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RIFT SEDIMENTATION

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DOI: 10.2110/pec.02.73.0003

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 RIFT SEDIMENTATION
GAIL M. ASHLEY
Department of Geological Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854-8066, U.S.A.
e-mail: gmashley@rci.rutgers.edu
AND
ROBIN W. RENAUT
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5E2, Canada
e-mail: robin.renaut@usask.ca

INTRODUCTION sedimentary rocks. Ebinger et al. examine rift development at the

crustal scale, emphasizing vertical motions during extension and
Continental rift basins have long been of interest to sedimen- the creation of basins for sediment accumulation. Morley pro-
tologists. Of all the terrestrial depositional settings, rift basins vides a lengthy discussion of the tectonic settings of different
typically provide the greatest accommodation space, and conse- types of extensional basin worldwide, and shows the relation-
quently have some of the ~0ngest records of continental sedimen- ships between these basins and their styles of volcanism, rift
tation. These records are a product of a complex interplay be- topography, and patterns of sedimentation. Withjack et al. docu-
tween several factors. These include geological structure and ment the different structural facets of rift basins, the evolution of
tectonic activity, volcanism, climate and its temporal variability, rifts, and their relationship to the stratigraphic record of rift
hydrology, hydrogeology, biology, and time (Fig. 1). The basins. Hinderer and Einsele take a different approach, and model
lithological records in rifts, which are naturally dominated by the development of rift-basin fills quantitatively by considering
fluvial and lacustrine deposits, have become increasingly promi- them as linked denudation-accumulation systems.
nent in recent years because of their potential for studying long- Paleosols can record a wealth of paleoclimate information.
term climatic changes and for testing hypotheses of orbital forc- Driese andMora present excitingnew information from pedogenic
ing (e.g., Olsert, 1986; Johnson and Odada, 1996). More recently, carbonates of Upper Triassic rift sediments from the Durham
the continuing quest for the paleontological and cultural records Basin, North Carolina, U.S.A. The ~)13C values show a shiff from
of human origin~ that are entombed in the sedimentary rocks of wetter to drier conditions associated with elevated atmospheric
the East Africanrift has raised further questions on the tempo of levels of carbon dioxide.
climatic change, changing paleolandscapes, and the environ- Paleoclimate signatures can also be gleaned from the sedi-
mental stresses that might have affected human evolution (Vrba mentary records of lakes. Yemane et aI. interpret temperatures and
’et al., 1995; Andrews and Banham, 1999). Rapid burial of thickrainfall from an ~ 700-m-thick freshwater lake sequence in the
sedimentary fills, high geothermal gradients, and consequent Permian mid-Zambezi basin of southern Africa. They show that
early maturation of lacustrine organic matter, much of which is the climate was moist and coolin the interior of Gondwana at 50-
sapropelic, have made rift basins attractive targets for petroleum 60° S. Their findings are in stark contrast to earlier numerical
exploration (e.g., Robbins, 1983; Katz, 1990; Lambiase, 1990,models that had found severe aridity and extreme seasonal
1995). Indeed, most of our understanding of rift-basin geometry temperatures at this latitude.
has resulted from seismic profiling sponsored by oil companies Pedogenic mud aggregates are sand-size particles composed
(Scholz et al., 1990; Lezzar et al., 1996; Morley, 1999). of day and silt and are important vehicle for transportation of
A conference at the Geological Society of London in 1984 fine-grained sediment in rift basins and other environments.
brought together a group of researchers working mainly in the Gierlowski-Kordesch and Gibling have examined their characteris-
East African Rift, and spawned the publication "Sedimentation in tics and development in the Mesozoic Hartford rift basin of
the African Rifts", edited by Frostick et al. (1986). While relaxing Connecticut, U.S.A. They show that the clasts are reworked from
one evening on the shore of Lake Turkana in the summer of 2000, floodplains during high-discharge events.
we discussed the possibility of assembling a similar volume, Lake-margin enviro~wnents in steep-sided rift basins are not
seeing that ahnost fifteen years had passed since that book was flat featureless plains like those in some other tectonic settings.
published, and many new ideas had evolved. This collection of Studies in the rift basins in northern Tanzania by Deocampo reveal
nineteen papers is the result of that discussion. the surprising variety of subenvironments and lithofacies that are
present in lake-margin settings. He also documents the impact of
Volume Contributions hippos on sedimentation in these low-gradient environments.
The Okavango in northern Botswana has previously been
This volume presents results of some of the varied studies on called an inland delta, a wetland, and an alluvial fan. McCarNy et
rift sedimentation that have been undertaken in the past few al. present a synthesis of two decades of biological, sedimento-
years. The coverage of topics is certainly not comprehensive, but logical, and geochemical studies into a depositional model of this
it reflects the diversity of studies that are currently taking place in fascinating modern system. Sedimentation history is linked to
riffbasins, both modern and ancient. Unlike the papers in Frostick incipient rifting in the distal end of the rift valley.
et al. (1986), which had a bias toward lacustrine environments, Mack et al. provide an unusual three-dimensional glimpse
some of the lesser-known rift settings are highlighted in this into basin-fill architecture in the Rio Grande Rift in New Mexico,
volume, which includes studies beyond the East African Rift. U.S.A. Tectonic tilting of the Neogene Palomas Basin likely
The volume opens with four papers that consider the tectonic triggered toe cutting of the basin-margin alluvial fans by the
development of rift basins as repositories for sediments and axial river as it shifted laterally.

