Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33

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Marine Geology

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/margeo

The leaking bucket of a Maldives atoll: Implications for the

understanding of carbonate platform drowning
Christian Betzler a,⁎, Sebastian Lindhorst a, Thomas Lüdmann a, Benedikt Weiss b,
Marco Wunsch a, Juan Carlos Braga c
a
Institut für Geologie, CEN, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
b
Institut für Geophysik, CEN, Universität Hamburg, Hamburg, Germany
c
Departamento de Estratigrafía y Paleontología, Universidad de Granada, Granada, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Seismic and multibeam data, as well as sediment samples were acquired in the South Malé Atoll in the Maldives
Received 24 December 2014 archipelago in 2011 to unravel the stratigraphy and facies of the lagoonal deposits. Multichannel seismic lines
Received in revised form 17 April 2015 show that the sedimentary succession locally reaches a maximum thickness of 15–20 m above an unconformity
Accepted 26 April 2015
interpreted as the emersion surface which developed during the last glacial sea-level lowstand. Such depocenters
Available online 28 April 2015
are located in current-protected areas flanking the reef rim of the atoll or in infillings of karst dolinas. Much of the
Keywords:
50 m deep sea floor in the lagoon interior is current swept, and has no or very minor sediment cover. Erosive cur-
Lagoon rent moats line drowned patch reefs, whereas other areas are characterized by nondeposition. Karst sink holes,
Relict platform blue holes and karst valleys occur throughout the lagoon, from its rim to its center. Lagoonal sediments are mostly
Indian Ocean carbonate rubble and coarse-grained carbonate sands with frequent large benthic foraminifers, Halimeda flakes,
red algal nodules, mollusks, bioclasts, and intraclasts, some of them glauconitic, as well as very minor ooids.
Finer-grained deposits locally are deposited in current-protected areas behind elongated faros, i.e., small atolls
which are part of the rim of South Malé Atoll. The South Malé Atoll is a current-flushed atoll, where water and
sediment export with the open sea is facilitated by the multiple passes dissecting the atoll rim. With an elevated
reef rim and tower-like reefs in the atoll interior it is an example of a leaky bucket atoll which shares character-
istics of incipiently drowned carbonate banks or drowning sequences as known from the geological record.
© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
Carbonate platform drowning occurs when the sediment accumula-
tion rate is lower than the rate of increase in accommodation space, and
the platform top is therefore submerged below the euphotic zone termi-
nating shallow-water carbonate production (Schlager, 1981). Carbon-
ate platforms may drown entirely or partially, when shallow-water
carbonate factories punctually continue to accumulate neritic carbon-
ates, forming relic banks growing to sea level. Sediments juxtaposed
or overlying the drowned platforms often attest for the occurrence of
strong bottom currents. This has been interpreted as a consequence of
the acceleration of relatively sluggish ocean tides and currents by the
sharp topography of the drowned banks (Schlager, 1998, 1999).
The Maldives carbonate platform provides an example where past
bank drowning and onset of currents are probably not two independent
processes (Betzler et al., 2009, 2013; Lüdmann et al., 2013). Since the
late Miocene, vigorous monsoonal-driven currents and nutrient upwell-
ing force the Maldives atolls into an aggradational to backstepping
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: christian.betzler@uni-hamburg.de (C. Betzler).
mode (Betzler et al., 2009). With their 50 to 80 m deep lagoons and
the elevated atoll rims, the individual atolls of the Maldives can be clas-
sified as empty buckets (Schlager, 1981) or incipiently drowned carbon-
ate banks (Read, 1985) which provide a natural laboratory to test
relationships between empty bucket morphology, drowning, and corre-
sponding controlling factors.
This study documents the facies and stratigraphy of such a carbonate
bank. The goal of this investigation is to elucidate whether the physical
impact of currents in the lagoon of such a carbonate body is a major,
previously underestimated or even disregarded controlling factor of
tropical carbonate platform evolution. Using seismic, multibeam and
sedimentological data acquired in the lagoon of the South Malé Atoll
(SMA) it will be shown that bottom currents pervasively control sedi-
mentation in the 50 m deep water body. It is discussed how such cur-
rents are a factor that can contribute to carbonate platform drowning.
2. Geological setting
The Maldives archipelago consists of 22 atolls with 1300 islands and
faros, which are small ring-shaped reef complexes (Purdy and Bertram,
1993). Water depth of the lagoons ranges between 31 and 82 m. The

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.margeo.2015.04.009
0025-3227/© 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33 17

