ential compaction occurs. Furthermore, the cold lower relief and elevation with respect to sea
climate limits ¯oral production so that, whereas level. Shoreface retreat and development of a
they may form thick accumulations, lacustrine ravinement surface would probably eliminate
facies are predominantly composed of mineral them unless they evolved into fully developed
clastics and allochthonous organic matter rather thermokarst features.
than organic matter formed in situ. The presence of incised distributary channels
The deep scour holes present in Mackenzie on the shallow-water platform has been cited as
Delta channels and thought to be related to ice diagnostic of a cold climate delta (Reimnitz &
damming represent another large-scale indicator Bruder, 1972; DupreÂ, 1982). The data presented in
of cold climate conditions. Scour holes would this paper support this criterion. The submarine
form steep-walled depressions in channel bot- channels are active during the winter and allow
toms. Because bedload sediments in most of the winter discharge to pass through the bottom-fast
delta consist of ®ne sands, scour hole in®ll is ice zone. Scouring probably occurs during the
likely to consist of thick-bedded ®ne sand. early stages of the spring freshet, when discharge
Bed-scale indicators of cold climate are also increases rapidly but land-fast sea ice is still in
abundant in delta-plain sediments. Freeze±thaw place.
action is variable, depending primarily on the The ®nal indicator of cold climate found in
grain size. The effects range from microscale offshore sediments is the ice gouge (also com-
fractures in a reticulate pattern to metre-scale monly known as ice scour). This feature, resulting
sand wedges developed under patterned ground. from grounding of pressure-ridge ice keels, is
The latter are not well developed on the Macken- abundant on ice-dominated shelves. Studies of
zie Delta. However, sediments from levees are palaeogouges in raised marine deposits indicate
commonly fractured and deformed (Graf Panna- that a simple gouge consists of a central linear
tier, 1997). depression and two marginal ridges (Woodworth-
Similar structures would also be present in Lynas et al., 1991; Woodworth-Lynas, 1996).
sediments deposited in subaerial environments of Deformations within the ridges consist of pre-
the distributary mouth region. Jenner (1989) has dominantly synsedimentary folds and shear
observed frost-heave polygons on intertidal bar planes with reverse (thrust) movement on them.
Table 2. Criteria for recognition of cold climate deltas.
Vertical Horizontal
Feature Characteristics dimension (m) dimension (m)
Delta plain 1. Thermokarst lake Steep-walled basin, compaction deformation 100±101 10±103
of underlying and in®ll sediments,
normal faults, load structures, diapirs,
slumps, predominance of mineral clastics
over organic deposits
2. Channel scour hole Steep-walled channel scour within large 101 101
channel system
3. Freeze±thaw Microfaults and fractures, ice or sand 10)2±101 10)2±101
structures wedge structures
4. Rhythmic bedding Seasonal layers in levee and thermokarst 10)3±10)1 102±104
lake sediments
Distributary mouth and delta platform
5. Submarine Extension of distributary channel incised 101 104
distributary channel into underlying shallow-water facies
Offshore
6. Ice scour Shallow-marine sediments, synsedimentary 101 101±103
folds and reverse faults

These features are directly diagnostic of the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

presence of a seasonal ice cover and thus a cold
climate. The work that has gone into this article has
Does the cold climate affect the overall stratal extended over a long period of time, and we are
architecture of the delta? Because permafrost indebted to many people and organizations.
greatly limits compaction subsidence, the cre- Financial support was provided by Environment
ation of accommodation space by compaction Canada through the Northern Oil and Gas Action
would be much less ef®cient. Many of the typical Program (NOGAP), the Geological Survey of
autocyclic processes, such as lobe switching, lobe Canada, the Natural Science and Engineering
abandonment and local transgression, in temper- Research Council (NSERC) and the Fonds insti-
ate deltas are caused by this relatively rapid post- tutionnel de recherche (FIR) of the UniversiteÂ du
depositional subsidence (Penland et al., 1988). QueÂbec aÁ Rimouski, the last two through grants to
Basin-scale subsidence is generally much slower P. R. Hill. The Science Institute of the North-west
than compaction subsidence and would alone be Territories and the Polar Continental Shelf Project
insuf®cient to allow the full development of lobe (PCSP) provided logistic support over many
abandonment cycles. This, together with the years. Technical support from Gilles Desmeules
overall shallow-water character of the Mackenzie and Don Locke was outstanding even under very
Delta, may explain its amalgamated and linear arduous conditions. The ®gures were drafted by
style of progradation. With minimal subsidence Agathe Roy. We are grateful for information from
and lobe switching, cold climate delta systems and discussions with Steve Blasco, Kate Moran,
tracts would be constructed from a small number Kimberley Jenner, Conrad Gajewski, Don Forbes,
of regional-scale clinoform sets rather than from Steve Solomon, Scott Dallimore, David Booth and
numerous smaller scale sets of autocyclic origin. Ross Mackay. Detailed reviews by W. Galloway
If lobes are present in cold climate deltas, they and T. Muto have greatly improved the manu-
would be entirely accretional and not separated script.
by local ¯ooding surfaces.
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Artigo - The Mackenzie Delta - Sedimentary Processes and Facies of A High-Latitude, Fine-Grained Delta - Sedimentology, 2001

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Sedimentology (2001) 48, 1047±1078

The Mackenzie Delta: sedimentary processes and facies

The Mackenzie Delta is a large ®ne-grained delta deposited in a cold arctic

characteristics that are unique to the high-latitude

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Fig. 2. Averaged discharge curve

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Fig. 4. Longitudinal pro®le of

Fig. 5. Division of the subaerial

Mackenzie at Norman Mackenzie above Arctic East Channel at Inuvik

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

been observed (Lewis, 1988). Eventually, com- Lacustrine facies

Fig. 7. A facies model of the upper

The eroding shoreline of delta mouth is-

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Fig. 9. Sketch maps of submarine

Fig. 10. Summary of subice chan-

horizontal turbulent diffusion occurring across is resuspended on the shallow-water platform,

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Fig. 12. Sidescan sonar records

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Facies troughs generally consist of ®ne to very ®ne sand,

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

bioturbated mud. This depth can be considered as

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

DISCUSSION sening-upward succession climaxing in ®ne sand

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Table 2. Criteria for recognition of cold climate deltas.

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

These features are directly diagnostic of the ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

Ó 2001 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 48, 1047±1078

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