20

Global Climate
Change
Focus on Concepts
Each statement represents the primary learning objective for the
corresponding major heading within the chapter. After you complete
the chapter, you should be able to:

20.1 List the major parts of the climate system and some
connections between climate and geology.
20.2 Explain why unraveling past climate changes is important
and discuss several ways in which such changes are
detected.
20.3 Describe the composition of the atmosphere and the
atmosphere’s vertical changes in pressure and temperature.
20.4 Outline the basic processes involved in heating the
atmosphere.
20.5 Discuss hypotheses that relate to natural causes of climate
change.
20.6 Summarize the nature and cause of the atmosphere’s
changing composition since about 1750. Describe the
climate’s response.
20.7 Contrast positive and negative feedback mechanisms and
provide examples of each.
20.8 Summarize some of the possible consequences of global
warming.

Glaciers are sensitive to changes in temperature and precipitation and therefore p

­ rovide
clues about changes in climate. Like most other glaciers and ice sheets worldwide,
­Margerie Glacier in Alaska’s Glacier Bay National Park is losing mass and retreating.
526 (Photo by Don Paulson/AGE Fotostock)
M20_TARB6622_13_SE_C20.indd 527 11/11/16 1:19 PM
Climate has a significant impact on people, and we are learning that
people also have a strong influence on climate. Today global climate change caused by humans is a
major environmental issue. Unlike changes in the geologic past, which were natural variations, mod-
ern climate change is dominated by human influences that are sufficiently large that they exceed the
bounds of natural variability. Moreover, these changes are likely to continue for many centuries. The
effects of this venture into the unknown with climate could be very disruptive not only to humans but
to many other life-forms as well. The latter portion of this chapter examines the ways in which humans
may be changing global climate.

20.1 Climate & Geology

List the major parts of the climate system and some connections between climate
and geology.

The term weather refers to the state of the atmosphere
at a given time and place. Changes in weather are fre-
quent and sometimes seemingly erratic. In contrast,
climate is a description of aggregate weather conditions,
based on observations over many decades. Climate is
often defined simply as “average weather,” but this defini-
tion is inadequate because variations and extremes are
also important parts of a climate description.
The Climate System
Throughout this book you have frequently been
reminded that Earth is a complex system that consists
of many interacting parts. A change in any one part can
produce changes in any or all of the other parts—often
in ways that are neither obvious nor immediately appar-
ent. Key to understanding climate change and its causes
is the fact that climate is related to all parts of the Earth
system. We must recognize that there is a climate
­system that derives its energy from the Sun and includes
the atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, biosphere, and
cryosphere. The first four were discussed in Chapter 1;
the cryosphere refers to the portion of Earth’s surface
where water is in solid form. This includes snow, glaciers,
sea ice, freshwater ice, and frozen ground (permafrost).
The climate system involves the exchanges of energy
and moisture that occur among the five spheres. These
exchanges link the atmosphere to the other spheres so
that the whole functions as an extremely complex interac-
tive unit. Changes in the climate system do not occur in
isolation. Rather, when one part of the climate system
changes, the other components react. The major compo-
nents of the climate system are shown in Figure 20.1.
The climate system provides a framework for
the study of climate. The interactions and exchanges
among the parts of the climate system create a com-
plex network that links the five spheres. As you will
see, because the climate system involves all of Earth’s
spheres, data from many sources are used to study and
decipher climate change.
Climate–Geology Connections
Climate has a profound impact on many geologic pro-
cesses. When climate changes, these processes respond.
A glance back at the rock cycle in Chapter 1 reminds us
about many of the connections. Of course, rock weather-
ing has an obvious climate connection, as do processes
that are associated with arid, tropical, and glacial land-
scapes. Phenomena such as debris flows and river flood-
ing are often triggered by atmospheric events such as
periods of extraordinary rainfall. Clearly, the atmosphere
is a basic link in the hydrologic cycle. Other climate–
geology connections involve the impact of internal pro-
cesses on the atmosphere. For example, the particles and
gases emitted by volcanoes can change the composition
of the atmosphere, and mountain building can have a
significant impact on regional temperature, precipitation,
and wind patterns.
The study of sediments, sedimentary rocks, and fos-
sils clearly demonstrates that, through the ages, practi-
cally every place on our planet has experienced wide
swings in climate, such as from ice ages to conditions
associated with subtropical coal swamps or desert dunes.
Time scales for climate change vary from decades to mil-
lions of years.
Concept Checks 20.1
1. Distinguish between weather and climate.
2. What are the five major parts of the climate
system?
3. List at least five connections between climate and
geology.
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      529

◀ SmartFigure 20.1 
Earth’s climate system
Changes Changes Schematic view showing
in amount in amount
and type of outgoing several components of
of cloud radiation Earth’s climate system.
cover Changes Many interactions occur
in solar among the various
Changes inputs
in amount Changes components on a wide
of ice- in range of space and
covered atmospheric time scales, making
composition Changes in
land Changes atmospheric
in amount the system extremely
circulation complex.
of evaporation-
precipitation
Video
Biosphere– http://goo.gl/La1sq3
atmosphere
interactions
Atmosphere–ice
Human interactions
influences Human
(burning, influences
land use) (cities)
Changes
in amount
Changes Biosphere– of sea ice
in ocean Ocean– atmosphere
circulation atmosphere interactions
interaction

Ocean

20.2 Detecting Climate Change

Explain why unraveling past climate changes is important and discuss several ways in
which such changes are detected.

Climate not only varies from place to place, it is also
naturally variable over time. During the great expanse of
Earth history, and long before humans were roaming the
planet, there have been many shifts—from warm to cold
and from wet to dry and back again.
Climates Change
By using fossils and many other geologic clues, scientists
have reconstructed Earth’s climate going back hundreds
of millions of years. Chapter 19, which surveys Earth’s
history, also discusses the geologic evidence for natural
climate variability.
Over long time scales (tens to hundreds of millions of
years), Earth’s climate can be broadly characterized as being
a warm “greenhouse” or a cold “icehouse.” During green-
house times, there is little, if any, permanent ice at either
pole, and relatively warm temperate climates are found even
at high latitudes. During icehouse conditions, global climate
is cool enough to support ice sheets at one or both poles.
Earth’s climate has gradually transitioned between these
two categories only a few times over the past 542 million
years. During this span, known as the Phanerozoic (“visible
life”) eon, the environment and climate are relatively well
documented because fossils are abundant.
The most recent transition occurred during the
Cenozoic era. The early Cenozoic was a time of green-
house climates, similar to those the dinosaurs experi-
enced during the preceding Mesozoic era. By about
34 million years ago, permanent ice sheets were pres-
ent at the South Pole, ushering in icehouse conditions
­(Figure 20.2). Climate warmed during the Miocene epoch
about (20 million years ago) as mammal populations
reached their greatest diversity. Climate then cooled. In
North America, the lush “greenhouse” forests (there were
palm trees in Wyoming and banana plants in Oregon)
were replaced by open grasslands. Grassland ecosystems
are better suited for a cooler, drier “icehouse” climate. By
2.6 million years ago (the start of the Quaternary epoch),
Earth’s climate was cold enough to support vast ice sheets
at both poles. In the Northern Hemisphere, ice advanced
nearly as far south as the present-day Ohio River
 530     Essentials of Geology

60 50 40
Millions of Years Ago
30 20 10 0
Proxy Data
High-technology and precision instrumenta-
Cenozoic
tion are now available to study the composition
Paleogene Neogene and dynamics of the atmosphere. But such tools

Quat.
Paleocene Eocene Oligocene Miocene Plio. are recent inventions and therefore have been
providing data for only a short time span. To
understand fully the behavior of the atmosphere
Warmer / less ice

and to anticipate future climate change, we must

somehow discover how climate has changed over
broad expanses of time.
Instrumental records go back only a couple
centuries, at best, and the further back we go, the
Global Climate

less complete and more unreliable the data become.

To overcome this lack of direct measurements, sci-
entists must decipher and reconstruct past climates
Cooler / more ice

by using indirect evidence. Proxy data come from

natural recorders of climate variability, such as sea-
floor sediments, glacial ice, fossil pollen, and tree
growth rings, as well as from historical documents
(Figure 20.3). Scientists who analyze proxy data and
“Greenhouse” “Icehouse” reconstruct past climates are engaged in the study
of paleoclimatology. The main goal of such work
▲ Figure 20.2  Relative climate change during the Cenozoic era During the past 65 million years,
is to understand the climate of the past in order to
Earth’s climate shifted from being a warm “greenhouse” to being a cool “icehouse.” Climate is not
assess the current and potential future climate in
stable when viewed over long time spans. Earth has experienced several back-and-forth shifts
between warm and cold.
the context of natural climate variability. In the fol-
lowing discussion, we will briefly examine some of
the important sources of proxy data.
and then subsequently retreated to Greenland. For
the past 800,000 years, this cycle of ice advance and
retreat has occurred about every 100,000 years. The Seafloor Sediment: A Storehouse of
▼ Figure 20.3  Ancient last major ice sheet advance reached a maximum about Climate Data
bristlecone pines Some of 18,000 years ago.
these trees in California’s How do we know about these changes? What We know that the parts of the Earth system are linked
White Mountains are more are the causes? The next sections take a look at how so that a change in one part can produce changes in any
than 4000 years old. The scientists decipher Earth’s climate history. Later we or all of the other parts. In this section, you will see how
study of tree growth rings changes in atmospheric and oceanic temperatures are
will explore some significant natural causes of climate
is one way that scientists reflected in the nature of life in the sea.
change.
reconstruct past climates. Most seafloor sediments contain the remains of
(Photo by Stock Connection ­
organisms that once lived near the sea surface (the
Blue/Alamy)
ocean–­atmosphere interface). When such near-surface
organisms die, their shells slowly settle to the floor of the
ocean, where they become part of the sedimentary record
­(Figure 20.4). These seafloor sediments are useful record-
ers of worldwide climate change because the numbers and
types of organisms living near the sea surface change with
the climate. For this reason, scientists are tapping the huge
reservoir of data in seafloor sediments. The sediment cores
gathered by drilling ships and other research vessels have
provided invaluable data that have significantly expanded
our knowledge and understanding of past climates.
One notable example of how seafloor sediments
add to our understanding of climate change relates to
unraveling the fluctuating atmospheric conditions of the
Quaternary Ice Age. The records of temperature changes
contained in cores of sediment from the ocean floor
have proven critical to our present understanding of this
recent span of Earth history. There is more about this
topic in the section “Causes of Ice Ages” in Chapter 15.
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      531

Oxygen Isotope Analysis ◀ Figure 20.4 

Foraminifera These
The isotopes of oxygen in water molecules or in the shells of single-celled amoeba-like
marine organisms are an important source of proxy data on organisms, also called
past climate conditions. Oxygen isotope analysis is based forams, are extremely
on precise measurement of the ratio between two isotopes abundant and found
of oxygen: 16O, which is the most common, and the heavier throughout the world’s
18
O. A molecule of H2O can form from either 16O or 18O, oceans. Although the
but water molecules made with the lighter isotope, 16O, foram record in ocean
evaporate more readily from the oceans. Because of this, sediment goes back
precipitation (and hence the glacial ice that it may form) farther, the remains
of these microscopic
is enriched in 16O. This leaves a greater concentration of
organisms are most
the heavier isotope, 18O, in the ocean water. Thus, during
commonly used to study
periods when glaciers are extensive, more of the lighter 16O climate change during
is tied up in ice, so the concentration of 18O in seawater the Cenozoic era. The
increases. Conversely, during warmer interglacial periods, chemical composition of
when the amount of glacial ice decreases dramatically, their hard parts depends
more 16O is returned to the sea, so the proportion of 18O Climate Change Recorded in Glacial Ice on water temperature
relative to 16O in ocean water also drops. Now, if we had Ice cores are an indispensable source of data for recon- and the presence or
some ancient recording of the changes of the 18O/16O ratio, structing past climates. Research based on vertical cores absence of large ice
we could determine when there were glacial periods and, taken from the Greenland and Antarctic Ice Sheets has sheets. Because of this
therefore, when the climate grew cooler. relationship, scientists
changed our basic understanding of how the climate
analyze foram shells
Fortunately, we do have such a recording. Certain ­system works.
to estimate ocean
marine microorganisms secrete shells of calcium carbon- Scientists collect samples by using a drilling rig, like temperatures and the
ate (CaCO3), and the prevailing oceanic 18O/16O ratio is a small version of an oil drill. A hollow shaft follows the existence of ice sheets.
reflected in the composition of these hard parts. When drill head into the ice, and an ice core is extracted. In this (Photo by Biophoto Associates/
the organisms die, their hard parts settle to the ocean way, cores that sometimes exceed 3000 meters (9800 feet) Science Source)
floor, becoming part of the sediment layers there. Con- in length and may represent more than 700,000 years of
sequently, periods of glacial activity can be determined climate history are acquired for study (Figure 20.5A).
from variations in the oxygen isotope ratio found in shells
of certain microorganisms buried in deep-sea sediments.
A higher ratio of 18O to 16O in shells indicates a time ▼ SmartFigure 20.5  Ice cores: Important sources of tutorial
when ice sheets were growing larger. climate data A. The National Ice Core Laboratory is a http://goo.gl/QHehvC
The 18O/16O ratio also varies with temperature. physical plant for storing and studying cores of ice taken
More 18O is evaporated from the oceans when tempera- from glaciers around the world. These cores represent a
tures are high, and less is evaporated when temperatures long-term record of material deposited from the atmosphere.
are low. Therefore, the heavy isotope is more abundant in The lab enables scientists to conduct examinations of ice
cores, and it preserves the integrity of these samples in
the precipitation of warm eras and less abundant during
a repository for the study of global climate change and
colder periods. Using this principle, scientists studying past environmental conditions. (Photo by USGS/National Ice Core
the layers of ice and snow in glaciers have been able to Laboratory) B. This graph, showing temperature variations
determine past temperature changes. over the past 40,000 years, is derived from oxygen isotope
analysis of ice cores recovered from the Greenland Ice
Sheet. (Based on U.S. Geological Survey)

