Catena 156 (2017) 124–130

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Catena
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Genesis of soils from Holocene tidal deposits at the North Sea coast MARK
⁎
Sarah Witte , Luise Giani
Institute for Biology and Environmental Science, University of Oldenburg, 26111 Oldenburg, Germany

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The Southern North Sea coast has served as an exemplification to analyse and discuss the genesis of soils from
Fluvisols Holocene tidal deposits. The accumulation wedge of Holocene tidal deposits at the North Sea coast is artificially
Gleysols embanked for the most part. In the enclosed area (hinterland) a variety of different soils developed. Disparate
Tidal marshes models attempting to explain the genesis of these soils deduce genesis of hinterland soils from recent foreland
Marine sediments
conditions, disregarding that geogenic preconditions have fundamentally changed. By consolidating and
Decalcification
Sulfur dynamics
reviewing established literature we show that differences in geogenic preconditions are the initiating key for
a feasible model. Describing geogenic preconditions to infer pedogenic processes, we develop a model
comprising four different development pathways. High settling velocities and regular flooding, as present in
the foreland, cause high inputs of mineral sediments and carbonate, moderate sulfur dynamics and thus the
development of calcareous soils. Synsedimentary decalcification prevails in irregularly flooded areas due to
enduring low sedimentation rates, low carbonate inputs and moderate sulfur dynamics under alternating redox
states, as mainly proposed for the unobstructed landscape. High contents of soil organic matter (SOM) facilitate
intensive sulfur dynamics creating potential acid sulfate soils (PASS), which become extreme acid upon
oxidation (actual acid sulfate soils (AASS)). A great gradient in depositional conditions, occurring at
unobstructed plain coasts, enables the deposition of deflocculated fine-grained sediments which promotes the
formation of very compact soils with low water conductivities. Although this proposed model is based mainly on
conditions known from the German North Sea coast, it is shown that shaping geogenic and pedogenic processes
are applicable to other humid coastal regions around the world.

1. Introduction matter (SOM), organo-rich deposits arise (typically occurring in North

The 400,000 km worldwide coastline (Gierloff-Emden, 1980) forms
the transition zone between oceans and continents. At steep coasts this
transition is narrow, but shallow coasts yield broad tidal-influenced
transition zones and therefore enable the deposition of tidal sediments
and the development of wide tidal flats and tidal marshes, namely
mangroves in the tropics. Tidal deposits settle under marine conditions
as well as under brackish and freshwater conditions in tidal-influenced
estuaries and upstream. The main driver generating these deposits is
the post-glacial sea level rise (Allen, 2000). Other fundamental
requirements for the development and maintenance of tidal flats, tidal
marshes and mangroves are topographically/geomorphologically pro-
tected areas facilitating sedimentation and sediment sources (Long and
Mason, 1983), as well as a large tidal range. The type and amount of
sediment sources, climatic conditions and the effectiveness of oceanic
processes (tides, waves, storms, geometry of the basin) generate
different kinds of deposits (Martini, 2014). When marsh accretion is
correlated with plant biomass production, which supplies soil organic
America) (DeLaune and Pezeshki, 2003; Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013),
whereas accretion in predominant minerogenic marshes is spatially
differentiated by a levee-depression topography which is triggered by
creek system development (Allen, 2000; de Groot et al., 2011b).
Sediment distribution patterns differ globally and on local and regional
scales as well as on temporal scales. Therefore subsequent pedogenesis
can only be explained with knowledge of landscape development
during the Holocene (Dent and Pons, 1995).
Soil formation and thereby transformation of tidal sediments start
when sediments achieve elevations above the mean high water line
(MHWL) or with colonization by higher plants and further continues
with increasing elevation relative to MHWL. However, pedogenesis is
interrupted and set back by irregular flooding events initiating recur-
rent geogenesis. This alternation of geogenic and pedogenic processes is
defined as geo-pedogenesis (Brümmer, 1968). Human interference in
river catchments and large-scale marsh embankment has disrupted
these natural regimes all over the world (Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013).