Sedimentation h~ Continental Rifts

SEPM Special Publication No. 73, Copyright © 2002
SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology), ISBN 1-56576-082-4, p. 3-7.
 4 GAlL M. ASHLEY AND ROBIN W. RENAUT

STRUCTURE VOLCANISM LITHOLOGY HYDROLOGY CLIMATE BIOLOGY

-mantle dynamics -blockage -basement vs. -budget -precipitation -flora
-plate tectonics -composition volcanics -hot vs. cold -evaporation -fauna
-lava vs. tephra -hydrologically -temperature -microbial
open or closed -evapotranspiration

DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
-volcaniclastic -fluvial-deltaic
"~:~. -colluvial/pedogenic -spring + wetland
~ -eolian -lacustrine

DIAGENESIS
~ ~!~)~ ~ -near surface
-deep
~ii~
SEDIMENTARY RECORD
of
RIFT BASINS

F~G. 1.--Factors that determine the nature of the sedimentary record in continental rift settings.

Long-term sedimentary sequences in rifts record the complex always clear. Using a combination of sedimentological and
interplay among tectonics, climate, and volcanism, and allow the geochemical evidence, de Wet et al. examine the origins of lime-
examination of sedimentation at a range of temporal and spatial stones in the Mesozoic rift-basin fills of eastern North America.
scales. Behrensmeyer et al. analyze a million-year-long, well datedThey show that the limestones, which have several origins (both
record from the Olorgesailie Basin in the southern Kenya Rift, and as lacustrine and spring deposits), formed at times when the
show clearly that these three driving mechanisms operate at silicidastic influx to the basins was reduced, and when there was
different time scales. Ashley and Hay use a high-resolution record an increased supply of calcium carbonate, including detrital
(20 km wide, 12 m thick 100,000 years long) from the Olduvai components.
basin of northern Tanzania to decipher sedimentation patterns Lake Magadi, in the Kenya Rift, is one of the best-known lakes
during the early Pleistocene. A large groundwater-fed wetland in Africa, and to limnogeologists it is famous for its trona depos-
was identified, and it appears to have been the only perennial its, authigenic zeolites, magadiite, and associated cherts. Two
freshwater resource in this otherwise semiarid rift-margin envi- papers consider the cherts at Lake Magadi. Behr demonstrates
ronment. Hominids, as well as other fauna, used this valuable that much of the chert at Magadi may have originated by micro-
resource. bial precipitation of silica, and did not have a magadiite precur-
With the extensive faulting, volcanism, and high regional heat sor, as originally proposed by Eugster (1967). Relatively little
flow in rift basins, it is no surprise that thermal springs are a chert at Magadi may be Magadi-type chert. Kerrich et aI. have
common feature ofmodernrift systems. Their sedimentaryrecord, examined the trace-element geochemistry of cherts at Magadi,
however, is sparse or difficult to recognize. Renaut et aI. describe Olduvai, and other places in the rift, and show that alkaline lake
fossil hot-spring deposits from the Turkana Basin of northern cherts have a unique geochemical signature that will help their
Kenya and discuss some of the impacts of hydrothermal fluids on future recognition in the geological record.
rift sedimentation and diagenesis. What trends can we see from this selection of papers? If this
Lacustrine sediments form major parts of many rift-basin fills selection is a representative sampling of current research, then
and have been the subject of several other recent volumes (e.g., clearly sedimentology in rift basins has progressed beyond basic
Johnson and Odada, 1996; several papers in Gierlowski-Kordesch facies description and the general relationships between sedi-
and Kelts, 2000). Lake waters in rifts, particularly those with mentary facies, structures, and fill geometry. Detailed local stud-
volcanic rocks in their catchments, commonly have waters rich in ies and the increasing application of geochemical methods (e.g.,
silica and nutrients. Consequently, diatoms can thrive. Owen Hay and Kyser, 2001) are being used to advance our understand-
provides an overview of the controls of diatom sedimentation in ing of sedimentary processes and products in rifts. Future plans
rift lakes and includes a new classification of lacustrine diatoma- for the East African Rift include deep drilling of large rift lakes
ceous sediments, based on study of many lake basins in East with the aim of recovering long paleoclimatic records that can be
Africa. Johnson examines the budget of biogenic silica in lakes linked to those interpreted from deep-sea cores.
Malawi and Victoria and shows that shifts in abundance of
¯ biogenic silica through time can be related to climatic forcing. Editors" Perspectives
Yuretich and Ervin use day mineralogy of sediments in lakes
Malawi and Turkana as indicators of paleoenvironmental change. There remain, however, many gaps in our understanding of
They show the critical importance of determining whether the rift sedimentology. From our perspective these include (1) the
clays are detrital or authigenic before making inferences on their role of bedrock composition in affecting processes m~d the nature
paleoclimatic significance. of deposits; (2) the character of soil development in volcanically(
Carbonates are a common component of lacustrine rift fills, active settings; (3) the importance of fine-grained eolian sedi-
but their origins and paleoenvironmental significance are not ments; (4) the impact of colluvial processes on the sedimentary
 RIFT SEDIMENTATION 5