–32

–34
Temperature (°C)

–36

–38

–40

–42

–44
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Thousands of years before present

A. B.
532     Essentials of Geology
Did You Know?
Bristlecone pines are
remarkable for their
great age and ability to
survive adverse grow-
ing conditions. Some of
the best examples occur
in ­California’s White
­Mountains, where they
grow in scattered groves
at elevations between
5600 and 11,200 ft. In
2012 one of the trees
there was determined
to be 5062 years old!
Because they are
among the oldest ­living
things on the planet,
­Bristlecone pines are
especially valuable in
tree-ring studies.
▶ Figure 20.6  By analyzing pollen from accurately dated sediments,
Tree rings A. Each
year a growing
tree produces a
layer of new cells
beneath the bark.
If the tree is cut
down and the
trunk is examined,
each year’s growth
can be seen as a
ring. These rings
are useful records
of past climate
because the
amount of growth
(the thickness of
a ring) depends
A.
on precipitation
and temperature.
(Photo by Victor Zastolskiy/Fotolia) B. Scientists are
not limited to working with trees that have
been cut down. Small, nondestructive core
samples can be taken from living trees.
(Photo by Gregory K. Scott/Science Source)
Scientists are able to produce a record of changing air
temperatures and snowfall by means of the oxygen isotope
analysis described above. Using this technique, scientists
are able to produce a record of past temperature changes.
A portion of such a record is shown in ­Figure 20.5B.
Air bubbles trapped in the ice also record variations
in atmospheric composition. Changes in carbon dioxide
and methane are linked to fluctuating temperatures. The
cores also include atmospheric fallout, such as wind-blown
dust, volcanic ash, pollen, and modern-day pollution.
Tree Rings: Archives of Environmental
History
If you look at the end of a log, you will see that it is com-
posed of a series of concentric rings (Figure 20.6A). Tree
rings can be a very useful source of proxy data on past
climates. Every year, in temperate regions, trees add a
layer of new wood under the bark. Characteristics of
each tree ring, such as thickness and density, reflect the
environmental conditions (especially climate) that pre-
vailed during the year when the ring formed. Favorable
growth conditions produce a wide ring; unfavorable ones
produce a narrow ring. Trees growing at the same time in
the same region show similar tree-ring patterns.
Because a single growth ring is usually added each
year, the age of the tree when it was cut can be deter-
mined by counting the rings. If the year of cutting is
known, the age of the tree and the year in which each
ring formed can be determined by counting back from
the outside ring. Scientists are not limited to working with
B.
trees that have been cut down. Small, nondestructive core
samples can be taken from living trees (Figure 20.6B).
To make the most effective use of tree rings, extended
patterns known as ring chronologies are established. They
are produced by comparing the patterns of rings among
trees in an area. If the same pattern can be identified in
two samples, one of which has been dated, the second
sample can be dated from the first by matching the ring
patterns common to both. Tree-ring chronologies extend-
ing back thousands of years have been established for
some regions. To date a timber sample of unknown age, its
ring pattern is matched against the reference chronology.
Tree-ring chronologies are unique archives of envi-
ronmental history and have important applications in
such disciplines as climate, geology, ecology, and archae-
ology. For example, tree rings are used to reconstruct
climate variations within a region for spans of thousands
of years prior to human historical records. Knowing such
long-term variations is of great value when interpreting
the recent record of climate change.
Other Types of Proxy Data
In addition to the sources already discussed, other sources
of proxy data that are used to gain insight into past climates
include fossil pollen, corals, and historical documents.
Fossil Pollen  Climate is a major factor influencing the
distribution of vegetation, and the nature of the plant
community occupying an area is a reflection of the cli-
mate. Pollen and spores are parts of the life cycles of
many plants, and because they have very resistant walls,
they are often the most abundant, easily identifiable, and
best-preserved plant remains in sediments (Figure 20.7).
scientists can obtain high-resolution records of vegetation
changes in an area. Past climates can be reconstructed
from such information.
Corals  Coral reefs consist of colonies of corals, inverte-
brates that live in warm, shallow waters and form atop the
hard material left behind by past corals. Corals build their
hard skeletons from calcium carbonate (CaCO3) extracted
from seawater. The carbonate contains isotopes of oxygen
that can be used to determine the temperature of the
water in which the coral grew. The portion of the skeleton
that forms in winter has a density that is different from
that formed in summer because of variations in growth
rates related to temperature and other environmental
factors. Thus, corals exhibit seasonal growth bands very
much like those observed in trees. The accuracy and reli-
ability of the climate data extracted from corals has been
established by comparing recent instrumental records to
coral records for the same period. Oxygen isotope analy-
sis of coral growth rings can also serve as a proxy mea-
surement for precipitation, particularly in areas where
large variations in annual rainfall occur.

▲ Figure 20.7  Pollen This false-color image from an
electron microscope shows an assortment of pollen grains.
Note how the size, shape, and surface characteristics differ
from one species to another. Analysis of the types and
abundance of pollen in lake sediments and peat deposits
provides information about how climate has changed over
time. (Photo by David AMI Images/Science Source)
Historical Documents  Historical documents sometimes
contain helpful information. Although it may seem that
such records should readily lend themselves to climate
analysis, that is not the case. Most manuscripts were
written for purposes other than climate description. Fur-
thermore, writers understandably neglected periods of
relatively stable atmospheric conditions and mentioned
only droughts, severe storms, memorable blizzards, and
other extremes. Nevertheless, records of crops, floods, and
the migration of people have furnished useful evidence of
the possible influences of changing climate (Figure 20.8).
20.3 Some Atmospheric Basics
Describe the composition of the atmosphere and the atmosphere’s vertical changes
in pressure and temperature.
To better understand climate change, it is helpful to pos-
sess some basic knowledge about the composition and
structure of the atmosphere.
Composition of the Atmosphere
Air is not a unique element or compound. Rather, air is a
mixture of many discrete gases, each with its own physi-
cal properties, in which varying quantities of tiny solid
and liquid particles are suspended.
Clean, Dry Air  As you can see in Figure 20.9, clean, dry
air is composed almost entirely of two gases—78 percent
nitrogen and 21 percent oxygen. Although these gases
Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      533
▲ Figure 20.8  Harvest dates as climate clues Historical records can sometimes be
helpful in the analysis of past climates. The date for the beginning of the grape harvest
in the fall is an integrated measure of temperature and precipitation during the growing
season. These dates have been recorded for centuries in Europe and provide a useful
record of year-to-year climate variations. (Photo by SGM/AGE Fotostock)
Concept Checks 20.2
1. What are proxy data, and why are they necessary
in the study of climate change?
2. Why are seafloor sediments useful in the study
of past climates? Aside from seafloor sediments,
list four sources of proxy climate data.
3. Explain how past temperatures are determined
using oxygen isotope analysis.
are the most plentiful components of air and are of great
significance to life on Earth, they have little or no effect
on weather phenomena. The remaining 1 percent of dry
air is mostly the inert gas argon (0.93 percent) plus tiny
quantities of a number of other gases. Carbon dioxide,
although present in only minute amounts (0.0400 percent,
or 400 parts per million), is nevertheless an important
constituent of air because it has the ability to absorb heat
energy radiated by Earth and thus influences the heating
of the atmosphere.
Air includes many gases and particles that vary
significantly from time to time and from place to place.
Important examples include water vapor, ozone, and tiny
solid and liquid particles.
534     Essentials of Geology

▶ SmartFigure 20.9  Concentration Ozone  Another important component of the atmosphere

in parts per
Composition of the million (ppm) is ozone. It is a form of oxygen that combines three oxygen
Argon (Ar) 0.934%
atmosphere Proportional atoms into each molecule (O3). Ozone is not the same as
Neon (Ne) 18.2
volume of gases All Helium (He) 5.24
Carbon dioxide (CO2) others
the oxygen we breathe, which has two atoms per m ­ olecule
composing dry air. Methane (CH4) 1.5
0.0400% or 400 ppm Krypton (Kr) 1.14 (O2). There is very little ozone in the atmosphere, and its
Nitrogen and oxygen Hydrogen (H2) 0.5
obviously dominate.
distribution is not uniform. It is concentrated well above
Earth’s surface, in a layer called the stratosphere, at an
Tutorial altitude of between 10 and 50 ­kilometers (6 and 31 miles).
http://goo.gl/EJEV5u
Oxygen (O2)
20.946% The presence of the ozone layer in our a­ tmosphere is
crucial to those who dwell on Earth: Ozone absorbs
the potentially harmful ultraviolet (UV) radiation from
Nitrogen (N2) the Sun. If ozone did not filter out a great deal of the
78.084%
ultraviolet radiation, and if the Sun’s UV rays reached
the surface of Earth undiminished, our planet would be
­uninhabitable for most life as we know it.

Aerosols  The movements of the atmosphere are sufficient

Water Vapor  The amount of water vapor in the air var-
ies considerably, from practically none at all up to about
4 percent by volume. Why is such a small fraction of the
atmosphere so significant? Certainly the fact that water
vapor is the source of all clouds and precipitation is
enough to explain its importance. However, water vapor
has other roles. Like carbon dioxide, it has the ability to
absorb heat energy given off by Earth as well as some
solar energy. It is, therefore, important when we examine
the heating of the atmosphere.
to keep a large quantity of solid and liquid particles sus-
pended within it. Although visible dust sometimes clouds
the sky, these relatively large particles are too heavy to
stay in the air very long. Still, many particles are micro-
scopic and remain suspended for considerable periods of
time. They may originate from many sources, both natural
and human made, and include sea salts from breaking
waves, fine soil blown into the air, smoke and soot from
fires, pollen and microorganisms lifted by the wind, ash
and dust from volcanic eruptions, and more. Collectively,
these tiny solid and liquid particles are called aerosols.
From a meteorological standpoint, these tiny, often
invisible particles can be significant. First, many act as
surfaces on which water vapor can condense, an impor-
tant function in the formation of clouds and fog. Second,
aerosols can absorb or reflect incoming solar radiation.
Thus, when an air pollution episode is occurring, or when
ash fills the sky following a volcanic eruption, the amount
of sunlight reaching Earth’s surface can be measurably
reduced (Figure 20.10).

