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Crater Lakes of the World and the Development of a Suitability Index for
Paleoclimate Applications.

Thesis · December 1998

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3923.7283

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 Crater Lakes of the World and the Development of a
Suitability Index for Paleoclimate Applications

Eric Wienckowski

Introduction

The study of the Earth’s past climate, vegetation, and

environment is of paramount importance in gaining a further

understanding of the ways in which we presently use and effect the

our natural surroundings. Several sciences have been developed

which deal explicitly with the problems and methods of obtaining data

which could yield valuable clues about the Earth’s past. Since many

geographic features have lifetimes which can span several hundred

millennia, scientists have been finding ways in which these features

may be able to record and preserve information about the conditions

of the surrounding environment.

Lakes are remarkable features of the Earth’s landscape in that

they are extraordinary reservoirs of information concerning the

conditions and events occurring within their watersheds. Within their

sediments, pollen and various minerals can be well preserved. Lakes

also precipitate phases from their mineral rich waters. These

precipitates are also preserved in the sediments and provide valuable

clues about the state of the lake environment in which they formed,
and hence can lead to inferences about the overall regional

environment in which the lake is situated. Lake sediments, however,

are most valuable when they are undisturbed. Sediments, which are

strongly bioturbated or, which occur in lakes with relatively unstable

environments where landslides, slumping, or subaqueous gas releases

greatly disrupt important chronological sequences, can be still be good

environmental indicators, but often cannot satisfy important dating

requirements.

In order to obtain useful results from the analysis of sediment

records, knowledge about the lake’s environment, morphometry, and

recent history must first be gathered. This information serves as a

preliminary evaluation as to the continuity of the sediment record and

consequently to the historical data it may yield. Certain water bodies

will produce better sediment records based on age, stability, residence

time, and overall morphometric conditions. Old, relatively deep lakes,

located in regions with mature geomorphology often are the best sites

due to their ability to provide long, uninterrupted sediment records. In

my study, I chose to investigate only crater lakes due to their wide

geographic distribution, their relatively deep basins, and their ability to

preserve long records, often laminated or varved.

The determination as to what makes a lake a suitable site for

paleoclimate investigations is dependent on its ability to produce

sufficiently long and continous records. I propose an heuristic from

which lakes are to be evaluated concerning their application in paleo-

research. This indexing system will provide scientists involved in

paleoclimate research the ability to numerically and critically evaluate

their intended data collection sites. It will also provide a general

method for the comparison of well-known sites, with relatively

obscure, yet potentially valuable, sites. In addition, the compilation of

a database which includes all known crater lakes worldwide, will also

be compiled. This catalog will attempt to include all morphometric,

chemical, and bibliographic information presently available. From this

list, a subset of lakes will be evaluated using the aforementioned

heuristic in relation to their suitability for paleo-research.

Initial Project Goals

I. To evaluate a comprehensive subset of crater lakes worldwide in

order to derive some type of index regarding their use as
suitable sampling sites for paleoclimatological and
paleolimnological research in support of international programs
building a global network.

II. To generate an annotated atlas or database of craters of either

meteoric or volcanic origin. Criteria for paleoclimate seismic and
coring may include: 1. the stability of aquatic environments, 2.
evidence of minimal geological disturbance or neotectonics, 3.
maturity of the geomorphology.

III. The workplan will begin by searching existing international

catalogues and data collections on crater lakes, for example as
part of hazard or impact surveys. Where possible, aerial
 photographs or satellite imagery will be used for cursory
geomorphological analysis of lake drainage basin, terrace
morphometry, and bathymetric attributes. Generalized data on
history, climate, hydrology, depth, chemistry, and concentration
will be useful.

IV. Initial surveys may lead to the choice of some basins and their
sediments for more in depth study. The report for this project
may be in the form of graphical compilations, imagery, and text.
One goal is to aim for web-based or other forms of publication.

Evaluation of Project Goals

Crater lakes are not evenly distibuted across the surface of the

Earth. However they may provide a broad network to aid

reconstruction of paleoclimate patterns of climate change. These are

needed to understand sensitivity, natural variability, and threshold

behavior of regional environmental dynamics. The compilation of a

database inclusive of all world crater lakes is an important part in large

scale research projects concerned with the patterns of global lake

distribution. This distribution is crucial in paleolimnogical research

issues in that numerous localities often need to examined in order to

corroborate a much larger climate scenario. After the evaluation of

selected crater lakes is complete, a clearer, more concise conclusion

can be drawn as to where optimal sites are not only located, but

situated in relation to important climate generating phenomena. The

importance of such a study is commensurate with its ability to provide

researchers with quick, accurate information on multiple locations

which may supply answers to their investigative inquiries.