In this study we mainly focus on genesis of soils from Holocene tidal

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: sarah.witte@uni-oldenburg.de (S. Witte).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.catena.2017.04.006
Received 6 July 2016; Received in revised form 29 March 2017; Accepted 5 April 2017
Available online 10 April 2017
0341-8162/ © 2017 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
S. Witte, L. Giani
deposits at the German North Sea to outline general genetic processes in
these sediments. Humans started diking in this region in the 11th
century. Since diking was completed in the 13th century (Behre, 2004)
a continuous dike system has separated areas of tidal deposits with tidal
influence (foreland) from those without tidal influence (hinterland), the
latter exclusively governed by pedogenesis. As dike constructions are
vulnerable, several catastrophic storm surges, which were a conse-
quence of the reduced flood-water storage capacity, created new bays at
medieval times. Some of these bays still exist today (Dollart Bay and
Jade Bay), others silted up, supported mostly by man-made land
reclamation (Behre, 2004). Hinterland soils from tidal deposits show
a large variation in properties. This is evident by the assignment to
different reference soil groups as well as by the attribution of different
principal and supplementary qualifiers according to IUSS Working
Group WRB (2014). Most widespread are Gleysols, which exhibit
calcaric, eutric, dystric, sulfidic and/or thionic properties (Hartwich
et al., 2007). Some of these Gleysols were classified as Fluvisols
according to IUSS working group WRB (2006). Scattered soils with
stagnic properties (Stagnosols or Planosols) also occur. Histosols mainly
developed in depressions and in the transition belt between Holocene
tidal deposits and the Pleistocene moraine. Some authors also describe
soils with Solonetz-like properties (Müller-Ahlten, 1994a; Müller, 1954;
Veenenbos, 1955). According to the German Soil Taxonomy seven of 56
soil types are assigned to soils developed from tidally deposited parent
materials (Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005), which further illustrates the
diversity of these soils.
Different models have been established since the 1940s, which
attempt to explain the diversity of soils built up by tidal deposits. The
first model was a temporal-genetic one, which explained different
properties of soils from tidal deposits based on their maturing time
(Laatsch, 1944; Mückenhausen, 1957; Scheffer and Schachtschabel,
1956). This model was rejected as no general correlation was found
between soil properties and maturing time and was replaced by a model
based on causal determination of sedimentation and soil properties
(Edelman, 1950; Veenenbos, 1953; Veenenbos and Schuylenborgh,
1951), which was further elaborated by Müller (1954). In Müller's
model the cation composition of the water column during sedimenta-
tion is of essential importance for the properties of the developing soils,
separating them mainly by the Ca/Mg ratio and K/Na ratio of
exchangeable cations into marine, brackish and freshwater deposits.
In addition soils containing large amounts of SOM were merged into a
separate group. Later a morpho-genetic model was introduced by
Brümmer (1968) in which sulfur dynamics are of major importance.
In a genetic sequence salt-affected, calcareous, non-calcareous and clay
translocated soils were separated and a SOM-rich variant was created.
Thereafter the validity of Müller's and Brümmer's models was ques-
tioned. Brümmer's model became increasingly accepted, likely as a
result of findings in the 1980s (Giani, 1983).
A principal shortcoming of all these models is that they consider
genesis of soils from tidal deposits as a unidirectional process. For this
they mainly refer to recent foreland conditions to explain the initial
stage of pedogenesis for older soils in the hinterland. However geogenic
preconditions have naturally changed during the Holocene (Hoselmann
and Streif, 2004) and have been fundamentally altered by the devel-
opment of dikes (Dellwig et al., 2000; Flemming and Nyandwi, 1994).
Consequently genesis of hinterland soils cannot be deduced simply from
recent foreland conditions. Therefore, a literature review was con-
ducted with regard to geogenic preconditions during Holocene land-
scape development at the German North Sea and four main initial
stages were distinguished for further development from which a genetic
model featuring a four-pathway structure evolved. The main purpose of
this study is to outline how geogenic preconditions affect general geo-
pedogenic processes proceeding synsedimentary at the initial stage of
development and subsequent pedogenic processes, as well as to
illustrate the transferability of the different pathways to other coastal
areas worldwide.