Extent & Structure of the Atmosphere

▶ SmartFigure 20.10  To say that the atmosphere begins at Earth’s surface and
Aerosols This satellite extends upward is obvious. But where does the atmo-
image shows two Dust
sphere end, and where does outer space begin? There
examples of aerosols. storm
is no sharp boundary; the atmosphere rapidly thins as
First, a dust storm
is blowing across
you travel away from Earth, until there are too few gas
northeastern China ­molecules to detect.
toward the Korean
Peninsula. Second, a Pressure Changes with Height  To understand the verti-
dense haze toward the cal extent of the atmosphere, let us examine changes in
south (bottom center) atmospheric pressure with height. Atmospheric pressure is
is human-generated air simply the weight of the air above. At sea level, the average
pollution. (NASA) pressure is slightly more than 1000 ­millibars. This cor-
Video responds to a weight of slightly more than 1 kilogram per
http://goo.gl/t8anlg square centimeter (14.7 pounds per square inch). Obvi-
Air ously, the pressure at higher altitudes is less (Figure 20.11).
pollution One-half of the atmosphere lies below an altitude of
5.6 kilometers (3.5 miles). At about 16 kilometers (10 miles),
90 percent of the atmosphere has been traversed, and
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      535

90
36 140
22
130
80
32 20
Capt. Kittinger, USAF 120
1961 31.3 km THERMOSPHERE
(102,800 ft) 18 110 70
28
Air pressure = 9.6 mb
16 100
60
24
90
14

Altitude (miles)
Temperature
Altitude (km)

80 Mesopause 50
20

Height (km)
12

Height (miles)
70
Air pressure at
16 top of Mt. Everest 10 MESOSPHERE 40
(29,035 ft) is 60
314 mb
50% of 8 50
12 Stratopause 30
atmosphere
lies below 6 40
this altitude
8 STRATOSPHERE 20
30
4 Maximum ozone
20
4 10
2
10 Tropopause
TROPOSPHERE
0 200 400 600 800 1000 –100 –90 –80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20 30 40 50˚C
Pressure (mb)
–140 –120 –100 –80 –60 –40 –20 0 20 40 60 80 100 120˚F
32
Temperature
▲ Figure 20.11  Vertical changes in air pressure Pressure
decreases rapidly near Earth’s surface and more gradually at
▲ Figure 20.12  ­Thermal structure of the atmosphere
greater heights.

above 100 kilometers (62 miles), only 0.00003 percent of
all the gases making up the atmosphere remains. Even so,
traces of our atmosphere extend far beyond this altitude,
gradually merging with the emptiness of space.
Temperature Changes  In addition to vertical changes in
air pressure, there are also changes in air temperature as
we ascend through the atmosphere. Earth’s atmosphere
is divided vertically into four layers, on the basis of tem-
perature (Figure 20.12):
• Troposphere. The bottom layer, in which we live,
is characterized by a decrease in temperature with
increasing altitude and is called the troposphere.
The term literally means the region where air “turns
over,” a reference to the appreciable vertical mixing
of air in this lowermost zone. The troposphere is the
chief focus of meteorologists because it is in this layer
that essentially all important weather phenomena
occur. The temperature decrease in the troposphere is
called the environmental lapse rate. Its average value
is 6.5°C per kilometer (3.5°F per 1000 feet), a figure
known as the normal lapse rate. It should be empha-
sized, however, that the environmental lapse rate is
not a constant; it varies over time and from one place
to another and hence must be regularly measured.
To determine the actual environmental lapse rate in
a particular place and time, as well as to gather infor-
mation about vertical changes in pressure, wind, and
humidity, radiosondes are used. A radiosonde is an
Did You Know?
instrument package that is attached to a weather bal-
Although naturally occur-
loon and transmits data by radio as it ascends through
ring ozone in the strato-
the atmosphere (Figure 20.13). The thickness of the
sphere is critical to life
troposphere is not the same everywhere; it varies with
on Earth, it is regarded
latitude and the season. On average, the drop in tem-
as a pollutant when pro-
perature that defines the troposphere continues to a
duced at ground level
height of about 12 kilometers (7.4 miles). The outer
because it can damage
boundary of the troposphere is the tropopause.
vegetation and be harm-
• Stratosphere. Beyond the tropopause is the strato- ful to human health.
sphere. In the stratosphere, the temperature remains Ozone is a major compo-
constant to a height of about 20 kilometers (12 miles) and nent in a noxious mixture
then begins a gradual increase that continues until the of gases and particles
stratopause, at a height of nearly 50 kilometers (30 miles) called photochemi-
above Earth’s surface. Below the tropopause, atmo- cal smog. It forms as a
spheric properties such as temperature and humidity are result of reactions that
readily transferred by large-scale turbulence and mixing. are triggered by sunlight
Above the tropopause, in the stratosphere, they are not. and occur among pol-
Temperatures increase in the stratosphere because it is lutants emitted by motor
in this layer that the atmosphere’s ozone is concentrated. vehicles and industrial
Recall that ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation from the sources.
Sun. As a consequence, the stratosphere is heated.
• Mesosphere. In the third layer, the mesosphere,
temperatures again decrease with height until, at
the mesopause, more than 80 kilometers (50 miles)
above the surface, the temperature approaches
-90°C (-130°F). The coldest temperatures anywhere
in the atmosphere occur at the mesopause.
536     Essentials of Geology

▶ Figure 20.13  • Thermosphere. The fourth layer extends outward

Radiosonde A
radiosonde is a
lightweight package
of instruments that is
carried aloft by a small
weather balloon. It
transmits data on vertical
changes in temperature,
pressure, and humidity
in the troposphere.
The troposphere is
where practically all
weather phenomena
occur; therefore, it is
very important to have
frequent measurements.
(Photo by David R. Frazier
Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy Stock)
Radar unit for tracking from the mesopause and has no well-defined upper
radiosonde
limit. This is the thermosphere, a layer that contains
only a tiny fraction of the atmosphere’s mass. In the
extremely rarefied air of this outermost layer, tem-
peratures again increase, due to the absorption of very
short-wave, high-energy solar radiation by atoms of
oxygen and nitrogen. Temperatures rise to extremely
high values of more than 1000°C (1800°F) in the ther-
mosphere. But such temperatures are not comparable
Weather balloon to those experienced near Earth’s surface. Temperature
is defined in terms of the average speed at which mol-
ecules move. Because the gases of the thermosphere
are moving at very high speeds, the temperature is very
high. But the gases are so sparse that, collectively, they
possess only an insignificant amount of heat.

Concept Checks 20.3

1. What are the major components of clean, dry air?
List two significant variable components.
Radiosonde 2. Describe how air pressure changes with an
(instrument increase in altitude. Does it change at a constant
package) rate?
3. The atmosphere is divided vertically into four
layers, on the basis of temperature. Name the
layers from bottom to top and indicate how
temperatures change in each.

20.4 Heating the Atmosphere

Outline the basic processes involved in heating the atmosphere.

Nearly all the energy that drives Earth’s variable weather
and climate comes from the Sun. Before we can ade-
quately describe how Earth’s atmosphere is heated, it is
helpful to know something about solar energy and what
happens to this energy once it is intercepted by Earth.
Energy from the Sun
From our everyday experience, we know that the Sun
emits light and heat as well as the ultraviolet rays that
cause suntan. Although these forms of energy comprise
a major portion of the total energy that radiates from
the Sun, they are only part of a large array of energy
called radiation, or electromagnetic radiation. This
array, or spectrum, of electromagnetic energy is shown in
­ igure 20.14. All radiation—whether x-rays, microwaves,
F ates maximum energy at 0.5 micrometer, which is in
or radio waves—transmits energy through the vacuum of
space at 300,000 kilometers (186,000 miles) per second
and only slightly slower through our atmosphere. When
an object absorbs any form of radiant energy, the result
is an increase in molecular motion, which causes a corre-
sponding increase in temperature.
To better understand how the atmosphere is heated,
it is useful to have a general understanding of the basic
laws governing radiation:
• All objects, at whatever temperature, emit
r­ adiant energy. Not only hot objects like the Sun but
also Earth, including its polar ice caps, continually
emit energy.
• Hotter objects radiate more total energy per
unit area than do colder objects.
• The hotter the radiating body, the shorter the
wavelength of maximum radiation. The Sun,
with a surface temperature of about 5700°C, radi-
the visible range. The maximum radiation for Earth
occurs at a wavelength of 10 micrometers, well within
the infrared (heat) range. Because the wavelength for
maximum Earth radiation is roughly 20 times longer
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      537

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 30% lost to space

Violet Blue Green Yellow Orange Red by reflection and

Television, FM radio
Solar radiation scattering

Standard AM radio
100% 5% backscattered

Short-wave radio
Visible
light to space by the
atmosphere

Ultraviolet
20%
Gamma rays X rays Infrared Microwaves Long radio waves reflected
from
clouds

0.001 micrometer 1 micrometer 1 millimeter 1 meter 1000 meters

20% of radiation
Short-wave radiation Long-wave radiation absorbed by
atmosphere
▲ SmartFigure 20.14  and clouds
The electromagnetic
spectrum This
diagram illustrates the 50% of direct and diffused
wavelengths and names radiation absorbed by 5% reflected from
land and sea land-sea surface
of various types of
radiation. Visible light
consists of an array of ▲ SmartFigure 20.15  Paths taken by solar radiation This
colors we commonly diagram shows the average distribution of incoming solar
call the “colors of radiation by percentage. More solar radiation is absorbed
the rainbow.” (Photo by by Earth’s surface than by the atmosphere.
Dennis Tasa)
Tutorial
video http://goo.gl/IqkUIj
http://goo.gl/6xI4sR

than the maximum solar radiation, Earth radiation is reaching the top of
often called long-wave radiation, and solar radiation the atmosphere passes
is called short-wave radiation. through the atmosphere Thick clouds
70 – 90%
• Objects that are good absorbers of radiation and is absorbed at
Thin clouds
are good emitters as well. Earth’s surface and the Earth’s surface. Another 25 – 30%
Sun approach being perfect radiators because they 20 percent is absorbed
absorb and radiate with nearly 100 percent efficiency directly by clouds and
for their respective temperatures. On the other hand, certain atmospheric
gases (including oxygen Snow
gases are selective absorbers and emitters of radia- 50 – 90%
tion. For some wavelengths, the atmosphere is nearly and ozone) before reach-
Grass Forest
transparent (that is, little radiation is absorbed). For ing the surface. The 5 – 10%
5 – 25%
other wavelengths, however, the atmosphere is nearly remaining 30 percent is
opaque (that is, it is a good absorber). Experience reflected back to space Wet plowed field
by the atmosphere, Light roof Asphalt 15 – 25%
tells us that the atmosphere is transparent to visible
clouds, and reflective 35 – 50% 5 – 10% Dark roof
light; hence, these wavelengths readily reach Earth’s
surfaces such as snow 10 – 15%
surface. This is not the case for the longer-wavelength
radiation emitted by Earth. and ice. The fraction of
the total radiation that
is reflected by a surface Water
Sandy beach
The Paths of Incoming Solar Energy is called its albedo
5 – 80%
(varies with sun angle) 20 – 40%
Figure 20.15 shows the paths taken by incoming solar (Figure 20.16). Thus,
radiation averaged for the entire globe. Notice that the the albedo for Earth as ▲ Figure 20.16  Albedo (reflectivity) of various surfaces
atmosphere is quite transparent to incoming solar radia- a whole (the planetary In general, light-colored surfaces tend to be more reflective
tion. On average, about 50 percent of the solar energy albedo) is 30 percent. than dark-colored surfaces and thus have higher albedos.
538     Essentials of Geology

Airless bodies like the Moon All incoming solar
radiation reaches the surface. Some is reflected
back to space. The rest is absorbed by the surface
and radiated directly back to space. As a result the
lunar surface has a much lower average surface
temperature than Earth.
Bodies with modest amounts of greenhouse gases
like Earth The atmosphere absorbs some of the
longwave radiation emitted by the surface. A portion
of this energy is radiated back to the surface and is
responsible for keeping Earth's surface 33°C (59°F)
warmer than it would otherwise be.
Bodies with abundant greenhouse gases like Venus
Venus experiences extraordinary greenhouse
warming, which is estimated to raise its surface
temperature by 523°C (941°F).