atolls of the Maldives are relicts of a formerly larger platform (Aubert rates of gross shoreline change between monsoonal seasons and that
and Droxler, 1992, 1996; Purdy and Bertram, 1993; Belopolsky and the beach width varied by up to 53 m. On an annual basis, there is a min-
Droxler, 2004; Betzler et al., 2009). During the late Miocene and early imal net shoreline change, indicating a spatially balanced shoreline pat-
Pliocene, stepwise disarticulation of a N–S striking megabank occurred, tern. For an island with a diameter of less than 200 m, it was calculated
which led to a complex geometry consisting of a western and an eastern that between 9 and 23 × 103 m3 of sediment volume is moved season-
strip of neritic carbonates separated by the hemipelagic basin of the ally. Assuming that the sediment input of the reefs onto the islands is an
Inner Sea. ongoing process, this implies that the sediment dispersal system is open
Starting of the partial platform drowning of the Maldives coincides and that a certain amount of material is remobilized and transported
with the inception of drift sedimentation in the Inner Sea (Betzler into the lagoon. For an island located in North Malé atoll in the eastern
et al., 2009). The drowning initiated as passages separating the atolls, atoll string of the Maldives, Morgan and Kench (2014) showed that sea-
and later affected larger bank areas (Aubert and Droxler, 1996). Post- sonal varying wave incidence affects sediment transport pathways with
drowning relict banks, which were submerged during these later stages, high bank and off-reef export to the reef slope and the lagoon.
have elongated outlines indicating current shaping; active atolls of the
Maldives have complex growth patterns, with a co-existence of bank
3. Methods
margin progradation, aggradation, and backstepping (Betzler et al.,
2009, 2013). Progradation is restricted to current sheltered areas,
A research cruise was performed in late November 2011 with the
where periplatform drifts (Betzler et al., 2014) accumulate at the atolls
dive safari vessel HOPE CRUISER. Forty five seismic profiles were record-
flanks. Current-exposed flanks aggrade or step back. The Maldives are
ed with a total length of 331.5 km. The seismic equipment used for the
affected by a monsoonal triggered seasonal reversing current regime
survey consisted of a boomer-plate AA301 (Applied Acoustic, U.K.) as
(Schott and McCreary, 2001). The Southwest Monsoon Current (SMC)
acoustic source, which was operated with a power of 300 J/shot, a 24-
flows from June to October, and the Northeast Monsoon Current
channel MicroEel analog streamer (Geometrics, U.S.A.), and a global po-
(NMC) from December to April. During the transitions, eastward direct-
sitioning system (Hemisphere, Canada). To maximize the resolution
ed surface jets with velocities of up to 1.3 m/s develop in the open
and quality of the seismic data, the source used different shot intervals
ocean. Monsoonal currents form upwelling cells, producing elevated
from 0.533 s to 0.7 s for the lagoon areas and up to 1.2 s for the Inner
nutrient values around the reefs (Preu and Engelbrecht, 1991). Location
Sea. The applied recording length was 0.2 s TWT. During the survey
of the upwelling cells is at the downstream sides of the archipelago, and
the vessel moved at a speed of 3 to 3.5 knots. The processing of the seis-
thus seasonally alternates depending on the monsoonal-driven current
mic data was performed with the software package SU-SEISMIC UNIX
pattern (Anderson et al., 2011). Betzler et al. (2009) expressed the hy-
(Colorado School of Mines, U.S.A.). The software Petrel (Schlumberger,
pothesis that these monsoon-driven currents and the resulting nutrient
U.S.A.) was used for the interpretation and correlation of various seismic
injection into the shallow water are a major controlling factor of the
profiles.
Neogene platform evolution.
Sea floor mapping was performed with the mobile multibeam sys-
Whereas there is a reasonable understanding of the sedimentology,
tem SwathPlus (S.E.A. Beckington Castle, U.K.) at a sonar frequency of
the stratigraphy and the sequence stratigraphic stacking pattern in the
117 kHz. The swath was stabilized for roll, pitch and yaw. Vertical
Inner Sea, little is known about the sedimentary dynamics acting in
sound profiles through the water column were recorded at a regular
the Maldivian atolls. Observation on sedimentation processes in the la-
term as a patch test for geometry correction. The data was processed
goons dates back to Darwin (1842) who described how the currents af-
using the software S.E.A. (S.E.A. Beckington Castle, U.K.) and CARIS
fect the lagoons: “The currents of the sea flow across these atolls, …,
(CARIS, Fredericton, Canada). For the interpretation of the multibeam
with considerable force and drift the sediment from side to side during
data the software Fledermaus (IVS 3D) was used. Multibeam tracks
the monsoons, transporting much of it seaward; yet the currents sweep
and maps were merged with pansharpened LANDSAT 8 images in
with greater force round their flanks” (p. 108). In the passages of the
ARCGIS (ESRI, Redlands, USA).
atoll rims of the Maldives, monsoon and tidal currents have velocities
Surface sediment samples were taken with a Van-Veen grab-
of up to 1.5–2 m/s (Preu and Engelbrecht, 1991; Owen et al., 2011),
sampler which was handled with a portable electric BuLiteK crane
triggering winnowing in the passages and in the lagoons where
(Hamburg University). The geographical position and the water depth
hard bottoms occur (Ciarapica and Passeri, 1993; Gischler, 2006).
were recorded by GPS and a Humminbird Fishfinder 587ci HD
Bianchi et al. (1997) reported azooxanthellate corals at the slope of
echosounder. A total of 65 samples were taken and texture was charac-
the atolls in water depths as shallow as 15 m and in the passes
terized with the Dunham classification (Dunham, 1962). A first descrip-
of the atoll rims. In such passes, the depth boundary between
tion of the color, the macroscopic components, and the texture of the
zooxanthellate and azooxanthellate corals depends on the current
samples was performed aboard by using a stereoscopic microscope. In
intensity, being shallower in the current-swept passes, which is attrib-
the laboratory, split-samples were freeze-dried and infused with resin
uted to strong currents favoring growth of rheophilic forms (Bianchi
to produce thin sections. For grain-size analysis, further split samples
et al., 1997). Strong currents also erode the outer atoll flanks
were freeze-dried and weighed. Samples were wet sieved (N2 mm,
(Ciarapica and Passeri, 1993). Gischler (2006), Parker and Gischler
2 mm–500 μm, 500 μm–250 μm, 250 μm–63 μm, b63 μm). The distinct
(2011), Klostermann and Gischler (2014) and Klostermann et al.
fractions were dried and weighted to determine the percentage of
(2014) analyzed the sedimentary succession in Rasdhoo Atoll (Fig. 1),
each grain-size fraction. Sediment composition was analyzed with a
which is a small atoll enclosed by a reef rim with two passages. The ma-
binocular for the grain sizes of 0.5–2 mm and larger 2 mm. The nature
rine postglacial deposits in this atoll which date back to 8 ka BP are little
of the grain size smaller 63 μm was analyzed with a scanning electron
more than 4 m thick in the current protected areas, away from the pas-
microscope. Element mapping in thin section was performed with a
sages. No data exist for the larger atolls with multiple passages. Naseer
LEO 1455 SEM with EDX.
(2003), in a comparison of Indian and Pacific Ocean atoll water depths,
however, forwarded that Maldivian lagoons are infilling slower than
other Indo-Pacific atolls located in the trade wind zone. 4. Results
The time of main wave action in the Maldives is during the 8 months
of summer monsoon with E-directed waves, producing a swell in the la- 4.1. Seismic and hydroacoustic facies
goons (Kench et al., 2006). The winter monsoon induces a shorter epi-
sode of minor, W-directed wave action. Kench and Brandner (2006) Seismic facies (Figs. 2, 3) are defined by the criteria of the seismic in-
and Kench et al. (2009) showed that the islands undergo extreme terpretation and stratigraphy introduced by Mitchum et al. (1977).
18 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33

Fig. 1. A, B: Location of the Maldives in the Indian Ocean. The rectangle in B indicates position of South Malé Atoll (SMA). NMA: North Malé Atoll. C: Pansharpened Landsat 8 image of SMA
(pixel resolution: 30 m) with the multibeam tracks acquired during the CURRDROW cruise in November 2011.