record; and (5) the significance of groundwater-fed freshwater may not be preserved (Fig. 2E, F; Frostick and Reid, 1982; Reid
’~wetlands, to name just a few. and Frostick, 1986). Because hill slopes cover large portions of
the rift region, equivalent in surface area to sites of accumula-
Bedrock Composition tion (i.e., floodplains, eolian flats, deltas, and lakes), we can
expect that a portion of the colluvial sediments will eventually
Except for eolian dust and pyrodastic air fall, weathering of be preserved in the geological record. For a more complete
the bedrock in the drainage basin provides the detrital sediment picture of the rift environment, there is a clear need for the
that accumulates in continental rifts. In an influential paper, development of colluvial facies models.
Yuretich (1982) contrasted the eastern branch of the East African
Rift, where volcanic rocks are abundant, with the western branch, Freshwater Wetlands
whichis dominatedby metamorphicbasement rocks. He showed
that the differences in bedrock have a major impact on the ionic Springs and groundwater-fed wetlands (Thompson and
composition of the basin waters, rift-basin fills, and lacustrine Hamilton, 1983) are commonin rifts, particularly associated with
sedimentation. Bedrock lithology also affects siliciclastic sedi- faults and bedrock fracture systems (Fig. 2G, H). They are an
mentation in colluvial, fluvial, and pedogenic environments in important part of rift ecology, but their preservation potential is
continental rifts. Weathering of quartz-poor lavas yields feld- low. Springs, particularly cool springs, may not leave a mineral
spathic silts, clay minerals, and gravels, whereas volcanic rock record (Deocampo and Ashley, 1999), and much of the record
fragments (VRFs) and K-feldspar typically dominate the sand from wetlands is likely to oxidize with time. There is a major
fraction. Feldspars break down rapidly to silt and fine sand knowledge gap in our understanding of the processes that ulti-
during transportation, whereas VRFs originally deposited as mately lead to the geological record of springs and wetlands,
sands are prone to early diagenetic alteration to mudstone. In particularly in arid settings.
contrast, metamorphic basement gneisses, schists, and quartzites
typically produce plentiful quartz sand under the same environ- These are just a few of many aspects of rift sedimentology that
mental conditions (Fig. 2A, B). appear to be ripe for research. This list is far from exhaustive;
These basic mineralogical differences should affect the sedi- every sedimentologist working in modern rifts and paleorifts
ment supply to the fluvial system in rifts, and consequently the could undoubtedly add many other topics. It is clear that there
nature of rift fills. Models that predict the distribution of sand- will be promising new avenues for investigation in the sedimen-
stone hydrocarbon reservoirs in rift basins, for example, may be tology of continental rifts for many years to come.
unsuitable in volcanic catchments. There is much scope for re-
search into the role of bedrock composition in siliciclastic sedi- REFERENCES
mentation in rift basins, besides its well-known controls on
hydrochemistry. ANDREWS, P., AND BANHAM, P., EDS., 1999, Late Cenozoic Environments and
Hominid Evolution; A Tribute to Bill Bishop: Geological Society,
Soil Development London, 276 p.
ASHLEY, G.M., AND DPaESE, S.G., 2000, Paleopedology and paleohydrology