All outgoing long-wave Some outgoing Greenhouse Most outgoing Greenhouse

energy is reradiated directly long-wave gases reradiate long-wave gases reradiate
back to space radiation some energy radiation considerable
absorbed by Earthward absorbed by energy toward
greenhouse gases greenhouse the Venusian
gases surface

Incoming short-wave Incoming short-wave Incoming short-wave

solar radiation solar radiation solar radiation

▲ SmartFigure 20.17 
The greenhouse effect
The greenhouse effect
of Earth compared with
two of our close solar
system neighbors. David Cole/Alamy NASA NASA

Tutorial
http://goo.gl/2wxon2 What determines whether solar radiation will
be transmitted to the surface, scattered, or reflected
outward? It depends greatly on the wavelength of the
energy being transmitted, as well as on the nature of the
intervening material.
The numbers shown in Figure 20.15 represent global
averages. The actual percentages at different times and
locations vary greatly, primarily due to changes in the
percentage of light reflected and scattered back to space.
For example, if the sky is overcast, a higher percentage of
light is reflected back to space than when the sky is clear.
Heating the Atmosphere:
The Greenhouse Effect
If Earth had no atmosphere, it would experience an aver-
age surface temperature far below freezing. But the atmo-
sphere warms the planet and makes Earth livable. The
extremely important role the atmosphere plays in heating
Earth’s surface has been named the greenhouse effect.
As discussed earlier, cloudless air is largely transpar-
ent to incoming short-wave solar radiation and, hence,
transmits it to Earth’s surface. By contrast, a significant
fraction of the long-wave radiation emitted by Earth’s
land–sea surface is absorbed by water vapor, carbon diox-
ide, and other trace gases in the atmosphere. This energy
heats the air and increases the rate at which it radiates
energy, both out to space and back toward Earth’s surface.
Without this complicated game of “pass the hot potato,”
Earth’s average temperature would be -18°C (-0.4°F),
rather than the current average temperature of 15°C
(59°F) (Figure 20.17). These absorptive gases in our atmo-
sphere make Earth habitable for humans and other life-
forms. As you will see in the sections that follow, changes
in the air’s composition, both natural and human caused,
impact the greenhouse effect in ways that can cause the
atmosphere to either become warmer or cooler.
The greenhouse effect was so named because green-
houses are warmed in part by a similar phenomenon. The
glass in a greenhouse allows short-wave solar radiation to
enter and be absorbed by the objects inside. These objects
radiate energy at longer wavelengths, to which glass is
nearly opaque. The heat, therefore, is “trapped” in the
greenhouse. In reality, the major reason air in a greenhouse
warms is because the glass restricts exchange with cooler air
outside. Nevertheless, the term greenhouse effect remains.
Concept Checks 20.4
1. What are the three paths that incoming solar
radiation takes? What might cause the percentage
taking each path to vary?
2. Explain why the atmosphere is heated chiefly by
radiation from Earth’s surface.
3. Prepare a sketch with labels that explains the
greenhouse effect.
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      539

20.5 Natural Causes of Climate Change

Discuss hypotheses that relate to natural causes of climate change.

A great variety of hypotheses have been proposed to Although these shifts in plates are very slow, they can
explain climate change. Several have gained wide support, have a dramatic impact on climate over spans of millions Did You Know?
A meteorite colliding with
only to lose it and then sometimes to regain it. Some expla- of years. Moving landmasses can also lead to significant
Earth could trigger cli-
nations are controversial. This is to be expected because shifts in ocean circulation, which influences heat trans-
mate change. For exam-
planetary atmospheric processes are so large scale and com- port around the globe.*
ple, the most strongly
plex that they cannot be reproduced physically in laboratory A second natural mechanism of climate change
supported hypothesis for
experiments. Rather, climate and its changes must be simu- related to the causes of ice ages involves variations in
the extinction of dino-
lated mathematically (modeled), using powerful computers. Earth’s orbit. Changes in the shape of the orbit (eccentric-
saurs (about 65.5 million
In this section we examine several current hypoth- ity), variations in the angle that Earth’s axis makes with
years ago) is related to
eses that have earned serious consideration from the sci- the plane of its orbit (obliquity), and the wobbling of the
such an event. When
entific community. They describe “natural” mechanisms axis (precession) cause fluctuations in the seasonal and
a large (about 6 mi in
of climatic change, causes that are unrelated to human latitudinal distribution of solar radiation (see F
­ igure 15.33,
diameter) meteorite
activities. A later section examines human-induced cli- page 417). These variations, in turn, contributed to the
struck Earth, huge
mate changes, including the effect of rising carbon diox- alternating glacial–interglacial episodes of the Ice Age.
quantities of debris were
ide levels caused primarily by our burning of fossil fuels.
blasted high into the
As you read this section, you will find that more than Volcanic Activity & Climate Change atmosphere. For months
one hypothesis may explain the same change in climate.
In fact, several mechanisms may interact to shift climate. The idea that explosive volcanic eruptions might alter the encircling dust cloud
Also, no single hypothesis can explain climate change on Earth’s climate was first proposed many years ago. It is greatly restricted the
all time scales. A proposal that explains variations over still regarded as a plausible explanation for some aspects amount of light reaching
millions of years generally cannot explain fluctuations of climatic variability. Explosive eruptions emit huge Earth’s surface. Without
over hundreds of years. If our atmosphere and its changes quantities of gases and fine-grained debris into the sufficient sunlight for
ever become fully understood, we will probably see that atmosphere (Figure 20.18). The greatest eruptions are suf- photosynthesis, delicate
climate change is caused by many of the mechanisms dis- ficiently powerful to inject material high into the atmo- food chains collapsed.
cussed here, plus new ones yet to be proposed. sphere, and strong upper-air winds spread it around the When the sunlight
globe, where it remains for many months or even years. returned, more than half
of the species on Earth,
Plate Movements & Orbital Variations The Effect of Volcanic Aerosols on Climate  Suspended including the dinosaurs
In Chapter 15, the section “Causes of Ice Ages” describes volcanic material filters out a portion of the incoming and many marine organ-
two natural mechanisms of climate change. Recall that isms, had become
the movement of lithospheric plates gradually moves *For more on this, see the section “Supercontinents, Mountain extinct. There is more
Earth’s continents closer to or farther from the equator. Building, and Climate” in Chapter 19. about this in Chapter 19.

This satellite image shows the sulfur dioxide

(SO2) plume in shades of purple and black. This image was taken from the International Space Station and
Climate may be affected when large quantities shows a plume of volcanic ash streaming southeastward from the
of SO2 are injected into the atmosphere. volcano.

◀ Figure 20.18  Mount Etna erupting

in October 2002 This volcano on the
island of Sicily is Europe’s largest and
most active volcano. (NASA images)
540     Essentials of Geology
▼ Figure 20.19  Volcanic
haze reducing sunlight
at Earth’s surface The
reflective haze produced
by some volcanic
eruptions is not volcanic
ash but tiny sulfuric acid
aerosols. (NASA)
A plume of white haze from
Anatahan Volcano blankets a
portion of the Philippine Sea in
April 2005. The haze consisted of
tiny droplets of sulfuric acid formed
when sulfur dioxide from the
volcano combined with water in the
atmosphere. The plume is bright
and reflects sunlight back to space.
A.
solar radiation, which in turn lowers temperatures in
the troposphere. More than 200 years ago, Benjamin
Franklin used this idea to argue that material from the
eruption of a large Icelandic volcano could have reflected
sunlight back to space and therefore might have been
responsible for the unusually cold winter of 1783–1784.
Perhaps the most notable cool period linked to a vol-
canic event is the “year without a summer” that followed
the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora in Indonesia. The
eruption of Tambora is the largest of modern times. Dur-
ing April 7–12, 1815, this nearly 4000-meter- (13,000-foot-)
high volcano violently expelled an estimated 100 cubic
kilometers (24 cubic miles) of volcanic debris. The impact
of the volcanic aerosols on climate is believed to have
been widespread in the Northern Hemisphere. From May
through September 1816, an unprecedented series of cold
spells affected the northeastern United States and adjacent
portions of Canada. There was heavy snow in June and frost
in July and August. Abnormal cold was also experienced
in much of Western Europe. Similar, although apparently
less dramatic, effects have been associated with other great
explosive volcanoes, including Indonesia’s Krakatoa in 1883.
Three more recent volcanic events have provided
considerable data and insight regarding the impact
of volcanoes on global temperatures. The eruptions
of Washington State’s Mount St. Helens in 1980, the
Mexican volcano El Chichón in 1982, and Mount Pina-
tubo in the Philippines in 1991 have given scientists
Net solar radiation at Hawaii's Mauna Loa
Observatory relative to 1970 (zero on the
graph). The eruptions of El Chichón and Mt.
Pinatubo clearly caused temporary drops in
solar radiation reaching the surface.
1 We now understand that volcanic clouds that remain
0 once thought. Thus, the volume of fine debris emitted
Net Solar Radiation Percent Change
–1
–2
–3
El Chichón
Pinatubo
–4
–5
1973 1978 1983 1988 1993
Year
B.
opportunities to study the atmospheric effects of volcanic
eruptions with the aid of more sophisticated technol-
ogy than was previously available. Satellite images and
remote-sensing instruments allowed scientists to closely
monitor the effects of the clouds of gases and ash that
these volcanoes emitted.
Volcanic Ash & Dust  When Mount St. Helens erupted,
there was immediate speculation about the possible effects
on climate. Could such an eruption cause our climate to
change? There is no doubt that the large quantity of volcanic
ash emitted by the explosive eruption had significant local
and regional effects for a short period. Still, studies indi-
cated that any longer-term lowering of hemispheric temper-
atures was negligible. The cooling was so slight—probably
less than 0.1°C (0.2°F)—that it could not be distinguished
from other natural temperature fluctuations.
Sulfuric Acid Droplets  Two years of monitoring and
studies following the 1982 El Chichón eruption indi-
cated that it had a greater cooling effect on global mean
temperature than Mount St. Helens—on the order of
0.3° to 0.5°C (0.5° to 0.9°F). El Chichón’s eruption was
less explosive than the Mount St. Helens blast, so why
did it have a greater impact on global temperatures? The
reason is that the material emitted by Mount St. Helens
was largely fine ash that settled out in a relatively short
time. El Chichón, on the other hand, emitted far greater
quantities of sulfur dioxide gas (an estimated 40 times
more) than Mount St. Helens. This gas combines with
water vapor in the stratosphere to produce a dense cloud
of tiny sulfuric acid particles (Figure 20.19A). These par-
ticles take several years to settle out completely. They
lower the troposphere’s mean temperature because they
reflect solar radiation back to space (Figure 20.19B).
in the stratosphere for a year or more are composed
largely of sulfuric-acid droplets and not of dust, as was
during an explosive event is not an accurate criterion for
predicting the global atmospheric effects of an eruption.
Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted explo-
sively in June 1991, injecting 25 to 30 million tons of
sulfur dioxide into the stratosphere. The event provided
scientists with an opportunity to study the climatic impact
of a major explosive volcanic eruption using NASA’s
spaceborne Earth Radiation Budget Experiment. During
the next year, the haze of tiny aerosols increased reflectiv-
ity and lowered global temperatures by 0.5°C (0.9°F).
The impact on global temperature of eruptions like
El Chichón and Mount Pinatubo is relatively minor, but
many scientists agree that the cooling produced could
alter the general pattern of atmospheric circulation for a
limited period. Such a change could, in turn, influence
1998
the weather in some regions. Predicting, or even identify-
ing, specific regional effects still presents a considerable
challenge to atmospheric scientists.
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      541