4.1.1. Facies 1: fringing reef deposits
Facies 1 is characterized by medium-amplitude reflections with a
flat horizontal to subhorizontal part laterally passing into an inclined
and curved shape (Fig. 2). The change from the flat to the inclined
part forms a well-defined edge. Reflections delimit wedge-shaped bod-
ies, which in the deeper parts interfinger with reflection of other seismic
facies. Wedge-shaped bodies are interpreted as fringing reefs, with the
flat top representing the reef flat.
4.1.2. Facies 2: mound ridges
Facies 2 forms up to 50 m wide and 50–60 m long, and around 1 m
high ridges at the sea floor (Fig. 2). In cross-section, the ridges have con-
vex tops, imaged by a strong reflection. The reflection delimiting the
ridge base in the subsurface appears concordant with a high amplitude.
Partially, a basal velocity pull up occurs at the ridges' lower boundary.
This points towards a higher interval velocity in the ridge compared to
the underlying facies. The internal stratification of the sediment bodies
shows continuous convex reflections of medium amplitudes. The ridges
are interpreted as carbonate banks and faint bedding indicates that the
ridge-shaped mounds formed rather through sediment deposition than
through bioconstruction. A mechanism responsible for such features
with a positive relief for example is sediment trapping in seagrass
banks.
4.1.3. Facies 3: embryonic patch reefs
This facies forms up to 50 m wide and up to 3 m high subsurface bod-
ies with an elongate to subcircular lens-shaped top (Fig. 2). The upper
and lower boundaries are concordant high-amplitude reflections. The
internal reflection pattern is discontinuous to chaotic with high ampli-
tudes. Based on the shape in cross section and the reflection pattern,
this facies is interpreted as representing buried biogenic carbonate
buildups. The reflections in these patch reefs laterally interfinger with
the surrounding sediments, indicating a concurrent deposition of the
distinct facies.
4.1.4. Facies 4: patch reefs
Facies 4 is recognized as a flat-top or mound-shaped circular elevat-
ed structure at the present-day seabed (Fig. 2). The diameter of the bod-
ies is up to 250 m, the top of the mounds is up to 10 m higher than the
surrounding sea floor. The internal reflection pattern consists of discon-
tinuous convex to chaotic, medium-amplitude reflections. At the toe of
slope of the mounds, diverging layers laterally pass into the surrounding
 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33
Fig. 2. Examples of seismic facies with line drawing showing the corresponding interpretation. Blue areas depict the relevant part of the seismic section.
deposits. Facies 4 is interpreted as patch reef deposits, with reef talus
sediments at the toe of slope.
4.1.5. Facies 5: pinnacle reefs
Facies 5 is recognized as peak-shaped structures which are 100–
200 m wide at their base and up to 20 m high (Fig. 2). The internal re-
flection pattern consists of chaotic low-amplitude reflections. Due to
masking by the steep flanks, the lower boundary cannot be recognized.
The reflections below the structure are attenuated and show strong pos-
itive velocity anomalies (pull-up). Layers at the toe of slope of the pin-
nacles are divergent and interfinger with surrounding deposits. Facies
5 is interpreted as biogenic carbonate buildup, i.e., pinnacle reefs. The
divergent reflection patterns are interpreted as talus deposits.
4.1.6. Facies 6: back reef debris apron
This facies is restricted to the lagoonward side of passages
connecting the atoll lagoon and the open sea, where it forms 500–600
wide and up to 3 m high sediment wedges (Fig. 3). Internally, the facies
is characterized by discontinuous sigmoidal reflections of low to medi-
um amplitudes. Reflections partly downlap onto the lower boundary
of the wedges; the upper boundary is characterized by toplaps. Medium
amplitude reflections form the base and the top of the wedge. This facies
19
is interpreted as back-reef apron, which formed a sort of spillover sedi-
ment body.
4.1.7. Facies 7: restricted lagoonal facies
This facies is restricted to depressions, up to 500 m wide, imaged in
the subsurface of the lagoon (Fig. 3). It consists of continuous subparal-
lel to parallel reflections of medium to low amplitudes and fills the de-
pressions with an onlap configuration. The continuous and subparallel,
nearly horizontal configuration of these reflections implies a deposition
under hydrodynamically protected conditions. Faint reflections indicate
little contrasts in acoustic impedance within this facies.
4.1.8. Facies 8: open lagoonal facies
This facies is restricted to depressions. The facies forms the top of the
infill of the subsurface depressions or the base of present-day depressions
(Fig. 3). Facies 8 consists of discontinuous inclined to wavy reflections of
medium amplitudes. The inclined to wavy reflection configurations
imply a deposition under shoal-water conditions above the fair weather
wave base.
4.1.9. Facies 9: sediment waves
This facies appears as convex, up to 5 m wide and 1 m high elongated
structures on the recent sea floor and consists of high-amplitude
20 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33
Fig. 3. Examples of seismic facies with line drawing showing the corresponding interpretation. Blue and green areas depict the relevant part of the seismic section.
reflections (Fig. 9). An internal reflection pattern is not visible. This fa-
cies is interpreted to represent sediment waves.
4.1.10. Facies 10: drift sediments
Facies 10 consists of continuous subparallel to parallel reflections of
low amplitudes (Fig. 3). From the outer shape, the structures can be
subdivided into two types. The first type forms 500 wide and up to
8 m high elongated mound-shaped structures between topographic
highs. It consists of continuous parallel or convex reflections of low am-
plitudes. The structures are laterally delimited from highs by current
moats and downwards bordered by a high amplitude reflection. The
second type forms large-scale elongate structures with a laterally exten-
sion of 100 m to over 1 km and a thickness of up to 10 m. The bathymet-
ric framework controls the overall geometry and the internal reflection
pattern consists of continuous parallel reflections of low amplitudes.
This type is restricted to low relief depressions and slopes. The
hydroacoustic coverage of the study area is not complete, but the data
show that distribution and thickness of these drift sediments within
the lagoon interior is linked to the present-day bathymetry of the atoll
and the presence of the passages in the atoll margin.
Following the classification after Faugères et al. (1999) the first type
is a channel-related drift, which is related to passageways between
bathymetrical highs. These drift bodies are delimited by marginal
moats, which are formed by bottom currents. After Faugères et al.
(1999), the second type shows separated/plastered drift geometry.
This type is characterized by alongslope migration and large lateral
extension.
4.1.11. Karst (K)
The most prominent karst features in South Malé Atoll are repre-
sented by circular depressions at the lagoon floor, which are interpreted
as blue holes which formed during lowstand exposure of the carbonate
bank. Karst facies also is recorded in the seismic data, where it is charac-
terized by reflection patterns with high variations (Fig. 3). In general,
karst facies shows discontinuous medium-amplitude reflections with
subparallel to chaotic configurations (Kindinger et al., 2010). In many
cases, the reflections trace depressions, which are interpreted as sedi-
ment filled collapse structures. Detailed views of the karst facies are
shown in the seismic lines which are presented below.
4.2. Seismic lines
In the following, a series of seismic lines depicting the stratigraphy in
key areas of SMA are presented. Line 23 is located atollward of a 2.5 km
wide faro delimiting the SMA towards the NW (Figs. 1, 4). It runs north-
west to southeast, away from the atoll rim over a distance of 3700 m in a
 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33 21