There were numerous problems encountered during the

collection of data which was to be included in the database. Often,

lakes located in poorly studied regions or of recent formation, had

either multiple names or names with various spellings. When cited in

references, there was no consistency as to the actual lake name. This

led to instances where the same lake was being listed in the database

multiple times under various local or regional names. Another

problem arose concerning the issue of lake genesis. The exact

formative processes which created some of the lakes can be difficult to

deduce. Many lakes are the result of a combination of tectonic and

volcanic processes. When this was the case, as evidenced by Lake

Naivasha in Kenya and Lake Shala in Ethiopia, the decision was to

exclude them from the database. Likewise, pre-Quarternary meteor

crater lakes located in glaciated regions were also excluded. These

include, among others, Lappajarvi and Yanisjarvi, of the Finno-Karelian

isthmus.

Prior Crater Lake Databases

An important phase in the compilation of the database was the

identification and location of previous attempts at cataloging the

world’s numerous crater lakes. In this endeavor, little was

accomplished due to the paucity of such published data. A couple of

important findings, however, were made and these existing databases

greatly facilitated the overall task of finding named crater lakes. The

data presented in these catalogs almost exclusively dealt with

morphometry and bathymetry, but most included a substantial list of

references from which other information was garnered.

In 1989, G.L. Larson published a short listing of 88 caldera lakes

worldwide. This catalog, presented information on elevation, surface

area, maximum depth, shoreline development, lake shape, the

presence of inlets, outlets, or islands, and the amount of the caldera

floor covered by the lake. Although useful in identifying known caldera

lakes, there arose confusion as to whether some of the lakes listed

were actually calderas; for example Lago di Albano in Italy. The

collection also seemed incomplete, as well-known caldera lakes such

as Yellowstone Lake in northwestern Wyoming, U.S.A and Lake

Patzcuaro of Mexico were noticeably absent. This article, however, did

provide several important references which helped in finding other

non-caldera lakes.

S.J. Freeth, in 1997, published a fairly comprehensive list of

known volcanic crater lakes in the Newsletter of the IAVCEI

Commission on Volcanic Lakes. This database, provided information

on location, surface area, maximum depth, volume, age, major anions

and cations, and type of basin. In particular, this listing had a strong

focus on African and Indonesian lakes of either relatively recent origin

or activity. Many of the entries lacked information on age and water

chemistry. Unlike Larson’s catalog, Freeth’s does not include any

references.

Dr. Greg Pasternack of Johns Hopkin University has put together

a website at http://jhunix.hcf.jhu.edu/~gpast/lakes.html dealing

exclusively with crater lakes. Although much of the site focuses on a

couple of well known lakes, he does include a bibliography with over

175 references. These entries, despite having limited scope, were

important in obtaining current information on several active and well-

known lakes. The overall usefulness of the listing, proved to be only

moderate, as the objectives of my study require older stable lakes.

Methodology

Criteria

The compilation of the database began with the contacting of

established scientists currently investigating either well-known crater

lake regions (i.e. Cameroon) or crater lakes in general. From these

contacts, lists of names and locations of the various lakes were

generated. These lists provided a foundation for electronic journal

searches and internet queries on the previously studied lakes. As the

database grew, bibliographic information from the obtained references

further contributed to the accumulation of information concerning lake

morphometry, bathymetry, and chemistry.

The scope of the database was made as broad as possible,

incorporating not only morphometric and bathymetric parameters, but

also chemical and geomorphic. In combination, these attributes

sufficiently describe and characterize a particular lake basin.

Although some bibliographic references to biological characteristics

were included, in general, information on fish species, plankton,

diatoms, macrophytes and various other flora and fauna were not

purposely gathered.

For each crater lake, a descriptive set of characteristics were

entered into the database. The lake’s location, both in latitude and

longitude coordinates, and in political geographic terms - citing region,

country, and continent - was very important in the overall summation

of the project. Spatial patterns of lake distribution and study could be

graphical represented using maps and charts. Lakes could also be

grouped according to location; by either country or by continent, thus

eliciting spatial trends at large scales.