The preceding examples illustrate that the impact Solar Variability & Climate
on climate of a single volcanic eruption, no matter how
Among the most persistent hypotheses of climate
great, is relatively small and short-lived. The graph in
change have been those based on the idea that the
Figure 20.19B reinforces this point. Therefore, if the pro-
Sun is a variable star and that its energy output varies
cesses discussed in this section are to have a pronounced
through time. The effect of such changes would seem
impact over an extended period, many great eruptions,
direct and easily understood: Increases in solar out-
closely spaced in time, need to occur. Because no such
put would cause the atmosphere to warm, and reduc-
period of explosive volcanism is known to have occurred
tions would result in cooling. This notion is appealing
in historic times, it is most often mentioned as a possible
because it can be used to explain climate change of any
contributor to prehistoric climatic shifts.
length or intensity. However, no major long-term varia-
tions in the total intensity of solar radiation have yet
Volcanism & Global Warming  The Cretaceous period is
been measured outside the atmosphere. Such measure-
the last period of the Mesozoic era, the era of middle life
ments were not even possible until satellite technology
that is often called the “age of dinosaurs.” It began about
became available. We can now measure solar output,
145.5 million years ago and ended about 65.5 million
but we still need many decades of records before we
years ago, with the extinction of the dinosaurs (and many
begin to sense how variable (or invariable) energy from
other life-forms as well).* ▼ SmartFigure 20.20 
the Sun really is.
The Cretaceous climate was among the warmest Sunspots Both images
Some hypotheses for climate change relate to sun-
in Earth’s long history. Dinosaurs, which are associated show sunspot activity
spot cycles. The most conspicuous and best-known fea-
with mild temperatures, ranged north of the Arctic Cir- at the same location
tures on the surface of the Sun are the dark blemishes
cle. Tropical forests existed in Greenland and Antarctica, on the solar disk at the
called sunspots (Figure 20.20). Sunspots are huge mag-
and coral reefs grew as much as 15° latitude closer to the same time on March 5,
netic storms that extend from the Sun’s surface deep into 2012, using two different
poles than at present. Deposits of peat that would even-
the interior. Moreover, these spots are associated with instruments from
tually form widespread coal beds accumulated at high
the Sun’s ejection of huge masses of particles that, on NASA’s Solar Dynamics
latitudes. Sea level was as much as 200 meters (650 feet)
reaching Earth’s upper atmosphere, interact with gases to Observatory. (NASA)
higher than it is today, consistent with a lack of polar ice
produce displays known as the aurora borealis, or North-
sheets as well as with an abundance of active and hence Video
ern Lights, in the Northern Hemisphere.
high-standing oceanic ridges. http://goo.gl/97bha6
Sunspots occur in cycles, with the number of
What caused the unusually warm climates of the
sunspots reaching a maximum about every 11 years
Cretaceous period? Among the significant factors that
may have contributed was an enhanced greenhouse
effect due to an increase in the amount of carbon dioxide
The instrument that produced this image
in the atmosphere. But where did the additional CO2 This view shows an approximation of the used ultraviolet, radio, and other parts of the
come from? Sun’s surface. The black spots surrounded electromagnetic spectrum. Looping lines
Many geologists suggest that the probable source by deep orange is a sunspot region where show solar plasma following magnetic field
magnetic activity is extremely intense. lines.
was volcanic activity. Carbon dioxide is one of the gases
emitted during volcanism, and there is now considerable
geologic evidence that the Middle Cretaceous was a time
of an unusually high rate of volcanic activity. Several
huge oceanic lava plateaus were produced on the floor of
the western Pacific during this span. These vast features
were associated with hot spots that may have been pro-
duced by large mantle plumes. Massive outpourings of
lava over millions of years would have been accompanied
by the release of huge quantities of CO2, which in turn
would have enhanced the atmospheric greenhouse effect.
Thus, the warmth that characterized the Cretaceous
may have had its origins deep in Earth’s mantle.
This example illustrates the interrelationships among
parts of the Earth system. Seemingly unrelated materials
and processes turn out to be linked. Here you have seen
how processes originating deep in Earth’s interior are
connected directly or indirectly to the atmosphere, the
oceans, and the biosphere.

*For more about the end of the Cretaceous, see Chapter 19

542     Essentials of Geology

▶ Figure 20.21  Mean in solar output is too small and the cycles are too short to
200
annual sunspot numbers have any appreciable effect on global temperatures. How-
The number of sunspots 150 ever, there is a possibility that longer-term variations in

Annual number
reaches a maximum about

of sunspots
100 solar output may affect climates on Earth.
every 11 years.
For example, the span between 1645 and 1715 is a
50 period, known as the Maunder minimum, during which
0 sunspots were largely absent. This period of missing sun-
spots closely corresponds with a period in climate history

1700
1720
1740
1760
1780
1800
1820
1840
1860
1880
1900
1920
1940
1960
1980
2000
2020
known as the Little Ice Age, an especially cold period in
Europe. For some scientists, this correlation suggests that
150 a reduction in the Sun’s output was likely responsible at
Sunspot number

least in part for this cold episode. Other scientists seri-

100 ously question this notion. Their hesitation stems, in part,
from subsequent investigations using different climate
50 records from around the world that failed to find a sig-
nificant correlation between sunspot activity and climate.
0
2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015
Time (years)
Concept Checks 20.5
1. Describe and briefly explain the effect on global
(­ Figure 20.21). During periods of maximum sunspot temperatures of the eruptions of El Chichón and
Did You Know? activity, the Sun emits slightly more energy than during Mount Pinatubo.
Based on recent
sunspot minimums. Based on measurements from space 2. How might volcanism lead to global warming?
research that used satel-
that began in 1978, the variation during an 11-year cycle 3. What are sunspots? How does solar output
lite data, there appears
is about 0.1 percent. Although sunspots are dark, they are change as sunspot numbers change? Is there a
to be no connection
surrounded by brighter areas, which apparently offsets solid connection between sunspot numbers and
between changes in the
the effect of the dark spots. It appears that this change climate change on Earth?
Sun’s brightness and
recent global warming.
The scientists who car-
ried out this detailed
analysis state that varia-
20.6 Human Impact on Global Climate
tions in solar brightness Summarize the nature and cause of the atmosphere’s changing composition since
measured since 1978, about 1750. Describe the climate’s response.
which is as far back as
these measurements So far we have examined potential causes of climate gases that make up clean, dry air. Nevertheless, it is a
go, are too small to have change that are natural. In this section, we examine how very significant component meteorologically. Carbon
contributed appreciably humans contribute to global climate change. One impact dioxide is influential because it is transparent to incom-
to accelerated global largely results from the addition of carbon dioxide and ing short-wavelength solar radiation, but it is not trans-
warming over the past other greenhouse gases to the atmosphere. A second parent to some of the longer-wavelength outgoing Earth
30 years. impact is related to the addition of human-generated radiation. A portion of the energy leaving Earth’s surface
aerosols to the atmosphere. is absorbed by atmospheric CO2. This energy is subse-
Human influence on regional and global climate did quently re-emitted, part of it back toward the surface,
not just begin with the onset of the modern industrial thereby keeping the air near the ground warmer than
period. There is good evidence that people have been it would be without CO2. Thus, along with water vapor,
modifying the environment over extensive areas for carbon dioxide is largely responsible for the atmosphere’s
thousands of years. The use of fire and the overgrazing greenhouse effect.
of marginal lands by domesticated animals have both The tremendous industrialization of the past two
reduced the abundance and distribution of vegetation. centuries has been fueled—and still is fueled—by
By altering ground cover, humans have modified such burning fossil fuels: coal, natural gas, and petroleum
important climate factors as surface albedo, evaporation ­(Figure 20.22). Combustion of these fuels has added
rates, and surface winds. great quantities of carbon dioxide to the atmosphere.
Figure 20.23 shows changes in CO2 concentrations at
Hawaii’s Mauna Loa Observatory, where measurements
Rising CO2 Levels have been made since 1958. The graph shows an annual
Earlier you learned that carbon dioxide (CO2) represents seasonal cycle and a steady upward trend over the years.
only about 0.0400 percent (400 parts per million) of the The up-and-down of the seasonal cycle is due to the vast
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      543

40
The zigzag pattern in the red line
30
Quadrillion Btu
400 reflects the seasons. During the
20
Northern Hemisphere spring and
summer, photosynthesis by plants
10 absorbs CO2, pulling the line down.
380 During fall and winter, photosynthesis
0 slows, and decay of plant material
Petroleum Natural Coal Renewable Nuclear releases CO2, sending the line up.

Parts per million

Gas Energy Electric
Power
360
▲ Figure 20.22  U.S. energy consumption The graph shows
Seasonally corrected data
energy consumption in 2015. The total was 97.65 quadrillion
Btu. A quadrillion is 10 raised to the 15th power, or a billion 340
million. The burning of fossil fuels represents about 81.3 percent Monthly CO2
of the total. (Based on data from U.S. Energy Information Administration)

land area of the Northern Hemisphere, which contains
the majority of land-based vegetation. During spring and
summer in the Northern Hemisphere, when plants are
absorbing CO2 as part of photosynthesis, concentrations
decrease. The annual increase in atmospheric CO2 dur-
ing the cold months occurs as vegetation dies and leaves
fall and decompose, releasing CO2 back into the air.
The use of coal and other fuels is the most prominent
means by which humans add CO2 to the atmosphere, but
it is not the only way. The clearing of forests also contrib-
utes substantially because CO2 is released as vegetation
is burned or decays (Figure 20.24). Deforestation is par-
ticularly pronounced in the tropics, where vast tracts are
cleared for ranching and agriculture, or subjected to inef-
ficient commercial logging operations. All major tropical
forests—including those in South America, Africa, South-
east Asia, and Indonesia—are disappearing. According to
United Nations estimates, more than 10 million hectares
320
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Year
▲ SmartFigure 20.23  Monthly CO2 concentrations Atmospheric tutorial
CO2 has been measured at Mauna Loa Observatory, Hawaii, since http://goo.gl/Y479oq
1958. There has been a consistent increase since monitoring began.
This graphic portrayal is known as the Keeling Curve, in honor of the
scientist who originated the measurements. (Based on NOAA)
(25 million acres) of tropical forest were permanently
destroyed each year during the decades of the 1990s and
2000s, although this rate has slowed in recent years.
Some of the excess CO2 is taken up by plants or
is dissolved in the ocean, but an estimated 45 percent
remains in the atmosphere. Figure 20.25 is a graphic
record of changes in atmospheric CO2 extending back

▼ Figure 20.24  Tropical deforestation Clearing of the

tropical rain forest is a serious environmental issue. In addition
to causing a loss of biodiversity, it is a significant source of
500
carbon dioxide. Fires are frequently used to clear the land. This ◀ Figure 20.25 
scene is in Brazil’s Amazon basin. (Photo by Nigel Dickinson/Alamy) CO2 concentrations
2015 400
Carbon Dioxide Concentration (ppm)
over the past
800,000 years Most
For 800,000 years, atmospheric CO2 of these data come
was never higher than this level from the analysis of
300
air bubbles trapped
in ice cores. The
record since 1958
200 comes from direct
measurements
at Mauna Loa
Observatory,
100 Hawaii. The rapid
increase in CO2
concentrations since
the onset of the
0
–800,000 –600,000 –400,000 –200,000 0 Industrial Revolution
Years is obvious. (Based on
data from NOAA)
544     Essentials of Geology
800,000 years. Over this long span, natural fluctuations
have varied from about 180 to 300 ppm. As a result of
human activities, the present CO2 level is more than
30 percent higher than its highest level over at least the
past 800,000 years. The rapid increase in CO2 concentra-
tions since the onset of industrialization is obvious. The
annual rate at which atmospheric CO2 concentrations are
growing has been increasing over the past several decades.
A.
–4.1 –4.0 –2.0 –1.0 –0.5 –0.2 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0 4.0 4.1
Anomaly (°C) vs 1951–1980
Global Temperature Change: Decade Averages
0.7
0.6
Change from average (°C)
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
–0.1
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
Decade
B.
▲ SmartFigure 20.26  Global temperatures A. The world map Video
shows how average temperatures in 2015 deviated from the mean https://goo.gl/zz5VKN
for the 1951–1980 base period. The high latitudes in the Northern
Hemisphere clearly stand out. (NASA/GISS) B. The decade-by-
decade temperature trend since 1950 is illustrated in this bar graph.
Continued increases in the atmosphere’s greenhouse gas levels are
driving a long-term increase in global temperatures. Each calendar
year is not necessarily warmer than the year before, but since 1950,
each decade has been warmer than the previous one. (Data from NASA)
The Atmosphere’s Response
Given the increase in the atmosphere’s CO2 content,
have global temperatures actually increased? The answer
is “yes.” According to a 2013 report by the Intergovern-
mental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), “Warming of
the climate system is unequivocal, as is now evident from
observations of increases in global average air and ocean
temperatures, widespread melting of snow and ice, and
rising global sea level.”* Most of the observed increase
in global average temperatures since the mid-twentieth
century is extremely likely due to the observed increase in
human-generated greenhouse gas concentrations. As used
by the IPCC, extremely likely indicates a probability of 95
to 100 percent. The planet’s average surface air tempera-
ture has risen about 1°C (1.8°F) since the late nineteenth
century, with most of the warming occurring in the past
35 years. Fifteen of the 16 warmest years on record have
occurred since 2001. Surface air temperatures in 2015
were the warmest since record keeping began in 1880,
shattering the mark set in 2014 (Figure 20.26A).
Weather patterns and other natural cycles cause
fluctuations in average temperatures from year to year.
This is especially true on regional and local levels. For
example, while the globe experienced notably warm tem-
peratures in 2014, parts of the continental United States
were cooler than normal. By contrast, 2014 was the
warmest year on record for much of Europe and parts of
Russia, and ocean temperatures were at a record high.
Regardless of regional differences in any year, increases
in greenhouse gas levels are causing a long-term rise in
global temperatures. Although each calendar year will
not necessarily be warmer than the one before, scientists
expect each decade to be warmer than the previous one.
An examination of the decade-by-decade temperature
trend in Figure 20.26B bears this out.
What about the future? Projections for the years
ahead depend in part on the quantities of greenhouse
gases that are emitted. Figure 20.27 shows the best esti-
mates of global warming for several different scenarios.
The 2013 IPCC report states that if there is a doubling
of the pre-industrial level of carbon dioxide (280 ppm) to
560 ppm, the likely temperature increase will be in the
range of 2° to 4.5°C (3.5° to 8.1°F). The increase is very
unlikely (1 to 10 percent probability) to be less than 1.5°C
(2.7°F), and values higher than 4.5°C (8.1°F) are possible.
The Role of Trace Gases
Carbon dioxide is not the only gas contributing to a
global increase in temperature. In recent years atmo-
spheric scientists have come to realize that human indus-
trial and agricultural activities are causing a buildup of
*IPCC, “Summary for Policymakers,” in Climate Change 2013:
The Physical Science Basis. The Intergovernmental Panel on Cli-
mate Change is an authoritative group of scientists that provides
advice to the world community through periodic reports that assess
the state of knowledge of the causes and effects of climate change.
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      545

several trace gases that also play significant roles. The ◀ SmartFigure 20.27 
substances are called trace gases because their concen- Temperature
6.0
trations are much lower than the concentration of carbon projections to 2100
dioxide. The most important trace gases are methane The right half of the
(CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), and chlorofluorocarbons 5.0 graph shows projected
global warming based