Fig. 4. Seismic line 23, line drawing, and multibeam image covering the lagoonward side near a passage connecting the lagoon with the Inner Sea (see Fig. 1 for location). The northwestern
part of the profile is characterized by moderately continuous reflections. In the middle part of the profile, two depressions are imaged in the subsurface, which are downwards bounded by
Horizon A. The infill of the depressions in the upper part consists of moderately continuous subparallel reflections. The lower infill part is characterized by continuous parallel reflections,
which onlap on Horizon A. Note the erosive depression behind the passage displayed in the multibeam map. Numbers refer to seismic facies described in the text.

maximum water depth of 50 m (Fig. 4). Adjacent to the faro, up to pro-
file distance 1000 m, there is a submarine terrace at a water depth of 30
to 35 m which is characterized by the karst facies (K) overlain by small
patch reefs (3) and patches of the mound ridge facies (2) at its edge.
East of the terrace, the sea floor drops to a water depth of 50 m,
where two depressions are imaged in the subsurface, bound by a
high-amplitude single reflection at the base. This horizon shows a cer-
tain lateral continuity in this and other lines, and is therefore taken as
a reference horizon termed Horizon A.
The two depressions are separated by an elevated area with karst fa-
cies. The northwestern flank of this elevation is characterized by low-
angle inclined reflections, which in the depressions are truncated by
Horizon A. The infill of the subsurface-depressions from the sea floor
down to 74 ms TWT is characterized by discontinuous subparallel re-
flections of the open lagoonal facies (8). Below, there is a package of re-
stricted lagoonal facies (7) which onlap onto Horizon A.
Line 6 runs from the mouth of a passage between two faros into the
atoll over a total length of 6300 m and a maximum water depth of 54 m
22 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33

Fig. 5. Seismic line 6, line drawing and multibeam map. This line shows the stratigraphy in the inner part of SMA (see Fig. 1 for location). The western part of the line is characterized by
inclined reflections, which downlap onto Horizon A. In the subsurface three depressions are imaged, which are separated by three mound-shaped structures with chaotic internal
reflections.

(Fig. 5). At the passage mouth, below small mound ridges (2), there is
package of back reef debris apron facies (6) bound at its upper side by
toplaps, and by downlaps onto Horizon A at the base. The sea floor in
the remaining section has an irregular relief. From profile length 750
to 3400 m, there are three depressions imaged in the subsurface, each
traced by Horizon A. The depressions are separated by two embryonic
patch reefs (3) and are infilled by a succession of restricted lagoonal de-
posits (7) overlain by open lagoonal sediments (8). These open lagoonal
deposits laterally interfinger with the embryonic patch reef facies.
Below Horizon A, the section is characterized by discontinuous to mod-
erately continuous subparallel reflections of medium to high ampli-
tudes, which are interpreted as karstification (K).
A view of the Inner Sea facing flank of SMA and of a passage
connecting the SMA lagoon with the Inner Sea is provided in Seismic
line 11 (Fig. 6). The seismic line, which runs in a passage between two
faros has a minor and patchy penetration. The slope of SMA down to a
water depth of 100–105 m dips with an angle of approximately 10°
into the Inner Sea. Two terraces occur, with continuous convex high-
amplitude reflections (1) at a water depth of around 56 and 80 m. In
the passage, the sea floor appears barren of sediment cover, and has
an irregular relief with a karst blue hole at the lagoonward entrance of
the passage. The passage north of the elongated faro is deeper than
the southern one. It plunges from a water depth of 55 m at the entrance
to the Inner Sea to 90 m in a depression towards the atoll interior. The
eastern limit of this submarine trough is linear, and the prolongation
of the lineament cross cuts the blue hole.
A representative view of the stratigraphy in the inner part of SMA is
provided by Line 36 (Fig. 7). The segment shown has a length of 2800 m
and was recorded in a maximum water depth of 54 m. The sea floor of
the lagoon is characterized by a 2100 m wide depression. Multibeam
data coverage does not allow defining its overall shape, but it is
characterized by an almost linear SW–NE trending western border,
which also delimits the orientation of the edges of nearby faros.
Mound ridges (2) and a pinnacle reef (5) arranged in a step-like and
retreating pattern cover the flanks of the depression. The low has a
thin infill with discontinuous, medium-amplitude reflections attributed
to the open lagoonal facies (8), bound by Horizon A the base. A patch
reef (4) occurs at profile length 1300 m, in the center of the depression.
The convex internal reflections of the patch reef facies laterally
interfinger with the open lagoonal deposits. Below Horizon A, the line
is characterized by the karstified facies (K).
A further stratigraphic record of the interior of SMA is given in
Fig. 8. Line 13 has a total length of 2400 m and was recorded in a
maximum water depth of 56 m. The sea floor is covered by 150 m
wide and 8 m high patch reefs (4) and up to 50 m wide elevations
of the mound ridge facies (2). In the lower part of the patch reefs, re-
flections laterally grade into subparallel reflections of the surround-
ing open lagoon facies (8). In the northern part of the profile, there
are drift sediments (10) separated from the patch reefs by moats.
As in the other seismic lines, Horizon A separates the well-
definable facies packages from underlying discontinuous subparallel
reflections of the karst facies (K).
A tower-shaped, 500 m wide and 10 m high karst feature in the
inner SMA lagoon is depicted in Fig. 9. Its internal medium-amplitude
reflections (K) are discontinuous and chaotic. The reflections grade
downdip into divergent to subparallel reflections of medium ampli-
tudes. The signals underneath the mound are not interpretable. The
areas around the mound are characterized by drift sediments (10),
which are delimited from the elevation by current moats. The lower
boundary of the drift sediment package is marked by Horizon A. The
top of the mound has a thin cover consisting of a reef rim (2) and an em-
bryonic patch reef (3) in the center.