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Catena 156 (2017) 124–130
2. Geogenic preconditions
Natural, temperate tidal zones are characterized by a complex
network of creeks and channels (Allen, 2000; Gerrard, 1981). Tidal
water loaded with suspended sediments enters a marsh via the marsh
edge or via the creek system depending on inundation height and
development stage of the creek network (Temmerman et al., 2005). A
progressive settling of sediments leads to the highest sedimentation
potentials close to tidal creeks and the marsh edge (de Groot et al.,
2011b). Consequently, deposits in close proximity to these places are
mainly built up by minerogenic sediments, while those occurring at
greater distances are composed of greater proportions of organic matter
derived from the marsh vegetation itself (Rabenhorst and Needelman,
2016). Rivers and streams additionally deliver terrestrial mineral
particles and terrestrial sedimentary organic matter, which are mainly
trapped in the upper part of estuaries (Caliani et al., 1997; Sondi et al.,
2008). In general, thickness and the mean settling velocity character-
istics of the mineral deposits decline with increasing distance to creeks
or the marsh edge (Allen, 2000); resulting in a progressively landward
fining of sediments. However, this is not generally reflected by the grain
size of the deposits, because mineral particles < 8 μm form flocs and
aggregates which have higher settling velocities than their constituent
particles (Chang et al., 2007; Chang et al., 2006). Different cation
compositions of the tidal water impact the flocculation of clay
(Gebhardt et al., 1965; Schroeder and Brümmer, 1969), causing the
deposition of deflocculated fine grained sediments under brackish
conditions (Veenenbos, 1955). In addition to distance to creeks and
marsh edge, topographic and bathymetric elevation control the sedi-
mentation rate, because areas of lower elevation are submerged more
frequently and have a greater potential for receiving sediments than
those of higher elevations (Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013; Rabenhorst
and Needelman, 2016).
Similar geogenic conditions controlled sedimentation at the German
North Sea coast before diking (Fig. 1). Holocene tidal deposits cover a
zone of around 8100 km2 (calculated from Hartwich et al. (2007)) and
reach a thickness of 20–25 m (Streif, 2004). From about 8500 BP, when
sea-level rise initiated the formation of the coastal accumulation wedge
(Hoselmann and Streif, 2004), till the 11th century, when the practice
of diking began, a large gradient in depositional conditions formed
deposits of varying contents of quartz, clay, carbonates, the latter
originating from biogenic sources (crushed shells, Foraminifera, Ostra-
coda, spines of Echinodermata etc.) (Verhoeven, 1962), organic matter
(Dellwig, 1999) and detrital terrigenous minerals (Caliani et al., 1997).
Hoselmann and Streif (2004) roughly estimated an average sedimenta-
tion rate of 0.99 cm yr− 1 for the time period 9000–6000 cal BP and of
0.16 cm yr− 1 for the time period 3500–1000 cal BP. Coarse- and
medium-grained sand deposits formed at the seaward edge and along
big creeks. More landward, several kilometre wide vast areas solely
received fine grained sediments, which is reflected by the term ‘clay
district’ used for this area (Behre, 2004). Additionally, areas covered
with Phragmites swamps developed (Bantelmann, 1984) (Fig. 1). Under
transient high energy conditions sand was deposited in areas normally
receiving finer grained sediments (de Groot et al., 2011a), causing an
internal stratification by sand laminae (also called storm surge layers).
However, a rapid decrease in transport energy of the water, when
entering the vegetated plain, inhibited an extent of these sand laminae
far inland. Where Holocene deposits wedge out against the Pleistocene
moraine thick peat bogs formed (Streif, 2004). Sea water and marine
sediment incursion in these areas of peat formation was widespread in
the open landscape (Dellwig et al., 2001).
Most of the depositional environments of the unobstructed land-
scape have no analogues in the present embanked landscape, because
tidal influence is restricted to a narrow belt in the foreland and irregular
incursion of sea water and tidal sediments into the vast, plain areas of
the hinterland and into areas of peat formation is inhibited, as well as
Phragmites swamp formation. Despite these inhibitions the grain size
S. Witte, L. Giani
Fig. 1. Sketch of the unembanked landscape with different sedimentation environments (1: natural levee with high sedimentation rates (incomplete synsedimentary decalcification); 2:
hinterland with lower sediment input (complete synsedimentary decalcification); 3: Phragmites swamp (intense sulfur dynamics); 4: brackish sedimentation environment with low
current velocities (synsedimentary decalcification and deflocculation)).
distribution of the sediment has changed. Investigations by Flemming
and Nyandwi (1994) show that the natural energy gradient is abruptly
disrupted by the dike and thus deposition of sediments with settling
velocities < 0.5 cm s− 1 (corresponding to equivalent diameters of
88 μm (3.5 phi)) is prevented. Even finer particles (< 8 μm) deposited
in the form of flocs and aggregates do not remain in the system, because
high energy conditions during winter break up these aggregates and
dispersed sediments are winnowed from the system (Chang et al.,
2007). Storm surge layers are frequently found (de Groot et al., 2011a).