Global surface warming (°C)

(CFCs). These gases absorb wavelengths of outgoing
on different emissions

s
radiation from Earth that would otherwise escape into 4.0

rio
scenarios. The shaded

na
t s ge
space. Although individually their impact is modest,

ce
en ra
zone adjacent to each

er ve
taken together these trace gases play a significant role in 3.0

iff l a
colored line shows the

g d loba
­warming the troposphere. Global temperature
changes during the dg uncertainty range for
2.0 jecte usin each scenario. The basis
20th century o
Methane  Although present in much smaller amounts than Pr ures for comparison (0.0 on
at
CO2, methane’s significance is greater than its relatively 1.0 per the vertical axis) is the
small concentration would indicate (Figure 20.28). This is tem global average for the
because methane is about 20 times more effective than 0.0 period 1980 to 1999. The
CO2 at absorbing infrared radiation emitted by Earth. orange line represents
Methane is produced by anaerobic bacteria in wet the scenario in which CO2
–1.0
concentrations were held
places where oxygen is scarce. (Anaerobic means “without
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100 constant at values for the
air,” specifically oxygen.) Such places include swamps, bogs,
Year year 2000. (Data from NOAA)
wetlands, and the guts of termites and grazing animals such
as cattle and sheep. Methane is also generated in flooded Video
paddy fields (“artificial swamps”) used for growing rice. http://goo.gl/3xMnoA

Mining of coal and drilling for oil and natural gas are other
sources because methane is a product of their formation.
The increase in the concentration of methane in the
atmosphere has been in step with the growth in human
population. This relationship reflects the close link
between methane formation and agriculture. As popula-
tion increases, so do the number of cattle and rice paddies.
Nitrous Oxide  Sometimes called “laughing gas,” nitrous
oxide is also building in the atmosphere, although not
as rapidly as methane (see Figure 20.28). The increase
results primarily from agricultural activity. When farmers
use nitrogen fertilizers to boost crop yield, some of the
nitrogen enters the air as nitrous oxide. This gas is also
produced by high-temperature combustion of fossil fuels.
Although the annual release into the atmosphere is small,
nitrous oxide is about 300 times more effective (by weight)
than CO2 as a greenhouse gas. Also, the average residence
time of a nitrous oxide molecule in the atmosphere is
about 114 years! If nitrogen fertilizer and fossil fuel use
grow at projected rates, nitrous oxide’s contribution to
greenhouse warming may approach half that of methane.
CFCs  Unlike methane and nitrous oxide, chlorofluorocar-
bons (CFCs) are not naturally present in the atmosphere.
CFCs are manufactured chemicals with many uses that
have gained notoriety because they are responsible for
ozone depletion in the stratosphere. The role of CFCs in
global warming is less well known. CFCs are very effec-
tive greenhouse gases. They were not developed until
the 1920s and were not used in great quantities until
the 1950s. Although corrective action has been taken,
CFC levels will not drop rapidly. CFCs remain in the
atmosphere for decades, so even though CFC emissions

Long-Term Changes Recent Trends

400 2000
325
Methane (CH4)
Methane (CH4) 1800
1800 Nitrous Oxide (N2O)
Nitrous Oxide (N2O) 320 ◀ Figure 20.28  Methane
1750 and nitrous oxide
N2O (parts per billion)

1600
N2O (parts per billion)
CH4 (parts per billion)

CH4 (parts per billion)

350 315 Although CO2 is most

1400 important, these trace
1700
310 gases also contribute to
1200 global warming. Over the
1650 2000-year span shown
300 305
1000 here, there were relatively
1600 minor fluctuations until
800 300
the industrial era. The
graph on the right shows
250 600 295 1550
0 500 1000 1500 2000 1980 1990 2000 2010 recent trends. (Based on
Year Year data from U.S. Global Change
Research Program and NOAA)
546     Essentials of Geology
Did You Know?
The Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate change
(IPCC) referred to in the
discussion of global
warming was established
by the United Nations
Environment Programme
and the World Meteo-
rological Organization
in 1988 to assess the
scientific, technical,
and socioeconomic
information that is rel-
evant to understanding
climate change. It is an
authoritative group that
provides periodic reports
regarding the state of
knowledge about causes
and effects of climate
change. More than
250 authors and nearly
1100 scientific review-
ers from 55 countries
contributed to Climate
Change 2013: The
­Physical Science Basis.
▼ Figure 20.29  Human-
generated aerosols
These satellite images
show a serious air pollution
episode that plagued China
on October 8, 2010. (NASA)
Beijing
Zhengzhou
N 100 km
Aerosol Index
0.0 1.75 3.5
This satellite image
shows the extremely high
levels of aerosols N
associated with this air
pollution episode. At an 200 km
index value of 4, aerosols
are so dense that you
would have difficulty
seeing the midday Sun.
by developed nations have essentially ceased, the atmo-
sphere will not be free of them for many years.
A Combined Effect  Carbon dioxide is clearly the most
important single cause for the projected global green-
house warming. However, it is not the only contributor.
When the effects of all human-generated greenhouse
gases other than CO2 are added together and projected
into the future, their collective impact significantly
increases the impact of CO2 alone.
Sophisticated computer models show that the warm-
ing of the lower atmosphere caused by CO2 and trace
gases will not be the same everywhere. Rather, the tem-
perature response in polar regions could be two to three
times greater than the global average. Because the polar
troposphere is very stable, vertical mixing is suppressed,
which limits the amount of surface heat that is trans-
ferred upward. In addition, an expected reduction in sea
ice would contribute to the greater temperature increase.
This topic will be explored more fully in the next section.
How Aerosols Influence Climate
Increasing the levels of carbon dioxide and other green-
house gases in the atmosphere is the most direct human
influence on global climate. But it is not the only impact.
Global climate is also affected by human activities that
contribute to the atmosphere’s aerosol content. Recall
that aerosols are the tiny, often microscopic, liquid and
solid particles that are suspended in the air. Unlike cloud
droplets, aerosols are present even in relatively dry air.
Atmospheric aerosols are composed of many different
materials, including soil, smoke, sea salt, and sulfuric
acid. Natural sources are numerous and include such
phenomena as dust storms and volcanoes.
Most human-generated aerosols come from two
sources: sulfur dioxide emitted during the combus-
tion of fossil fuels and smoke from vegetation burned
The source of these pollutants
was coal-burning power
plants, agricultural burning, Beijing
and industrial processes.
Zhengzhou
to clear agricultural land. Chemical reactions in the atmo-
sphere convert the sulfur dioxide into sulfate aerosols, the
same material that produces acid precipitation. The satel-
lite images in Figure 20.29 provide an example.
How do aerosols affect climate? Aerosols act directly
by reflecting sunlight back to space and indirectly by mak-
ing clouds “brighter” reflectors. The second effect relates
to the fact that many aerosols (such as those composed of
salt or sulfuric acid) attract water and thus are especially
effective as cloud condensation nuclei. The large quanti-
ties of aerosols produced by human activities (especially
industrial emissions) trigger an increase in the number of
cloud droplets that form within a cloud. A greater number
of small droplets increases the cloud’s brightness, causing
more sunlight to be reflected back to space.
One category of aerosols, called black carbon, is
soot generated by combustion processes and fires. Unlike
most other aerosols, black carbon warms the atmosphere
because it is an effective absorber of incoming solar
radiation. In addition, when deposited on snow and
ice, black carbon reduces surface albedo, thus increas-
ing the amount of light absorbed. Nevertheless, despite
the warming effect of black carbon, the overall effect of
atmospheric aerosols is to cool Earth.
Studies indicate that the cooling effect of human-
generated aerosols offsets a portion of the global warm-
ing caused by the growing quantities of greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere. The magnitude and extent of the cool-
ing effect of aerosols is uncertain. This uncertainty is a
significant hurdle in advancing our understanding of how
humans alter Earth’s climate.
It is important to point out some significant differences
between global warming by greenhouse gases and aerosol
cooling. After being emitted, carbon dioxide and trace
gases remain in the atmosphere for many decades. By con-
trast, aerosols released into the troposphere remain there
for only a few days or, at most, a few weeks before they
are “washed out” by precipitation, limiting their effects.
Because of their short lifetime in the troposphere, aero-
sols are distributed unevenly over the globe. As expected,
human-generated aerosols are concentrated near the areas
that produce them—namely industrialized regions that
burn fossil fuels and places where vegetation is burned.
Concept Checks 20.6
1. Why has the CO2 level of the atmosphere been
increasing over the past 200 years?
2. How has the atmosphere responded to the
growing CO2 levels? How are temperatures in
the lower atmosphere likely to change as CO2
levels continue to increase?
3. Aside from CO2, what trace gases are
contributing to global temperature change?
4. List the main sources of human-generated
aerosols and describe their net effect on
atmospheric temperatures.
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      547

20.7 Climate Feedback Mechanisms

Contrast positive and negative feedback mechanisms and provide examples of each.

Climate is a very complex interactive physical system. the buildup of greenhouse gases is slightly offset by the
Thus, when any component of the climate system is increase in cloud cover.
altered, scientists must consider many possible outcomes. The problem of global warming caused by human-
These possible outcomes are called climate feedback induced changes in atmospheric composition continues
mechanisms. They complicate climate-modeling efforts to be one of the most studied aspects of climate change.
and add uncertainty to climate predictions. Although no models yet incorporate the full range of
potential factors and feedbacks, there is a strong scientific
consensus that the increasing concentrations of atmo-
Types of Feedback Mechanisms spheric carbon dioxide and trace gases is creating a warmer
What climate feedback mechanisms are related to car- planet with a different distribution of climate regimes.
bon dioxide and other greenhouse gases? One important
mechanism is that warmer surface temperatures increase Computer Models of Climate: Important
evaporation rates. This, in turn, increases the water
vapor in the atmosphere. Remember that water vapor is yet Imperfect Tools
an even more powerful absorber of radiation emitted by Earth’s climate system is amazingly complex. Compre-
Earth than is carbon dioxide. Therefore, with more water hensive state-of-the-science climate simulation models are
vapor in the air, the temperature increase caused by car- among the tools used to develop possible climate-change
bon dioxide and trace gases is reinforced. scenarios. Called general circulation models (GCMs), they
Scientists who model global climate change indicate are based on fundamental laws of physics and chemistry
that the temperature increase at high latitudes may be and incorporate human and biological interactions. GCMs
two to three times greater than the global average. This are used to simulate many variables, including tempera-
assumption is based in part on the likelihood that the ture, rainfall, snow cover, soil moisture, winds, clouds, sea
area covered by sea ice will decrease as surface tempera- ice, and ocean circulation, over the entire globe through
tures rise. Because ice reflects a much larger percentage the seasons and over spans of decades.
of incoming solar radiation than does open water, the In many other fields of study, hypotheses can be
melting of sea ice replaces a highly reflective surface tested by direct experimentation in a laboratory or by
with a relatively dark surface (Figure 20.30). The result field observations and measurements. However, this is
is a substantial increase in the solar energy absorbed at often not possible in the study of climate. Rather, scien-
the surface. This in turn feeds back to the atmosphere tists must construct computer models of how our planet’s
and magnifies the initial temperature increase created by climate system works. If we understand the climate sys-
higher levels of greenhouse gases. tem correctly and construct the model appropriately, the
The climate feedback mechanisms discussed thus
far magnify the temperature rise caused by the buildup ◀ SmartFigure 20.30 
of greenhouse gases. Because these effects reinforce Sea ice as a feedback
Decline in the
the initial change, they are called positive feedback perennial ice mechanism The image
mechanisms. On the other hand, negative feedback cover shows the springtime
mechanisms produce results that are just the opposite of breakup of sea ice near
Longer Reduced Antarctica. The diagram
the initial change and tend to offset it. melt period reflectivity
One probable result of a global temperature rise shows a likely feedback
would be an accompanying increase in cloud cover due loop. A reduction in sea
ice acts as a positive
to the higher moisture content of the atmosphere. Most Increased
Warmer absorption of feedback mechanism
clouds are good reflectors of solar radiation. At the ocean solar radiation because surface
same time, however, they are also good absorbers and albedo decreases, and
emitters of radiation emitted by Earth. Consequently, the amount of energy
clouds produce two opposite effects. They exert a nega- absorbed at the surface
tive feedback because they increase Earth’s albedo and increases. (Photo by Radius
thus reduce the amount of solar energy available to heat Images/Alamy)
the atmosphere. On the other hand, clouds exert a posi-
Video
tive feedback by absorbing and emitting radiation that http://goo.gl/XKhbz8
would otherwise be lost from the troposphere. Which
effect, if either, is stronger? Observations and modeling
demonstrate that the overall effect of clouds is to slightly
cool the planet. This means that the warming caused by
548     Essentials of Geology

behavior of the model climate system should mimic the

2.0
behavior of Earth’s climate system (Figure 20.31).
Observations What factors influence the accuracy of climate