 A lake basin’s morphometry can reveal much about not only the

processes responsible for its formation, but also the relative changes

which have occurred over time within both the lake’s geomorphic

setting and the lake basin itself. Morphometric parameters such as

surface area and maximum depth were chosen to represent basin

character. These parameters would provide sufficient information

concerning the overall basin form and its ability to store and preserve

lengthy sediment cores. Bathymetric maps were obtained for several

lakes and helped to disclose both basin abnormalities and riparian

processes which might effect sediment formation or basin

development.

Information on the surrounding geomorphology was crucial in

helping to explain the region’s stability, the lakes formation, and the

basin’s history of development. Although this information was not, in

many respects, included in the database as direct entries, it was

incorporated indirectly through the lake basin’s age, stability, and

location.

With the physical character of the basin thoroughly represented,

information was needed concerning analyses of lake water and

circulation behavior. The chemistry of the lake water controls the

formation and precipitation of certain minerals. Several anion and

cation concentrations, as well as total dissolved solids, alkalinity, and

pH were included as lake water descriptors. The importance of the

presence of meromixis or anoxia was also noted.

Database Results and Statistics

The database, upon exhaustive bibliographic, internet, and

electronic journal searches, contained 311 entries. The distribution of

these entries was most unequal, as two-thirds of the database entries

were from either Africa or Asia. Appendix I lists all crater lakes

presented in the database by continent. Africa contains the most, with

101 entries, followed closely by Asia at 99. Europe (41), North

America (25), Australia (23), and South America (22) complete the

listing. Lakes located on the islands of Oceania were classified with

Asia as were those from New Zealand. Crater lakes from the Azores

were grouped with Europe due to their status as a Portuguese

dependency. In the Western Hemisphere, Central American lakes

were assigned to South America while Caribbean island lakes were

grouped with North American lakes. Cameroon had the most entries

for any one country, amassing 42 named and studied crater lakes.

Indonesia (31), Uganda (26), and Australia (23) also contain

numerous examples.

The entries were further divided into subclasses based on some

of the parameters presented in the database. Seventy five lakes had

maximum depths which ranged from 30 meters to 100 meters.

Approximately 20 percent of the lakes of each continent satisfied this

condition. In Europe, however, 37 percent of its entries met this

requirement. In terms of documented stability, Australian and

European crater lakes are located in relatively the most stable

environments. African lakes also seem to be comparatively stable,

with the exception of Lake Nyos and Lake Monoun, both of which

experienced recent catastrophic gas releases. Almost all crater lakes

located along the Pacific "ring of fire" in Central America, Alaska,

Indonesia, Oceania, Philippines, and in Iceland represent extremely

active geologic settings. Over half of the Asian examples in general

have exhibited some sort of regional volcanic or tectonic activity.

The evaluation of the database reveals some interesting and

problematic trends concerning the application of a rating heuristic

concerning paleoresearch suitability. As discussed earlier, many crater

lakes are located in regions of immature geomorphology and ongoing

volcanic and/or tectonic activity. These lakes are inherently incapable

of providing lengthy sediment records because of either their recent

formation and/or disturbance. Therefore, the number of lakes

contained in the database which are suitable for coring and seismic

studies beyond 10,000 years before present is relatively insignificant.

Despite this fact, the database will hopefully prove very useful to other

researchers wishing to evaluate a global network of crater lake basins.

Discussion

After the database included more than 300 entries worldwide, a

preliminary grading scheme was devised which incorporated such

parameters as total dissolved solids, area/depth ratio, Mg/Ca ratio,

age, and geologic stability. This heuristic provided an overall numeric

assessment of the lake’s suitability for future paleoclimatological and

paleolimnological research. However, initial results of the scheme’s

implementation disclosed several flaws. First, many lakes lacked

sufficient data and were being automatically classified as very poor

sites despite having evident potential. Secondly, as the heuristic

presently stood, stability was an objective variable. Thirdly, the

area/depth ratio was producing poor results, as evaluation of the

quotient often minimized the negative effects of small surface area or

extreme depth depending on the combination of parameters. Finally,

some lakes with suitable chemical and morphological conditions, but

with very unstable environments, were incorrectly obtaining high

indices. In order to correct these errors, a readjustment of the

grading criteria was necessary.

 The indexing system was reconfigured through the introduction

of an “exclusionary variable.” Geologic stability of the lake

environment was given paramount importance in the new heuristic

due its role in preserving sediment records and became a heavily

weighted parameter. In the new scheme, lakes located in regions

which have experienced volcanic or tectonic activity within the past

hundred years were automatically excluded from further analysis, as

these sights not only would fail to provide a lengthy record, but also

would have had highly disturbed sediments making chronological

assessment difficult. Almost one-third (93) of the lakes presented in

the database would be unsuitable for further analysis due to their

regions instability.