Paleosols may contain a wealth of environmental and cli- of a volcaniclastic paleosol interval: implications for early Pleistocene
mate data, but the record is time-averaged and episodic influx stratigraphy and paleoclimate record, Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania:
of pyroclastic material to the surface typically leads to imma- Journal of Sedimentary Research, v. 70, p. 1065-1080.
ture and cumulative soils (Bestland and Retallack, 1997; Ashley BESTLAND, E.A., AND RETALLACK, G.J., 1993, Volcanically influenced calcar-
and Driese, 2000) (Fig. 2C). We encourage the integration of eous paleosols from the Miocene Kiahera Formation, Rusinga Island,
pedogenic analysis with the more traditional lithologic analy- Kenya: Geological Society of London, Journal, v. 150, p. 293-310.
sis to provide a more complete understanding of environmen- DEOCAMPO, D.M., AND ASHLEY, G.M., 1999, Siliceous islands in a carbonate
tal conditions in rift basins. sea: Modern and Pleistocene records of spring-fed wetlands in
Ngorongoro Crater and Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania: Journal of Sedi-
Eolian Dust mentary Research, v. 69, p. 974-979.
EU~ST~R, H.P., 1967, Hydrous sodium silicates from Lake Magadi, Kenya.
The tendency has been for researchers on rift sedimentology Precursors of bedded chert: Science, v. 157, p. 1177-1180.
to focus onfluvial and lacustrine environments. There is a general FROSTICK, L.E., AND REID, I., 1982, Alluvial processes, mass wasting and
lack of appreciation of the importance of wind-blown sediments slope evolutionin arid environments: Zeitschrift ftir Geomorphologie,
in rifts, except for the more obvious sand dunes (e.g., Olsen, 1986; Supplement Band 44, p. 53-67.
Hubert and Mertz, 1984; Smoot, 1991). Nevertheless, the weath- FROSTICK, L.E., RENAUT, R.W., I~D, I., AND TIERCEL1N, J.-J., 1986, Sedimenta-
ering of volcanic rocks produces copious fine-grained sediment, tion in the African Rifts: Geological Society of London, Special Pub-
and eolian dust (loess) should be an important component of the lication 25, 382 p.
sedimentary record (Fig. 2D). Understandably, it is difficult to GIERLOWSKI-KORDESCH, E.H., AND KELTS, K.R., EDS., 2000, Lake Basins through
recognize loess when mixed with fine-grained fluvial and lacus- Space and Time: American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
trine deposits. However, eolian deposits can indicate a negative Studies in Geology no. 46, 648 p.
hydrologic budget (more evaporation than precipitation); the HAY, R.L., AND KYSER, T.K., 2001, Chemical sedimentology and paleoenvi-
ability to differentiate a wind-blown fraction from the water- ronmental history of Lake Olduvai, a Pliocene lake in northern Tanza-
transported fraction has important paleoenvironmental connota- nia: Geological Society of America, Bulletin, v. 113, p. 1505-1521.
tions. HUBERT, J.F., AND MERTZ, K.A., 1984, Eolian sandstones of the Upper
Triassic-Lower Jurassic red beds of the Fundy Basin, Nova Scotia:
Colluvial Facies Journal of Sedimentary Petrology, v. 54, p. 798-810.
JOHNSON, T.C., AND ODADA~ E.O., EDS., 1996, The Limnology, Climatology
Colluvium covers large areas of rift systems. Slopes, how- and Paleoclimatology of the East African Lakes: Amsterdam, Gordon
ever, represent zones of sediment transport, and their deposits & Breach, 664 p.
6 GAlL M. ASHLEY AND ROBIN W. RENAUT
 RIFT SEDIMENTATION 7