Global Temperature Change (°F)

1.5
Natural and Human Factors
Natural Factors Only
1.0
0.5
0 influence predictions. They must consider a wide range
–0.5
–1.0
1900 1920 1940
Year
▲ Figure 20.31  Separating human and natural influences on climate
The blue band shows how global average temperatures would have
changed due to natural forces only, as simulated by climate models. The
pink band shows model projections of the effects of human and natural
forces combined. The black line shows actual observed global average
temperatures. As the blue band indicates, without human influences,
temperatures over the past century would actually have first warmed
and then cooled slightly over recent decades. Bands of color are used to
express the range of uncertainty. (U.S. Global Change Research Program)
­models? Clearly, mathematical models are simplified
­versions of the real Earth and cannot capture its full
complexity, especially at smaller geographic scales. More-
over, computer models used to simulate future climate
change must make many assumptions that significantly
of possible changes in population, economic growth,
fossil fuel consumption, technological development,
improvements in energy efficiency, and more.
Despite many obstacles, our ability to use supercom-
1960 1980 2000 puters to simulate climate is very good and continues to
improve. Although today’s models are far from infallible,
they are powerful tools for understanding what Earth’s
future climate might be like.
Concept Checks 20.7
1. Distinguish between positive and negative
feedback mechanisms.
2. Provide at least one example of each type of
feedback mechanism.
3. What factors influence the accuracy of computer
models of climate?

20.8 Some Consequences of Global Warming

Summarize some of the possible consequences of global warming.

What consequences can be expected as the carbon were to occur. This means that even projections labeled
Did You Know? dioxide content of the atmosphere reaches a level that “unlikely” should not be ignored because if any of those
A scenario is an example
is twice what it was early in the twentieth century? events were to happen, the consequences would be
of what might happen
Because the climate system is complex, predicting the extremely serious.
under a particular set of
occurrence of specific effects in particular places is spec-
assumptions. Scenarios
ulative. It is not yet possible to pinpoint such changes.
are tools that allow us to
Nevertheless, there are plausible scenarios for larger Sea-Level Rise
examine questions about
scales of space and time. A significant impact of human-induced global warming is
an uncertain future. For
As noted, the magnitude of the temperature increase a rise in sea level. As this occurs, coastal cities, wetlands,
example, future trends in
will not be the same everywhere. The temperature rise and low-lying islands could be threatened with more fre-
fossil-fuel use and other
will probably be smallest in the tropics and increase quent flooding, increased shoreline erosion, and saltwater
human activities are
toward the poles. As for precipitation, the models indi- encroachment into coastal rivers and aquifers.
uncertain. Therefore, sci-
cate that some regions will experience significantly more How is a warmer atmosphere related to a rise in sea
entists have developed a
precipitation and runoff. However, others will experi- level? One significant factor is thermal expansion. Higher
set of scenarios for how
ence a decrease in runoff due to reduced precipitation or air temperatures warm the adjacent upper layers of the
the climate may change
greater evaporation caused by higher temperatures. ocean, which in turn causes the water to expand and sea
based on a wide range
Table 20.1 lists possible effects of global warming level to rise.
of possibilities for these based on the IPCC’s projections for the late twenty- A second factor contributing to global sea-level
variables. first century, ranked in decreasing order of certainty. rise is melting glaciers. With few exceptions, glaciers
Probabilities are based on the quality, volume, and around the world have been retreating at unprec-
consistency of the evidence and the extent of agreement edented rates over the past century. Some mountain
among scientists. The risk associated with any of the glaciers have disappeared altogether. A satellite study
projections in Table 20.1 is a combination of the prob- spanning 20 years showed that the mass of the Green-
ability of occurrence and the severity of the damage if it land and Antarctic Ice Sheets dropped an average of
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      549

Table
TABLE20.1  IPCCProjections
20.1 IPCC Projectionsforforthe
theLate
Late21st
Twenty-First
Century Century
• Cold days and nights will be warmer and less frequent over most land areas Virtually certain (99–100%)
• Hot days and nights will be warmer and more frequent over most land areas
• The extent of permafrost will decline
• Ocean acidification will increase as the atmosphere accumulates CO2
• Northern Hemisphere glaciation will not initiate before the year 3000
• Global mean sea level will rise and continue to do so for many centuries

• Arctic sea ice cover will continue to shrink and thin, and Northern Hemisphere spring snow Very likely (90–100%)
cover will decrease
• The dissolved oxygen content of the ocean will decrease by a few percent
• The rate of increase in atmospheric CO2, methane, and nitrous oxide will reach levels
unprecedented in the past 10,000 years
• The frequency of warm spells and heat waves will increase
• The frequency of heavy precipitation events will increase
• Precipitation amounts will increase in high latitudes
• The ocean’s conveyor-belt circulation will weaken
• The rate of sea-level rise will exceed that of the late twentieth century
• Extreme high sea-level events will increase, as will ocean wave heights of midlatitude storms

• If the atmospheric CO2 level stabilizes at double the present level, global temperatures will Likely (66–100%)
rise by between 1.5°C (2.7°F) and 4.5°C (8.1°F)
• Areas affected by drought will increase
• Precipitation amounts will decline in the subtropics
• The loss of glaciers will accelerate in the next few decades

• Intense tropical cyclone activity will increase About as likely

• The West Antarctic Ice Sheet will pass the melting point if global warming exceeds 5°C as not (33–66%)
(9°F)—this is relative, not absolute

• Antarctic and Greenland Ice Sheets will collapse due to surface warming Not likely (0–33%)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
Probability (%)

475 gigatons per year. (A gigaton is 1 billion metric

Future Sea-level Changes Using Four Different Scenarios
tons.) That is enough water to raise sea level 1.5 mil- 2.0
limeters (0.05 inch) per year. The loss of ice was not

0m
Global Mean Sea Level Rise (meters above 1992)

steady but was occurring at an accelerating rate during

t 2.
the study period. During the same span, mountain gla- 1.6

hes
Hig
ciers and ice caps lost an average of slightly more than
400 gigatons per year.
1.2
Research indicates that sea level has risen about 25

m
.2
h1
centimeters (9.75 inches) since 1870, with the rate of

Hig
sea-level rise accelerating in recent years. What about

te–
0.8

dia
future changes in sea level? As Figure 20.32 indicates, me
er
the estimates of future sea-level rise are uncertain. The Int 0.5
m
0.4 te–Low
four scenarios depicted on the graph represent esti- med
ia
Observed sea-level Inter Lowest 0.2
m
mates based on different degrees of ocean warming and changes 1900–2012
ice sheet loss and range from 0.2 meter (8 inches) to 2 0
meters (6.6 feet). The lowest scenario is an extrapola-
tion of the annual rate of sea-level rise that occurred
between 1870 and 2000 (1.7 millimeter/year). However, –0.4
1900 1950 2000 2050 2100
when the rate of sea-level rise for the period 1993 to Year
2012 is examined, the annual change is 3.17 millimeters/
year. Such data show that there is a reasonable chance
▲ SmartFigure 20.32  Changing sea level This graph shows Video
that sea level will rise considerably more than the lowest changes in sea level between 1900 and 2012 and projections to http://goo.gl/BqepKo
scenario indicates. 2100, using four different scenarios. Currently the highest and
Scientists realize that even modest rises in sea level lowest projections are considered to be extremely unlikely. The
along a gently sloping shoreline, such as the Atlantic greatest uncertainty surrounding estimates involves the rate
and Gulf coasts of the United States, will lead to sig- and magnitude of ice sheet loss from Greenland and Antarctica.
nificant erosion and severe permanent inland flooding Zero on the graph represents mean sea level in 1992. (NOAA)
550     Essentials of Geology

Where the slope is gentle warming is related to plant growth (Figure 20.34). A 2013
a small rise in sea level study showed that vegetation growth at northern lati-
causes a substantial shift tudes now resembles that which characterized areas 4º to
Original
shoreline 6º of latitude farther south as recently as 1982. That is a
distance of 400 to 700 kilometers (250 to 430 miles). One
Shoreline shift
researcher characterized the finding this way: “It’s like
Sea level
rise Winnipeg, Manitoba, moving to Minneapolis-St. Paul in
only 30 years.”

Arctic Sea Ice  Climate models are in general agreement

that one of the strongest signals of global warming should
Where the slope is steep be a loss of sea ice in the Arctic. This is indeed occurring.
the same sea level rise The map in Figure 20.35A compares the average sea ice
Original causes a small shift
shoreline
extent for September 2016 to the long-term average for
the period 1981 to 2010. On September 10th the extent
Shoreline shift
was about 4.14 million square kilometers (1.6 million
Sea level square miles)—the second lowest minimum of the sat-
rise
ellite era, which began in 1979. (September represents
the end of the melt period, when the area covered by
sea ice is at a minimum.) Figure 20.35B, which shows

▲ SmartFigure 20.33  Slope of the shoreline The slope of the Tutorial ▼ SmartFigure 20.34  Climate change Video
shoreline is critical to determining the degree to which sea-level http://goo.gl/u5fVXR
spurs plant growth beyond 45° north http://goo.gl/rRnMdj
changes will affect it. As sea level gradually rises, the shoreline
Of the 26 million square kilometers
retreats, and structures that were once thought to be safe from wave
(10 million square miles) of northern
attack become vulnerable.
vegetated lands, about 40 percent
showed increases in plant growth during
the 30-year period ending in 2012 (green
and blue on the satellite image). (NASA)
­(Figure 20.33). If this happens, many beaches and wet-
lands will disappear, and coastal civilization will be
severely disrupted. Low-lying and densely populated
places such as Bangladesh and the small island nation of
the Maldives are especially vulnerable. The average ele-
vation in the Maldives is 1.5 meters (less than 5 feet),
and its highest point is just 2.4 meters (less than 8
feet) above sea level.
Because rising sea level is a gradual phe-
nomenon, coastal residents may overlook it as an
important contributor to shoreline flooding and
erosion problems. Rather, the blame may be
assigned to other forces, especially storm activ-
ity. Although a given storm may be the immedi-
ate cause, the magnitude of the destruction may
result from the relatively small sea-level rise
that allowed the storm’s power to cross a much
greater land area.

The Changing Arctic

The effects of global warming are most pronounced in
the high latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere. For more
than 30 years, the extent and thickness of sea ice have
been rapidly declining. In addition, permafrost tempera-
tures have been rapidly rising, and the area affected Plant Growth Change
by permafrost has been decreasing. Meanwhile,
alpine glaciers and the Greenland Ice Sheet have –5 0 5 10
been shrinking. Another sign that the Arctic is rapidly Percent per decade
 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      551

1981-2010 median minimum ◀ SmartFigure 20.35  Tracking sea ice changes

Asia Sea ice is frozen seawater. In winter the Arctic
Ocean is completely ice covered. In summer, a
8
portion of the ice melts. A. This map shows the
Year-to-year extent of sea ice in early September 2016 compared
7 changes to the average extent of the period 1981 to 2010.