Fig. 6. Seismic line 11 through a passage connecting the lagoon with the Inner Sea (see Fig. 1 for location). The multibeam map shows the irregular sea floor in this and the northern sea-
way. Karstification is reflected by the blue hole (BH) and the through north of it, which reaches a depth of 90 m.
C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33 23
24 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33

Fig. 7. Seismic line 36 in the lagoon interior with multibeam map (see Fig. 1 for location). The line cross cuts a depression characterized by karstification, which is rimmed by a series of
backstepping reef terraces (mound ridge seismic facies). Note that submarine terrace limits and active shoals are aligned along a SW–NE trending lineament.

A stratigraphic record of the SMA lagoon in an area adjacent to an
11 km long faro separating the lagoon from the Indian Ocean towards
the east is given in Fig. 10. The upper interval of the profile, in a water
depth between 40 and 50 m, is dominated by the drift facies (10),
which show continuous parallel medium-amplitude reflections. This
package downlaps onto a series which consists of underlying embryonic
patch reef facies (3). The drift (10) and the embryonic patch reef facies
(3) are separated by a medium-amplitude reflection. The embryonic
patch reefs overlie Horizon A at a depth of around 75 ms TWT.
4.3. Sediment composition
Sediment composition and grain size characteristics for a west to
east sample transect through SMA is shown in Fig. 11. Sediment in the
SMA is carbonate gravel to sand (Fig. 12A, B) with carbonate contents
higher than 95%. Main components are red algae, Halimeda, bivalves,
gastropods, and bryozoa. Large benthic foraminifers occur in some
of the samples and are represented by Alveolinella, Amphistegina,
Heterostegina, Operculina and soritids. Red algae and Halimeda are
 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33 25

Fig. 8. Seismic line in the lagoon interior with multibeam map (see Fig. 1 for location) showing the widespread occurrence of drowned patch reefs. Note that that the northern flank of the
drowned reef in the center part of the seismic line is lined by a moat delimiting a sediment drift body.

most abundant in the areas near the atoll rim, whereas gastropods,
Operculina, and Alveolinella are slightly more abundant in the atoll
center. In many cases, gastropods, bryozoa, and some of the large
benthic foraminifers are infilled with a wackestone to fine-grained
packstone.
In the eastern part of the transect, rhodoliths are the dominant ele-
ment (Figs. 11, 12A). Algal nodules are a few centimeters in maximum
dimension (up to 5.5 cm), mostly ellipsoidal and discoidal in cases in
which the shape is conditioned by a bivalve shell or a laminar coral nu-
cleus. Rare specimens are spheroidal. The surfaces of the rhodoliths are
smooth to slightly warty and lumpy in a few cases. From a compositional
point of view the nodules are in fact foralgaliths (Prager and Ginsburg,
1989) or foralgal macroids. Acervulinids are 40% or more of the biogenic
structure of the nodules. Minor serpulids and bryozoans can also occur.
The nuclei are all biogenic, from mollusk shell to coral fragments. In
many cases the original nucleus is dissolved.
The nodules are in general pervasively bored by sponges and sec-
ondarily by bivalves. The resulting galleries are sometimes lined by
new growths of acervulinids and rarely by new algal growths. The gal-
leries can be empty, or partially to totally filled by a grainstone. In a
few cases there are several generations of Entobia boring; the first gen-
eration is filled with a wackestone/packstone; these fillings are bored by
new empty or grainstone filled Entobia galleries. Halimeda fragments
and large benthic foraminifers can occur as bioclasts within the borings.
The dominant corallines are thin laminar thalli of Lithothamnion,
intergrown with acervulinids. Lithothamnion muelleri can be identified
26 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33

Fig. 9. Seismic line 30 cross-cutting a drowned reef mound (see Fig. 1 for location). The multibeam map shows that the drowned reef is part of a complex with several similar drowned
circular to sub-circular reef complexes. Note that the reef is lined by moats delimiting drift deposits.