Additionally, reduced accommodation space in the foreland and
frequent flooding as well as anthropogenically changed current flows
and installations of sediment traps, result in annual sedimentation rates
ranging between 1 and 2 cm (Giani et al., 1994) and 2 cm (Grothjahn
et al., 1982), which are distinctly higher than in former times.
3. The four pathways model
Differences in geogenic preconditions are the initiating key for
different pathways of subsequent geo-pedogenesis and pedogenesis.
Although some transitional conditions provoke intermediate properties,
four main pathways were identified in this study to explain the variety
of soils from tidal deposits.
3.1. Incomplete synsedimentary decalcification
Synsedimentary decalcification during geo-pedogenesis is mainly
controlled by sulfur dynamics (Brümmer et al., 1971). Reduced sulfur
compounds are formed by anaerobic sulfate reduction, the main
microbial respiration process in these environments (Howarth, 1984).
Anaerobic sulfate reduction is limited by the availability of SOM (Bloem
et al., 1995) and is more pronounced in marine environments, but can
take place wherever sulfate is present, hence also under brackish
conditions and in areas of the hinterland which were irregularly
inundated by sea water. The main reduced sulfur component is pyrite
(Howarth, 1979).
Aeration, which occurs regularly or irregularly, depending on tide
and storm tide influences, induces oxidation of the reduced sulfur
compounds and thereby the production of sulfuric acid. If carbonates
are available the sulfuric acid is buffered by the dissolution of calcium
carbonate (CaCO3). Considering the molecular formula and the molar
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Catena 156 (2017) 124–130
masses of the compounds the oxidation of 1 mg reduced sulfur dissolves
3.12 mg CaCO3. Thus the ratio of CaCO3 to sulfur bonded in reduced
compounds is a measure of the acidification potential (Langenhoff,
1986) (see Section 3.3). In frequently flooded areas receiving high
inputs of mineral deposits this ratio is > 3.12, because high sediment
inputs ensure a continuous carbonate resupply and a deficiency of SOM
controls sulfate reduction and thereby production and storage of
reduced sulfur compounds (Bloem et al., 1995) (Fig. 2). Thus, recent
foreland soils, which are flooded frequently and receive annual
sedimentation of 1–2 cm (Giani et al., 1994), are predominantly
calcareous, regardless of whether they silted up under brackish or
marine conditions (Giani and Landt, 2000; Schroeder and Brümmer,
1969).
Initial decalcification takes place when sediments are initially
oxidized. Reduced tidal sediments contain 0.5 to 10 mg g− 1 reduced
sulfur compounds (Brümmer et al., 1971), and 24 to 85 mg g− 1
carbonate (Schroeder and Brümmer, 1969). Accordingly, 1.46 to
29.20 mg g− 1 carbonate is dissolved by the oxidation of reduced sulfur
compounds and thereby 1.8 to 100% of the initial carbonate content is
lost. Brümmer et al. (1971) reported an average carbonate loss by sulfur
oxidation of 20 to 25 mg g− 1 for different study sites, equaling a one-
third reduction of the initial carbonate content caused by sulfur
dynamics. Therefore after embankment, pedogenesis starts from calcar-
eous sediments and subsequent decalcification continues via long-term
carbonic acid (H2CO3)-production. According to Edelman (1950) the
average loss amounts to approximately 1% per century, while van
Straaten (1954) suggests the loss to be ‘somewhat greater’. Finnern and
Brümmer (1987) described progressing decalcification of 10–20 cm soil
depth per century, indicating a more severe decalcification. Recently
derived data of carbonate stocks in top soils of the Harlebucht, for
which reclamation from the 15th century till 1956 is well documented
(Behre, 1999), indicate an average decalcification rate of about
8 mg g− 1 (0.8%) per century (Fig. 3), which is in line with the fact
that soils nearby which have been diked for 450 years still contain
carbonate at the surface (Müller-Ahlten, 1994b). Considering the
decalcification rate and carbonate contents stated above decalcification
via respiration is a process lasting 250 to 1500 years.