KATZ, B.J., ~D., 1990, Lacustrine Basin Exploration--Case Studies and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Modern Analogs: American Association of Petroleum Geologists,
Memoir 50, 340 p. The contents of this volume are a reflection not only of the
LAMBIASE, J.J., 1990, A model for tectonic control of lacustrine stratigraphic researchers who contributed their results and ideas but also of the
sequences in continental rift basins, in Katz, B.J., ed., Lacustrine Basin reviewers who helped to evaluate the data and interpretations
Exploration--Case Studies and Modern Analogs: American Associa- presented. The editors of this volume gratefully acknowledge the
tion of Petroleum Geologists, Memoir 50, p. 265-276. time and effort given by the reviewers of the manuscripts in tiffs
LAMBIASE, J.J., ED., 1995, Hydrocarbon Habitat in Rift Basins: Geological compilation:
Society of London, Special Publication 80, 381 p.
L~ZZAR, K.E., TIERCELIN, J.-J., DE BATIST, M., COHEN, A.S., BANDORA, T., VAN Philip Barker Victoria Hover
RENSBERGEN, P., L~ TURDU, C., MIFUNDU, W., AND KLERKX, J., 1996, New Charles Bristow Jacqueline Huntoon
seismic stratigraphy and late Tertiary history of the Nor th Tanganyika Paul Buchheim Joseph Lambiase
Basin, East African Rift system, deduced from multichannel and high Cathy Busby Peter LeTourneau
resolution reflection seismic data and piston core evidence: Basin Angeles Bustillo Andrew D. Miall
Research, v. 8, 1-28. Lluis Cabrera Richard Murray
MORLEY, C.K., ED., 1999, Geoscience of Rift Systems--Evolution of East Joel Casanova Gregory Nadon
Africa: American Association of Petroleum Geologists, Studies in Henry Chafetz David Peacock
Geology, no. 44, 250 p. Amy Clifton Vickie A. Pedone
OLS~N, P.E., 1986, A 40-million year lake record of early Mesozoic orbital Isabelle Cojan Gregory Retallack
climatic forcing: Science, v. 234, p. 842-848. Richard Collier Robert Riding
REID, I., AND FROSTICK, L.E., 1986, Slope processes, sediment derivation and Nancye Dawers Gary Smith
landform evolution in a rift basin northern Kenya, in Frostick, L.E., Grant Ferris Charlotte Schreiber
Renaut, R.W., Reid, I., and Tiercelin, J.-J., eds., Sedimentation in the Robert Gawthorpe Kathryn Schubel
African Rifts: Geological Society of London, Special Publication 25, p. Margaret Gucchione Frederick Schwab
99-111. Li Guo Carl Swisher
ROBBINS~ E.I., 1983, Accumulation of fossil fuels and metallic minerals in Sanjeev Gupta Torbj6rn T6rnqvist
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coarse-grained facies in lacustrine rift basins: examples from East Robert Hecky
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SMOOT, J.P., 1991, Sedimentary facies and depositional environments of Thanks are also expressed to Robert Dalrymple, former
i Early Mesozoic Newark Supergroup basins, eastern North America: SEPM Special Publications Editor, for his enthusiastic support
Palaeogeography, Palaeodimatology, Palaeoecology, v. 84, p. 369- of this project from the beginx~ing. We are grateful to SEPM
423.
Special Publications Editor Laura Crossey, Kris Farnsworth
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(SEPM Publications Coordinator), and to Robert Clarke for his
African continent, in Gore, A.J.P., Ecosystems of the World, Volume
meticulous help with production. We are especially grateful to
4B: Mires: Swamp, Bog, Fen, and Moor, Regional Studies: Amster-
John Southard for technical editing, wise advice, and his excep-
dam, Elsevier, p. 331-373.
tional patience.
VRBA~ E;S., DENTON, G.H., PARTRIDGE, I.C., AND BURCKLE, L.H., ~DS., 1995,
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East Africa rift valleys: Journal of Geology, v. 90, p. 329-337.