in well preserved examples. Sporolithon plants (Sporolithon molle
and Sporolithon sp.) are also common components together with
Lithoporella sp. and minor Spongites sp. and Lithophyllum acrocamptum.
Peyssonnelaceae occur in many samples always as secondary
components.
Thin section analysis shows that sand and silt sized components are
bioclasts, although in one sample there are very minor amounts of ooids
(Fig. 12C). In addition to the biogenic components, the samples contain
wackestone and packstone intraclasts, some of them with a brown or
green stain (Fig. 12B, D, E). EDX analyses of the green particles in a
thin section of Sample 30 show that the particles are enriched in Si,
Fe, and Al, and therefore probably contain glauconite. Deposits are
coarse grained with a packstone to rudstone texture (Fig. 12A, B), and
carbonate mud content is below 10%. Along the transect, the finest de-
posits occur in the interior of the lagoon.
Sediments of SMA are fine grained (Fig. 12F) in areas where the la-
goon is separated from the open Indian Ocean by elongated faros
(Figs. 1, 10, 13). Such deposits, which correspond to the plastered
drift bodies, are peloidal packstones with mollusk debris and some
bioclasts. Miliolid foraminifers, Operculina and Halimeda also occur as
larger components. In such areas, carbonate mud content is higher
than 90%, and component diversity is reduced compared to the other
deposits in the lagoon.
5. Discussion
5.1. Seismic stratigraphy of the atoll
A stratigraphic scheme showing the distribution of the distinct facies
has been developed for the sedimentary succession in SMA from tracing
 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33
Fig. 10. Seismic line covering the area protected by an elongated faro separating the lagoon from the Indian Ocean (see Fig. 1 for location). This area is current protected and thus char-
acterized by laterally continuous depositional packages. The multibeam map shows that the sea floor is a flat, lagoonward dipping surface.
depth position and extension of seismically defined facies (Fig. 14). The
prominent high-amplitude single reflection marked as Horizon A in
Figs. 4 and 5, as well as 7–10 occurs throughout the data set. This hori-
zon characterized by a high contrast in acoustic impedance truncates
underlying reflections; the sedimentary sequence above onlaps this sur-
face. It is therefore interpreted as an erosional truncation and exposure
surface, probably characterized by a certain degree of lithification. It is
probable that this surface formed during the last glacial sea-level
lowstand, when the atoll floor was subaerially exposed. Based on their
seismic facies characterization (Figs. 4, 6–8, 10), depressions which
are traced by this surface are interpreted as karst sinkholes. The sedi-
ments in the interior of SMA above Horizon A locally reach a thickness
of 15–20 m in the filling of the subsurface depressions.
The oldest sediments of the SMA lagoon are represented by a sedi-
ment package of restricted lagoonal facies (Facies 7) which is limited
to subsurface depressions (e.g., Fig. 4). This package onlaps onto
Horizon A. Thin horizontal and undisturbed seismic reflections as well
as the onlap configuration are interpreted to reflect deposition under
a rising water level in a hydrodynamically protected environment.
Stratigraphically younger deposits consist of the back-reef debris aprons
(Facies 6) at the atollward side of the passages separating the faros near
the atoll margin, in areas close to these atoll passages (Fig. 5). The inter-
nal reflections partly downlap onto the lower boundary of the facies
package; the upper boundary is characterized by toplaps.
In the lagoonal interior, continuing sea-level rise and thus changes in
the hydrodynamic conditions caused the transition from a restricted la-
goon (Facies 7) to an open lagoon environment (Facies 8). The
27
restricted lagoonal facies change into the open lagoonal facies (Facies
8) without a conspicuous marker or surface at a constant depth of
74 ms TWT. Such sediment packages crop out at the present-day sea
floor in certain areas, such as the current moats (Figs. 8, 9). It is proposed
that the wavy reflections (e.g., Line 6, Fig. 5) within this sediment pack-
age indicate the occurrence of bedforms such as submarine sediment
dunes.
Drift sediments (Facies 10) and associated deposits characterized by
continuous parallel reflections of medium amplitude overlie the open
lagoonal facies. In the central parts of the lagoon, moats separate the
drift bodies from elevated areas (Fig. 9), attesting for the erosive flow re-
gime around such highs. In other lagoonal areas, sediments were accu-
mulated in depressions or in current protected areas behind larger faros
(Fig. 10).
5.2. Late Pleistocene to Holocene atoll evolution
A reconstruction of the relative chronostratigraphy of the lagoonal
succession is proposed by correlating the depth position of the distinct
facies with the post-glacial sea-level evolution (Bard et al., 1990, 1996,
2010; Camoin et al., 2004; Edwards et al., 1993; Fairbanks, 1989;
Fleming et al., 1998; Montaggioni, 2005; Nunn and Peltier, 2001;
Siddall et al., 2003; Yokoyama et al., 2001; Zinke et al., 2003). Isostatic
correction is estimated as unnecessary, because the Maldives represent
a tectonically stable region with a linear subsidence rate. The long-term
subsidence rate of the Maldives is in the range of 0.03–0.04 mm year−1
(Belopolsky and Droxler, 2004); for the last 135,000 years, a maximum
28 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33
Fig. 11. Composition and granulometry of sediment samples recovered along a west to east sample transect through the SMA lagoon (see Fig. 1 for location). Sample composition is sep-
arately shown for the fraction from 500 μm to 2 mm and for the fraction N 2 mm.
subsidence rate of 0.15 mm year−1 has been proposed by Gischler et al.
(2008). With respect to the ice load of continental margins, the
Maldives archipelago can be considered as a far-field site (Peltier and
Fairbanks, 2006). Therefore, the total isostatic correction required is
negligible compared to the values of the eustatic sea level rise following
the last glacial maximum.
The curve for Pleistocene sea-level fluctuations after the last inter-
glacial implies that the atoll lagoon of South Malé was exposed for
around 55 ky. With the elevation difference between sea level and the
top of the exposed atoll during the last glacial maximum, the platform
would have contributed as orographic enhancement to the local rainfall
patterns (e.g., Sobel et al., 2011). The exposed atoll plains acted as a
large catchment area for precipitation, which induced karstification.
This episode is reflected in the depressions, the sinkholes, and blue
holes. Seismic and multibeam data indicate that karst features such as
sinkholes and valleys occur throughout the lagoon, from the passages
separating the faros to the lagoon interior. The deepest karst valley im-
aged in the data set (90 m) is located near the border of the atoll (Figs. 1,
6). Such a distribution therefore seems not to entirely follow the con-
cept of Purdy (1974) and Purdy and Bertram (1993) that karst solution
is stronger in the center of atoll lagoons.
After the LGM termination around 19 ka BP, sea level rose with a
moderate rate of b5 mm/year (Fleming et al., 1998) until 15 ka BP and
reached a level around 97 m below the present position. The time peri-
od between 14.6 and 14.3 ka is characterized by an accelerated sea-level
rise of about 40 mm/year (Deschamps et al., 2012) during Meltwater
Pulse 1A (MWP-1A). According to Montaggioni (2005), MWP 1A caused
a widespread reef-drowning event in the Indo-Pacific region, which
however is questioned by Woodroffe and Webster (2014). In the
Maldives, this episode of slower rise followed by an accelerated sea-
level rise may be reflected by terraces at the slope of SMA and at the
flanks from the atolls elsewhere (Fürstenau et al., 2010). The effect of
meltwater discharge decreased after 14.3 ka BP, and sea level rose
with an estimated rate of 7.5 mm/year in the central Pacific (Bard
et al., 1996). A phase of reef growth during this time interval is probably
recorded in the Maldives, where a terrace is located at a water depth of
56 m (Fig. 6, Fürstenau et al., 2010).
Subsurface depth position of the restricted lagoonal facies packages,
which appear in every paleo-depression mapped out in the subsurface
data set, indicate that these formed in the time period between Meltwa-
ter Pulse 1A and 1B. This first creation of accommodation in the lagoon
was not necessarily marine accommodation, but could also represent
establishment of a fresh-water lens in the atoll interior, lying above
the surrounding sea-level (Vacher, 1988). The thickness of this lens
would depend on the abundance of rainfall and the permeability of
the rocks above, and just below, sea level (Schlanger et al., 1963).
 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33 29

Fig. 12. (A) Coarse-grained deposits from the eastern part of the transect in SMA (sample 13). Main components are red algal nodules (living and dead) as well as Halimeda flakes.
(B) Carbonate sand from the interior of SMA (sample 30). Components are bioclasts and stained relict grains. (C) Thin section photograph of sample 14 with an ooid, Halimeda flake
and Heterostegina. (D) Thin section photograph of sample 30 with bioclasts and stained intraclasts. (E) Thin section photograph of sample 31 with gastropod and red-algal nodule debris,
other bioclasts, Alveolinella, and stained bioclasts. (D) Thin section photograph of sample 26 from a current-protected area.