The next adjustment was to numerically assess stability (Table

1). Lakes located in regions with stability between 100-1000 years

obtained a rating of one, because they were old enough to contribute

meaningful cores, yet the region’s geology is still too threatening to

allow for significant sediment accumulation and varving. Regions with

very stable geologic environments, Auvergne in France and the Eifel

region of Germany for example, may contain lakes with very mature

morphometry and considerable sedimentation. These water bodies are

very important sites for paleoclimate coring investigations and

therefore attain a rating of five.

 Next, the area/depth ratio was changed by making both area

and depth separate graded parameters (Table 2 & Table 3). This

allowed for lakes with suitable depth and area to have correspondingly

high scores. Maximum depth is a very important limiting factor for

high quality sediment formation. Lakes which are too deep (> 120

meters), often have low surface area to depth ratios and consequently

exhibit steep shoreline areas, where slumping and other gravitational

mass movements can greatly disturb sediments. Lakes which are too

shallow (< 10 meters), may have sediments which are disturbed by

storm wave action. Optimal sites, lakes with depths between 10 - 30

meters often exhibit lengthy, well preserved cores which are easily and

inexpensively reached by modern coring techniques.

Like maximum depth, a lake’s surface area also is an important

morphometric parameter in the formation of high quality sediments.

Sediments from lakes which are too small (< 5 hectares), often are

disturbed by riparian processes such as slumping, river siltation, and

sheet wash from runoff. These interferences drastically reduce the

chronological fidelity of the sediments. Lakes with larger areas (> 10

hectares), can produced well-stratified sediments in its central basin

which is far enough away from the active littoral regions.

Another important criterion in the formation of the lake

sediments is the age of the lake basin. Long, well preserved sediment
records are rare, thus the older the basin, the more optimal the site.

Lakes which formed over 100,000 years ago can produce extremely

valuable sediment records. Lakes which are less than a thousand

years old, despite the fact that they may contain well-stratified

sediments, are often only marginal sites due to their frequency and

relative youth.

Water chemistry is the final contributing factor to the formation

of high quality sediments. As concentrations of the various anions and

cations in lake water reach critical amounts certain minerals will

precipitate. These minerals then can become part of the lake’s

sediment layers and can reveal some clues about the conditions within

the environment in which they formed. High concentrations of

dissolved solids (10,000 - 35,000 ppm) produce enough precipitate

matter to generate laminae of mineral deposits in lake sediments.

Higher concentrations are found mainly in ultra-saline waterbodies and

precipitate less carbonate minerals.

The ratio between the cations magnesium and calcium provides

a measure of both residence time and brine evolution and plays an

integral part in the formation of minerals such as calcite that are very

important to paleoclimatological research. Low salinity and high

Mg/Ca favors siderite, a mineral which forms under well understood,

specific conditions common in volcanic crater lakes. High Mg/Ca in

mesosaline lakes lends to aragonite precipitation; an excellent archive.

These lake water conditions are often representative of the overall

regional climatic environment and thus help in the reconstruction of

local climate with signals archived in mineral precipitates. Lower

Mg/Ca ratios, favor calcium carbonate minerals, valuable archives of

environmental isotopes. If lakes are too dilute or acidic for exceeding

saturation parameters, no carbonate minerals are preserved, giving

lower priority to the site.

Stability Area (ha)

5 > 10K 5 > 10.0
3 1K - 10K 3 5.0 - 10.0
1 > 1K 1 < 5.0
Table 1 Table 2

Ranking and Indexing

The introduction of an “A to F” grading scheme similar to that

found in academics was chosen. Lakes would be grouped into letter

grades based on overall scores. Initially, they would receive a “minus”

grade. This preliminary grading could be improved to a “non-minus”

grade or a “plus” grade depending on the presence of meromixis

and/or previous studies or knowledge, the implication being that these

two items would carry a binary weight (presence or non-presence).

 The generation of a suitability index for each lake was based on

the scores obtained from six primary parameters (Tables 1-6). In

order to have an index, a site needed to have values for at least four

of the six criteria. Stability, as described earlier, carried an

exclusionary quality. The total of all parameters, was then divided by

the number of parameters available for a particular site (between four

and six). The resulting average, is then given a letter grade. This

preliminary grade could then be raised to a “plus” grade if it meets the

two requirements outlined in the previous paragraph.