As controlled by moderate sulfur dynamics and high sedimentation
rates, the occurrence of calcareous soils in the hinterland is mostly
anthropogenically promoted by land reclamation and drainage after
S. Witte, L. Giani Catena 156 (2017) 124–130

Fig. 2. Schematic illustration of geogenic preconditions, geo-pedogenic and pedogenic processes initiating four different development pathways prevailing at the Southern North Sea
coast.

enclosure. Hence calcareous soils are mainly present in polder areas
along the German North sea coast, where bights formed during
medieval floodings have been reclaimed over the last centuries. In the
unembanked landscape of the past, calcareous saltmarshes developed
mainly on natural levees receiving high sediment inputs along the
marsh edge and tidal creeks (Fig. 1). Thus, in the present landscape
scattered calcareous soils are found in and along relic tidal creeks
(Gerrard, 1981; van der Sluijs and Ovaa, 1973). Quick silting under
alternating sedimentation conditions is morphologically indicated by
storm surge layers often found in the calcareous soils of the hinterland.
After embankment this development pathway, which is induced by
incomplete decalcification during geo-pedogenesis, results in Fluvic
Calcaric Gleysols (if stratification is visible) or in Calcaric Gleysols (if
no stratification occurs) (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2014), which
develop to Gleysols with mollic, umbric, dystric or eutric properties by
long-term decalcification via respiration (Fig. 2). At the German North
Sea coast embanked calcareous soils cover an area of around 1900 km2
(23% of the Holocene tidal deposits (calculated from Hartwich et al.
(2007))). The spatial extent of these soils in Lower Saxony is illustrated
by LBEG (2014), defining these soils as “Kalkmarsch”.
3.2. Complete synsedimentary decalcification
Moderate sulfur dynamics can also cause complete synsedimentary
decalcification in the long term, when alternating redox conditions
associated with enduring, lower sedimentation rates inhibit a sufficient
carbonate resupply (Fig. 2). It is assumed that this was the most
frequent situation in the open landscape of the past (Fig. 1), because a

127
S. Witte, L. Giani
Fig. 3. Standard-whisker-boxplots representing carbonate contents in the topsoil (upper
30 cm) of different plots within the former Harle-Bay reclaimed in different centuries
(n = 6 per century), the dashed line and the formula represent the linear regression of the
medians.
progressive vertical marsh growth resulted in irregular flooding and
reduced sediment input (French, 2006), facilitating alternating redox
conditions and low carbonate resupply. The absence of any storm surge
layers within these soils also suggests that they silted up receiving low
sediment inputs under calm conditions. Giani et al. (2003) observed the
formation of recent carbonate-free tidal soils with moderate sulfur
dynamics at accretion rates of 0.2–0.5 cm yr− 1. Accordingly, an
average sedimentation rate of 0.16 cm yr− 1 identified for the time
period 3500–1000 cal BP (Hoselmann and Streif, 2004), indicates a
preferential development of non-calcareous soils by complete synsedi-
mentary decalcification in the unobstructed landscape, which was
confirmed by a reconstruction of the paleo-environment and geo-
pedogenesis of non-calcareous soils from tidal sediments at the south-
ern North Sea coast (Duntze et al., 2005).
This development path illustrates that the majority of non-calcar-
eous soils in the hinterland decalcified during geo-pedogenesis and
subsequent pedogenesis after embankment proceeded from non-calcar-
eous sediment. At the German North Sea coast non-calcareous soils
from tidal deposits cover an area of around 3600 km2 (44% of the
Holocene tidal deposits (calculated from Hartwich et al. (2007))).The
distribution of these soils in Lower Saxony is illustrated by LBEG (2014)
(soil type: “Kleimarsch”). According to IUSS Working Group WRB
(2014) these soils are classified as Gleysols with mollic, umbric, dystric
or eutric properties.