It is proposed that the partial marine flooding of the lagoon areas
started around 11.9 to 11.7 ka BP. This proposed time span is compara-
ble to published ages of the flooding of the Mayotte lagoon of 11.9 to
11.3 ka BP (Zinke et al., 2003). During the subsequent phase of moder-
ate sea-level rise, the sea ingressed into the passages between the areas
now occupied by the faros and flooded the small banks within the
breaches. This provided full marine conditions in the areas near the pas-
sages and probably in large parts of the atoll, inducing an initial reef
growth. This reef growth and the continuous erosion of the pre-
Holocene rim by wave action formed the reef debris aprons which accu-
mulated at the lagoonward side of the buildups.
With continuing sea-level rise and flooding of the lagoon, water ex-
change between the lagoon and the open sea was eventually enhanced
and patch reef growth started. The reefs nucleated on topographic
highs, as documented elsewhere by Kendall and Schlager (1981). The
low-energy water conditions of the restricted lagoon areas were re-
placed by shallow water conditions of an open lagoon with sediments
deposited around wave base. This is indicated by the change from the
seismic facies with laterally continuous layering to deposits with dis-
continuous and low-angle inclined bedding (Figs. 8, 9). The depth posi-
tion of this transition correlates with the sea-level position during
Meltwater Pulse 1B. Precise timing and amplitude of MWP-1B are still
a matter of debate (Woodroffe and Webster, 2014), because this event
was originally detected as hiatus between individual drill cores collect-
ed at different depths off Barbados (Bard et al., 2010). During MWP-1B,
the sea level presumably rose with an approximated rate of 19 mm/year
30 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33

Fig. 13. Composition and granulometry of sediment samples recovered along a west to east sample transect in a current-sheltered area at the lagoonward side of a faro (see Fig. 1 for
location).

(Zinke et al., 2003). Drowning of the embryonic patch reefs in the sub-
surface of the lagoon is tentatively attributed to this event. This reef
drowning also affected the fringing reefs at the atoll slopes of North Ari
and South Malé, which were established during the time interval
between MWP-1A and -1B (Fürstenau et al., 2010). This also correlates
with the reef-drowning event and the prominent gap in reef growth at
the end of Meltwater Pulse 1B in the entire Indo-Pacific region
(Montaggioni, 2005), although no drowning event was observed in the
reefs of the Huon Peninsula or Tahiti (Woodroffe and Webster, 2014).
After the termination of MWP-1B, sea level rose with an estimated
rate of 9 mm/year (Zinke et al., 2003). In the Indo-Pacific realm, coral
communities colonized the newly submerged topographic highs in the
time window between 10 and 7 ka BP (Montaggioni, 2005), which is
also proposed as the time window for patch reef establishment in the
SMA lagoon. The post-glacial sea-level rise ended at around 5 to
4 ka BP (Nunn and Peltier, 2001). At this time, the entire atoll interior
and atoll perimeter of SMA were flooded.
The base of the drift deposits in the lagoon can be taken as a pinning
point for the establishment of the present-day current system. The time
of initiation of these drifts can be estimated to some degree, because the
drift sediments buried the patch reefs which established earlier. In the
sediments of the Inner Sea, this onset of lagoonal flushing seems to be
recorded by an increase in the content of bank-derived calcareous
mud and aragonite (Paul et al., 2012).
Samples recovered from the recent sedimentary surface attest for
the impact of currents on the sea floor throughout the lagoon
(Figs. 12, 13). Muddy sediments with a wackestone to fine-grained
packstone texture were only recovered in current sheltered areas,
away from the passages. This is similar to the sediment distribution of
Ari Atoll, located west of SMA (Fig. 1) described by Gischler (2006).
In the rest of the lagoon, even in the center of the 20 km wide atoll
water body, the grain size fraction b 63 μm barely reaches 10% of the
bulk sediment. Inner lagoonal sediments are either current-winnowed
carbonate sands and gravels rich in red algal nodules (Fig. 12A) or car-
bonate sands rich in stained relict grains (Fig. 12B). The red-algal nod-
ules have a morphology and composition that can be expected for a
deep-water setting: small, smooth, with a high proportion of encrusting
foraminifers and dominance of melobesioids corallines (Lithothamnion
in this case) and Sporolithon, with minor Lithoporella, as well as
Peyssonnelia (Lund et al., 2000; Webster et al., 2009; Braga, 2011). The
intense, pervasive, multistory boring, sometimes lined by new encruster
growth indicates a very low rate of sedimentation around the nodules
(Bassi et al., 2012).
This image of a pervasive current impact in the lagoon is in line with
the distribution of elongated faros and islands throughout this water
body. As discussed by Purdy and Bertram (1993), Kench et al. (2009),
and Schlager and Purkis (2013) such elongation is a consequence of cur-
rent and wave impact.