FIG. 2 (opposite page).--Environments and topics for future research in rift basins. A) Ephemeral stream floored by loose quartzose sand, near Koobi
Fora, Lake Turkana basin. The catchment contains basement rocks that have provided the sand. B) Ephemeral stream near Lake Baringo, Kenya,
floored by lava gravel and fine sands and silts, composed mainly of feldspars derived from weathering of volcanic rocks. Coarse sand is rare
because of the paucity of quartz. C) Paleosol development in tuffaceous claystones (1.75 Ma) at toe of pyroclastic fan, OIduvai basin, Tanzania
(see Ashley and Driese, 2000). Prismatic structure, peds, and carbonate rhizoliths typify soil-forming processes in arid regions; light-colored
sediments reflect zeolitization from saline, alkaline soil waters. Sample pit is 10 cm wide. D) Dust storm on the Sandai Plain north of Lake Bogoria,
Kenya. The dust is mainly K-feldspar but also contains efflorescent Na-CO3 salts. E) Vegetated colluvial slope on Ngorongoro Volcanic Highland,
East African Rift, northern Tanzania. Although these surfaces tend to function as sediment transport zones, some colluvial deposits may end up
in the geological record but not be recognized. F) Quaternary colluvial gravels and sands (C), several meters thick, disconformably overlie
lacustrine sediments (LS) of the Miocene Tambach Formation, Kerio Escarpment road near Tambach, central Kenya Rift. G) A cool, freshwater
spring discharging at base of slope yields a small perelmial stream that supports lush wetland vegetation within the arid rift valley, Lake Natron,
northern Tanzm~ia. H) Loboi Swamp, a large (12 km~) groundwater-fed wetland, located between Lakes Bogoria and Baringo, Kenya Rift Valley.
A band of Papyrus in topographic low in mid-ground is bracketed by Typha vegetation on adjacent higher ground.
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