3.3. Intense sulfur dynamics
Although sulfur dynamics are typically moderate due to deficiency
of SOM at the German North Sea coast (Bloem et al., 1995), a switch to
intense dynamics takes place when large amounts of SOM are available
(Fig. 2). In the unobstructed landscape tidal incursion in areas of peat
formation and in Phragmites swamps was widespread (Giani et al.,
1997; Müller-Ahlten, 1994a) (Fig. 1). Increased availability of SOM
causes intense sulfate reduction leading to sulfate depletion and sulfur
contents > 15 mg g− 1 (Giani and Giani, 1990). If the ratio of CaCO3
to sulfur bonded in reduced compounds is smaller than 3.12, these soils
are ‘Potential Acid Sulfate Soils’ (PASS) (Langenhoff, 1986). Their acidity
is enclosed in reduced sulfur compounds, being stable under reduced
conditions. Upon oxidation the produced sulfuric acid cannot be
buffered because of an insufficient carbonate stock. Consequently an
extreme acidification occurs and jarosite is produced, forming ‘Actual
Acid Sulfate Soils’ (AASS) (Langenhoff, 1986). Jarosite is only stable at a
redox potential (Eh) > 400 mV and pH < 4 (van Breemen, 1982).
Hence, when acids are washed out, jarosite hydrolyzes to goethite at pH
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Catena 156 (2017) 124–130
values > 4 generating ‘Post Acid Sulfate Soils’. Apart from iron enrich-
ment no remnants of the former intense sulfur dynamics are left. These
soils, which are called ‘Rhodoorn’ in The Netherlands (Müller-Ahlten,
1994a), have not been identified in Germany thus far and further
investigations are required.
Acid Sulfate Soils (ASS) are often associated with SOM-rich and
carbonate-free soils, without typical features of sulfur dynamics (Giani
et al., 1997) (see Section 3.2). According to IUSS Working Group WRB
(2014) AASS are Thionic Gleysols, while PASS are indicated by the
supplementary qualifier Sulfidic. Due to the fact that ASS are not
assigned to a distinct soil type according to the German Soil Taxonomy
their nationwide distribution is not documented. Their potential
occurrence in Lower Saxony is illustrated by LBEG (2010).
3.4. Synsedimentary decalcification and deflocculation
Under particular conditions very compact soils or soils with
compacted horizons developed, which are characterized by very high
bulk densities (up to 1.9 g cm− 3 (Müller et al., 1977)) and low water
conductivities of < 1 cm d− 1 (Ad-hoc-AG Boden, 2005; Müller, 1954).
Clay translocation can be excluded if the relation between a clay
depleted and a clay enriched horizon is unrealistic and at high base
saturations, both of which often occur at the southern North Sea coast
(Müller-Ahlten, 1994a). Usually, the compacted horizons contain no
carbonates, but low contents of carbonate can be enclosed, especially in
nodules or thin layers within the compact horizons (Veenenbos, 1955).
Additional properties include a Ca/Mg ratio < 1 and a Na saturation
of 5% or more (Müller, 1954). The latter indicates an incomplete
desalinization likely due to impeded percolation. In carbonate contain-
ing soils desalinization would quickly be followed by decalcification
causing an increase of Ca saturation and structure stabilization. Because
these processes cannot be observed in these soils, it is assumed that the
cation composition has not essentially changed during pedogenesis and
roughly reflects the situation of the sedimentation environment, as
already postulated by Müller (1954).
This assumption is supported by simulation experiments (Gebhardt
et al., 1965) and the finding that in brackish water decreasing salinity
and the predominance of Mg and Na ions, which have significant higher
dispersive powers (Mg = 1.7, Na = 45) than Ca (Rengasamy et al.,
2016), reduce sediment flocculation and floc sizes (Veenenbos, 1955).
The drainage of these dispersed sediments results in the formation of
compact soil horizons with an exchangeable Na percentage (ESP) which
meets the requirement for a natric horizon, the diagnostic horizons for
Solonetzes (IUSS Working Group WRB, 2014). Natric properties match
observations of Müller (1954), Müller-Ahlten (1994a) and Veenenbos
(1955) describing these soils as Solonetz-like, having a coarse prismatic
to Solonetz-like structure and horizontally laid clay and silt particles.