Fig. 14. Stratigraphic model for the post LGM succession in the SMA with schematic distribution of seismic facies (F1–F10).
 C. Betzler et al. / Marine Geology 366 (2015) 16–33
5.3. The leaking bucket
In atolls, the rim reefs commonly shed sediment into the lagoon in a
form of a debris apron that progrades away from the rim (Montaggioni,
2005) and progressively occupies the lagoon (O'Leary and Perry, 2010).
These debris aprons through progradation are the major driver for the
atoll lagoon infilling (Purdy and Gischler, 2005; Barrett and Webster,
2012; Rankey and Garza-Pérez, 2012).
The filling process of the investigated atoll lagoons in the Maldives
archipelago seems not to follow this model. From the base of the sedi-
ment drift packages onwards, sedimentary depocenters in the SMA la-
goon appear to be current controlled with wide areas characterized by
non-deposition and even erosion in current moats throughout the la-
goon (Figs. 3, 8, 9). This current regime in the atoll can be established
because the discontinuous reef rim allows the inflow of wind- and
tide-generated currents that attenuates the deposition of the debris
aprons in the proximity of the passages such as in atolls elsewhere
(Zinke et al., 2001; Purdy and Gischler, 2005), and rework these reefal
sediments. The lagoon water returns to the open sea through the pas-
sages and transports potential lagoon infill from the debris aprons into
deep water. Purdy and Gischler (2005) proposed that such atolls with
discontinuous rims are probably never able to fill the enclosing lagoon
completely and introduced the term “leaky bucket” for these rim config-
urations. The collected data indicate that this circumstance applies for
the SMA, where lagoonal depocenters are located in current-protected
areas. The leaky bucket effect may even be enhanced in the Maldives la-
goons which are subjected to the complex interaction of tidal and sea-
sonally reversing monsoon-driven currents.
5.4. An incipiently drowned carbonate bank?
In several respects, the SMA shares characteristics of drowned car-
bonate banks and carbonate platform drowning sequences described
from the geological record elsewhere. The atoll is characterized by
tower structures and elevated rims (Read, 1985), and its interior is oc-
cupied by facies rich in large benthic foraminifers and rhodoliths similar
to Neogene carbonate platforms in the South China Sea (Erlich et al.,
1993; Sattler et al., 2009). Glauconitic grains indicate that parts of the la-
goon are characterized by low sediment accumulation rates. Finally, the
atoll is flanked by drifts (Betzler et al., 2009, 2013; Lüdmann et al., 2013)
and a large part of the atoll interior is covered by current-dominated de-
posits. A juxtaposition and superposition of current-dominated deposits
and drowned carbonate banks is a common scenario in carbonate plat-
forms from southeast Asia, east Australia, and the Tethyan Mesozoic
(Zempolich, 1993; Bracco-Gartner et al., 2004; Isern et al., 2004; Marino
and Santantonio, 2010), which has been attributed to the acceleration of
sluggish ocean tides and currents at the sharp topography of the
drowned banks (Schlager, 1998).
The available data indicate that one of the major players of this sce-
nario is the seasonally reversing currents impinging onto the Maldives
and flowing through the atoll. Remote sensing data tracing chlorophyll-
α concentrations in and around the Maldives show that currents
inject high nutrient contents into the shallow water (Sasamal, 2007;
Anderson et al., 2011). Temporarily, these nutrient injections induce
chlorophyll-α concentrations of 0.34 mg/m3 thus placing the carbonate
factory near the coral turn on/turn off zone (Schlager, 2005). Currents
also physically affect the sedimentation through reworking and erosion.
Storz and Gischler (2011) discussed that even the coral growth rates in
the Maldives are affected by current strength, with less yearly extension
but thickening of the skeleton during the summer monsoon.
Further, currents are also proposed to affect the stratigraphy of la-
goonal deposits. In more enclosed lagoons, the stratigraphic succession
is preserved during sea-level lowering, and additional sediment may be
deposited in the lagoon during sea-level falls (Paterson et al., 2006). In
the leaky bucket lagoons, however, during sea-level lowerings the cur-
rents can remobilize part of the sediment, ultimately exporting it out of
31
the lagoon. Although monsoonal currents affect the Maldives since the
middle Miocene (Betzler et al., 2009, 2013; Lüdmann et al., 2013), the
sediment winnowing effect in the lagoons is thought to have been am-
plified with the inception of the Pleistocene high-amplitude sea-level
fluctuations, leading to the configuration of reef towers elevated about
30–80 m above the lagoonal bottoms.
In a broader geological context, the Maldives have the potential to
add new facets to the discussion about unfilled accommodation space
on carbonate platforms, which has serious consequences for the
understanding of the stratigraphic record, especially with regards to
cyclostratigraphic interpretations. Unfilled accommodation space, in
this case represented by an empty atoll bucket, is increasingly recog-
nized as a common feature of Holocene or icehouse carbonate platforms
(Eberli and Grammer, 1999; Zinke et al., 2001; Gischler et al., 2003;
Paterson et al., 2006; Eberli, 2013; Eberli et al., 2008) and is seen as a
consequence of the rate of sediment supply being lower than the rate
of increase in accommodation space (Purdy and Gischler, 2005;
Paterson et al., 2006). Where infilling of accommodation space occurs,
it is mainly accomplished through the lateral progradation of one facies
(Eberli et al., 2008). Therefore, if accumulation of lagoonal sediments
through lateral progradation is inhibited, only reefs aggrade, and la-
goons end up unfilled. To our knowledge, this effect was not taken
into account yet, and in the models of carbonate-platform development
(see Paterson et al., 2006 for review), only unidirectional currents were
assumed.
6. Conclusions
The South Malé atoll is a leaky bucket atoll which shares character-
istics of drowned carbonate banks or drowning sequences known
from the geological record. Its lagoon is a sediment-starved depositional
system, and position of depocenters is current controlled. Erosional
moats at the flanks of highs such as drowned patch reefs are located
at several places in the lagoon, even in the center of the atoll. The sedi-
ments of the lagoon are mostly grainy bioclastic carbonate sands with
less than 10% of mud. Low amounts of carbonate muds are interpreted
to reflect current winnowing at the lagoon floor, as is also indicated by
the intense borings of the red-algal nodules. Reduced sedimentation
rates are also shown by the occurrence of glauconitic grains in the la-
goon interior. Fine-grained sediments are located in current sheltered
depocenters along the downcurrent current-protected flanks of faros.
It is proposed that the atoll serves as an example which shows how
strong currents can contribute to the drowning of carbonate banks.
Acknowledgments
We want to thank the captain and the crew of our temporary re-
search vessel HOPE CRUISER and our friend Moosa who helped us to
achieve our goals with their extraordinary support. The Ministry of Fish-
eries and Agriculture in Malé is thanked for providing the research per-
mit FA-D2/33/2011/11 for this project. The support before and after the
cruise by Christian Hübscher is gratefully acknowledged. Dr Shiham
Adam, as usual, helped and supported us with different logistic ques-
tions. Freimut von Borstel is thanked for sample preparation and sup-
port during sample analysis. The Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft is
thanked for providing the financial support of this project through the
grant BE1272/21. The manuscript benefitted from the very constructive
and helpful reviews by John Reijmer and an anonymous reviewer.
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