Depth (m) TDS (ppm)

5 10 - 30 5 1K - 35K
4 30 - 120 4 100 - 1K
3 0 - 10 3 > 35K
2 > 120 1 < 100
Table 3 Table 4

Mg/Ca Ratio (ppm) Age (BP)

5 > 5.0 5 > 100K
4 1.0 - 5.0 4 50K - 100K
3 0.5 - 1.0 3 10K - 50K
2 0.1 - 0.5 2 1K - 10K
1 < 0.1 1 < 1K
Table 5 Table 6

Results of Indexing

The indexing heuristic was then applied to those lakes which

presented sufficient data and were located in regions with relatively

stable geologic conditions. Of the 311 entries, 57 were chosen for

index, while 93 were automatically discounted due to unstable

environments. Of the 57 lakes indexed, 48 were from Africa, 6 from

North America, 3 from South America, and 2 from Australia.

Interestingly, Asia, at least half of whose entries lie in unstable

regions, and Europe, had no entries obtain a rating due to insufficient

data. In order to generate most of the scores, an assumption of

stability of less than 1,000 years was made when no data was

available. This is a logical assumption in that many regions have been

relatively stable for at least hundreds of years, therefore the lack of

data concerning a actual number of years is mitigated.

The rating heuristic produced reasonable results when compared

to sites which have been heavily studied and cored. There is no doubt

that when the European lakes have sufficient data, they will be ranked

above average due to their age, depth, and stability. As it now stands,

the highest rating was for Lake Bosumtwi in Ghana, an ancient meteor

crater. It obtained a raw score of 92%, 32% above the mean of

60.5%. The next highest rating went to Lake Nyungu, in Uganda, with

a score of 75%. The lowest score was 40%, by Saka Crater Lake and

Baleng Lake, both in Africa. Twenty eight scores between 60% - 65%

were registered.

In order to generate a relative score, the averages explained

above were converted to letter grades based on a normal distribution.

The grading curve is as follows: 80 - 100 is an A-; 70 - 80 is a B-; 60 -

70 is a C-; 60 and below are too poor to consider. Using this scheme

and applying the aforementioned binary weights for the presence of

meromixis, the uniqueness of location, and the existence of previous

studies, Lake Bosumtwi receives an A+ because of its unique location

in West Africa and the fact that it has been well studied. Similarly,

Lake Nyungu of Uganda receives a B+. In all, ten grades of B- or

higher were issued. These sites all had close to optimal maximum

depths and surface areas. They also had Mg/Ca ratios of close to one

or higher. Lakes Nyungu, Mahega, and Lake Bosumtwi had ratios well

above one.

The lakes which received a grade of “C,” there were 28, had a

multitude of properties, but in general had at least one parameter with

an extremely low score. Several lakes had extreme depths. These

included Lake Manengouba (F) and Lake Wum. Some were too

shallow; Barombi Koto, Lake Kifuruka, Lake Kikorongo, etc. Others

had extremely small surface areas; Lake Mfouet, Lake Mumblin, and

Lake Surprise.

Finally, lakes which proved to be poor overall coring sites scored

below 60%. They included such lakes as Crater Lake, the Pretoria Salt

Pan, and numerous examples from Cameroon, Uganda, and the United

States. These lakes had several parameters with extremely low

scores, receiving ones or twos in most instances. In general, they

were usually dilute, extremely small or extremely deep, and of a

relatively young age.

Conclusion

Overall, an estimated 50 - 60 lakes were analyzed and had

sufficient data to be given a suitability index. Most European lakes

only lacked water chemistry data, where as all Asian examples had

insufficient published data to necessitate a ranking. The remaining 250

lakes are in need of further study, or perhaps need to be researched

further in order to obtain the prerequisite information from published

sources. Only those lakes having grades of B- or higher will be

investigated further for geomorphic basin information, relevant

satellite imagery, and detailed bathymetric studies. The final

suitability indices should therefore reflect not only the lake system’s

general characteristics, but also the features of the immediate lake

environment. Put together, they will provide a sufficient paleo-record

narrative for each crater lake site and its resultant applicability or non-

applicability to coring and seismic studies for paleoclimate research.

As more data are both found and published, the preliminary

grades could very well be modified to correspond to the new

information. Optimal coring sites, such as Lake Bosumtwi, are also

 very important in the comparison between individual coring locations.

By understanding what makes an optimal coring site optimal, it is

possible to gain some insight into the necessary conditions in which

lengthy and well-preserved sediment records are generated.

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