Under present conditions the deposition of dispersed, fine-grained
sediments forming these features is inhibited, because fine-grained
sediments are mostly resuspended and winnowed from the system
(Chang et al., 2007). Furthermore no synsedimentary decalcification
occurs, which is required for the formation of these soils.
However, this concept is based mainly on experiments (Müller,
1954), a few profile descriptions (Müller-Ahlten, 1994a; Müller et al.,
1977; Veenenbos, 1955) and theoretical conclusions. For verification
more research is necessary. A promising approach is via δ13C signature
(Spohn et al., 2013).
In the most recent soil map of Lower Saxony (LBEG, 2017) these
soils are defined as “Knickmarsch” and cover around 2% of the
Holocene tidal deposits. Due to their small-scale distribution they are
not displayed in nationwide maps. According to IUSS Working Group
WRB (2014) they are classified as Planosols or Stagnosols. Whether the
Solonetz-like properties are sufficient for a classification as Solonetz is
yet to be determined by further investigations.
S. Witte, L. Giani
4. Applicability to other coastal areas
The focus of this study is on the southern North Sea coast. The
described levee-depression topography generated by the development
of a creek system is typical for temperate marshes, whereas coastal
sediments in arctic and subarctic zones develop a variety of ice-rafted
features and can be completely reworked and redistributed by glaciers
and cryoturbation (Martini, 2014). Nevertheless, similar physical
azonal processes, such as tides, waves, winds and bio-physical-chemical
factors can generate similar tidal deposits under every climatic setting
(Kelletat et al., 2013). Furthermore, this study argues that the four
development pathways of the model proposed herein are applicable to
other coasts. The different pathways are predominantly initiated by the
intensity of sulfur dynamics and the supply of calcareous sediment.
Sulfur dynamics are driven by sulfate reduction, globally occurring in
sulfate-affected anaerobic environments, even in arctic sediments
(Kostka et al., 1999). Carbonate deposits built up by skeletal material
of organisms also occur worldwide from tropical and subtropical to
cold/cool temperate zones (Martini, 2014). Thus, decalcification and
acidification via sulfide oxidation is potentially omnipresent in coastal
areas.
However, the elution of salts, carbonate und gypsum described in
this model is restricted to humid zones. In areas with high evaporation
the formation of carbonate-evaporites is possible, resulting in a
sustained accumulation of carbonate and the formation of gypsum
crusts in the supratidal zone (Billeaud et al., 2014).
Although the four pathways can occur everywhere under suitable
climatic conditions, systematic data on the occurrence and amount of
carbonate stored in saltmarshes are not available (Allen, 2000) and
therefore exact statements on the worldwide distribution of the path-
ways ‘incomplete synsedimentary decalcification’ and ‘complete synse-
dimentary decalcification’ are not possible. Additionally, no data are
available implying the distribution of the pathway ‘synsedimentary
decalcification and deflocculation’, even though preconditions are
given especially at flat coasts. Large-scale marsh embankments all over
the world (Kirwan and Megonigal, 2013) have reduced the required
accommodation spaces and thereby the formation of these deposits.
Nevertheless, the worldwide distribution of the pathway ‘intense sulfur
dynamics’ and therefore the occurrence of potential and actual acid
sulfate soils in Africa, Asia, Latin America, North America and Europe is
well documented (Andriesse and van Mensvoort, 2006). They cover a
surface area of approximately 17 million ha (Andriesse and van
Mensvoort, 2006), which further underlines the omnipresence of sulfur
dynamics in tidal deposits.
5. Conclusion
Pedogenesis of Holocene tidal deposits is determined predominantly
by geogenic preconditions. The embanked soils of the Southern North
Sea coast reflect a broad spectrum of geogenic preconditions generated
by differing settling velocities, flooding frequency, sediment supply,
SOM content and carbonate resupply. Four main development path-
ways of tidal sediments were identified, which are initiated by
differences in the intensity of sulfur dynamics, the supply of calcareous
sediment and the cation composition of the water column during
sedimentation. Beside these main pathways all kinds of intermediate
conditions are possible. As fundamental processes rule tidal deposits
globally, the model is applicable to other humid coastal areas world-
wide.
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