Extent (million sq. km)

Alaska
The sea ice that does not melt in summer is getting
thinner. B. The graph clearly depicts the trend in the
6
area covered by sea ice at the end of the summer
NP
melt period. (Data from National Snow and Ice Data Center)
2016 minimum 5
Video
http://goo.gl/bVornN
4

Greenland 3
1978 1988 1998 2008 2018
Year
A.
B.

year-to-year changes, clearly depicts the trend. Not only and methane—greenhouse gases that contribute to
is the area covered by sea ice declining, but the remain- global warming. Thus, like decreasing sea ice, thawing
ing sea ice has become thinner and therefore more permafrost is a positive feedback mechanism.
vulnerable to further melting. Models that best match
historical trends project that Arctic waters may be virtu-
ally ice free in the late summer by the 2030s. As noted
Increasing Ocean Acidity
earlier in this chapter, a reduction in sea ice is a positive The human-induced increase in the amount of carbon
feedback mechanism that reinforces global warming. dioxide in the atmosphere has some serious implications for
▼ Figure 20.36  The pH
The area covered by Arctic sea ice when it reaches ocean chemistry and for marine life. Recent studies show
scale This is the common
its maximum extent in late winter is also declining. On that about one-third of the human-generated CO2 cur- measure of the degree
March 24, 2016, the extent of sea ice peaked at 14.5 mil- rently ends up in the oceans. This additional carbon dioxide of acidity or alkalinity
lion square kilometers (5.6 million square miles)—the lowers the ocean’s pH, making seawater more acidic. The of a solution. The scale
smallest maximum since satellite measurements started. pH scale is shown and briefly described in Figure 20.36. ranges from 0 to 14, with
Indeed, as of 2016, the 13 smallest maximums had all When atmospheric CO2 dissolves in seawater (H2O), a value of 7 indicating a
occurred in the preceding 13 years. it forms carbonic acid (H2CO3). This lowers the oceans’ solution that is neutral.
pH and changes the balance of certain chemicals found Values below 7 indicate
naturally in seawater. In fact, the oceans have already greater acidity, whereas
Permafrost  Chapter 12 included a brief discussion of
absorbed enough carbon dioxide for surface waters to numbers above 7 indicate
permanently frozen ground called permafrost that occurs
greater alkalinity. It
in large portions of the high latitudes of the Northern have experienced a pH decrease of 0.1 pH unit since
is important to note
Hemisphere. Mounting evidence indicates that the extent preindustrial times, with additional pH decrease likely
that the pH scale is
of permafrost in the Northern Hemisphere has decreased in the future. Moreover, if the current trend in carbon logarithmic; that is, each
over the past decade, as would be expected under long- dioxide emissions continues, the oceans will experience whole number increment
term warming conditions. a pH decrease of at least 0.2 pH unit by 2100—a change indicates a tenfold
Studies in Alaska show that thawing is occurring in in ocean chemistry that has not occurred for millions of difference. Thus, pH 4
interior and southern parts of the state where permafrost years. This shift toward acidity and the resulting changes is 10 times more acidic
temperatures are near the thaw point. As Arctic tempera- in ocean chemistry make it more difficult for certain than pH 5 and 100 times
tures continue to rise, some models project that near- (10 * 10) more acidic
than pH 6.
surface permafrost may be lost entirely from large parts
of Alaska by the end of the century. Carbonated Baking
Stomach soft
Thawing permafrost represents a potentially signifi- acid soda
drink Distilled Ammonia
cant positive feedback mechanism that may reinforce Lemon water
juice Tomatoes (neutral) Lye
global warming. When vegetation dies in the Arctic,
cold temperatures inhibit its decomposition. As a conse-
quence, over thousands of years, a great deal of organic
matter has become stored in the permafrost. When the 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
permafrost thaws, organic matter that may have been
frozen for millennia comes out of “cold storage” and More strongly acidic More strongly alkaline
decomposes. The result is the release of carbon dioxide
552     Essentials of Geology
marine creatures to build hard parts out of calcium car-
bonate. The decline in pH thus threatens a variety of
calcite-secreting organisms as diverse as microbes and
corals, which concerns marine scientists because of the
potential consequences for other sea life that depends on
the health and availability of these organisms.
The Potential for Surprises
You have seen that climate in the twenty-first century,
unlike during the preceding thousand years, is not
expected to be stable. Rather, change is occurring. The
amount and rate of future climate shifts depends primar-
ily on current and future human-caused emissions of
heat-trapping gases and airborne particles. Many of the
changes will probably be gradual environmental shifts,
nearly imperceptible from year to year. Nevertheless, the
effects, accumulated over decades, will have powerful
economic, social, and political consequences.
Despite our best efforts to understand future climate
shifts, there is also the potential for surprises: Due to the
complexity of Earth’s climate system, we might experi-
ence relatively sudden, unexpected changes or see some
aspects of climate shift in unanticipated ways. Many
future climate scenarios predict steadily changing condi-
tions, giving the impression that humanity will have time
to adapt. However, the scientific community has indi-
cated that at least some changes will be abrupt, perhaps
crossing a threshold, or “tipping point,” so quickly that
there will be little time to react. This is a reasonable con-
cern because abrupt changes occurring over periods as
short as decades or even years have been a natural part of
the climate system throughout Earth history. The paleo-
climate record described earlier in the chapter contains
ample evidence of such abrupt changes. For example, one
Conce p ts in R e view
Global Climate Change
20.1 Climate & Geology
List the major parts of the climate system and some connections between climate and geology.
Key Terms: weather, climate, climate system, cryosphere
• Climate is the aggregate of weather conditions for a place or region over a long period of time. Over
time, if those conditions shift (for instance, to become hotter or cooler, wetter or drier), the climate is
said to have changed.
• Earth’s climate system is a complex interchange of energy and moisture that occurs among the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, geosphere, biosphere, and cryosphere (ice, snow, permafrost). When the
climate changes, geologic processes such as weathering, mass wasting, and erosion may change
as well.
such abrupt change occurred at the end of a time span
known as the Younger Dryas, a time of abnormal cold
and drought in the Northern Hemisphere that occurred
about 12,000 years ago. Following this 1000-year-long
cold period, the Younger Dryas abruptly ended in a few
decades or less.
There are many examples of potential surprises, each
of which would have large consequences. We simply do
not know how far the climate system or other systems it
affects can be pushed before they respond in unexpected
ways. Even if the chance of any particular surprise hap-
pening is small, the chance that at least one such surprise
will occur is much greater. In other words, although we
may not know which of these events will occur, it is likely
that one or more will eventually occur.
The impact on climate of an increase in atmospheric
CO2 and trace gases is obscured by some uncertainties.
Yet climate scientists continue to improve our under-
standing of the climate system and the potential impacts
and effects of global climate change. Policymakers are
confronted with responding to the risks posed by green-
house gas emissions, knowing that our understanding
is imperfect. They must also face the fact that climate-
induced environmental changes cannot be reversed
quickly, if at all, due to the lengthy time scales associated
with the climate system.
Concept Checks 20.8
1. Describe the factors that are causing sea level to
rise.
2. Is global warming greater near the equator or
near the poles? Explain.
3. Based on Table 20.1, what projected changes
relate to something other than temperature?

20.2 Detecting Climate Change
Explain why unraveling past climate changes is important and discuss
several ways in which such changes are detected.
Key Terms: proxy data, paleoclimatology, oxygen isotope analysis
• The geologic record yields multiple kinds of indirect evidence about past
climate. These proxy data are the focus of paleoclimatology. Proxy data
can come from seafloor sediment, oxygen isotopes, cores of glacial ice, tree
rings, coral growth bands, fossil pollen, and even historical documents.
• Trees grow thicker rings in warmer, wetter years and thinner rings in colder,
drier years. The pattern of ring thickness can be matched up between trees
of overlapping ages for a long-term record of a region’s climate.
• Oxygen isotope analysis is based on the difference between heavier
18
O and lighter 16O isotopes of oxygen. Water molecules containing 16O
evaporate more readily and thus are enriched in rain, snow, and glacial
ice, leaving ocean water enriched in 18O. Consequently, the 18O/16O ratio
of ocean water rises during times of glaciation. During warm periods,
glacial ice melts, and also the difference in evaporation between 16O@
and 18O@containing water is smaller, so the 18O/16O ratio of ocean water
falls. Oxygen isotopes can be measured in the shells of fossil marine
organisms and in the water molecules that make up glacial ice. Glacial
ice also traps small samples of the atmosphere in air bubbles.
? Why might the sediment core being collected by this oceanographic
research vessel be useful to scientists studying climate change?
Gray Braasch/ZUMA Press/Newscom
20.3 Some Atmospheric Basics
Describe the composition of the atmosphere and the atmosphere’s verti-
cal changes in pressure and temperature.
Key Terms: aerosol, troposphere, radiosonde, stratosphere, mesosphere,
thermosphere
• Air is a mixture of many discrete gases, and its composition varies from
time to time and place to place. Two gases, nitrogen and oxygen, make
up 99 percent of the volume of clean, dry air. Carbon dioxide, although
present in only minute amounts (0.0400 percent, or 400 parts per
million), is an efficient absorber of energy emitted by Earth and thus
influences the heating of the atmosphere.
• Two important variable components of air are water vapor and aerosols.
Like carbon dioxide, water vapor can absorb heat given off by Earth.
Aerosols (tiny solid and liquid particles) are important because these
often invisible particles act as surfaces on which water vapor can
condense and are also good absorbers and reflectors (depending on the
particles) of incoming solar radiation.
• The atmosphere is densest closest to the surface of Earth. It thins rapidly
with increasing altitude and gradually fades off into space. Temperature
varies through a vertical section of the atmosphere. Generally,
temperatures fall with increasing altitude in the troposphere, warm with
altitude in the stratosphere, cool with altitude in the mesosphere, and
increase again in the very tenuous thermosphere.
M20_TARB6622_13_SE_C20.indd 553
Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      553
(20.3 continued)
? This graph shows changes in an atmospheric element from Earth’s
surface to a height of about 140 kilometers (90 miles). Which element
is being depicted: air pressure, humidity, or temperature? Show how
this graph is used to divide the atmosphere into layers.
90
140
80
120
70
100
60
Height (km)
Height (miles)
80 50
60
40
30
40
20
20
10
Low High
20.4 Heating the Atmosphere
Outline the basic processes involved in heating the atmosphere.
Key Terms: albedo, greenhouse effect
• Electromagnetic radiation is energy emitted in the form of rays,
or waves, called electromagnetic waves. All radiation can transmit
energy through the vacuum of space. Electromagnetic waves
have different wavelengths. Visible light is the only portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum we can see. Some of the basic laws that
govern radiation as it heats the atmosphere are (1) all objects emit
radiant energy, (2) hotter objects radiate more total energy than do
colder objects, (3) the hotter the radiating object, the shorter the
wavelength of maximum radiation, and (4) objects that are good
absorbers of radiation are good emitters as well. Gases are selective
absorbers, meaning that each specific type of gas absorbs and emits
certain wavelengths but not others.
• Approximately 50 percent of the solar energy that strikes the top of the
atmosphere reaches Earth’s surface. About 30 percent is reflected back
to space. The remaining 20 percent that does not reach Earth’s surface
is absorbed by clouds and the atmosphere’s gases. The amount of solar
energy that is absorbed (versus reflected or scattered) depends on its
wavelengths and on the size and nature of the absorbing or reflecting
substance.
• Radiant energy that is absorbed heats Earth and eventually is reradiated
skyward. Because Earth has a much lower surface temperature than the
Sun, its radiation is in the form of long-wave infrared radiation. Because
certain atmospheric gases, primarily water vapor and carbon dioxide, can
absorb long-wave radiation, the atmosphere is heated from the ground
up. The transmission of short-wave solar radiation by the atmosphere,
coupled with the selective absorption of Earth’s long-wave radiation
by atmospheric gases, results in the warming of the atmosphere and is
called the greenhouse effect.
11/11/16 1:19 PM
 554     Essentials of Geology

20.5 Natural Causes of Climate Change 20.7 Climate Feedback Mechanisms

Discuss hypotheses that relate to natural causes of climate change.
Key Term: sunspot
• The natural functions of the Earth system produce climate change. The
position of lithospheric plates can influence the climate of the continents
as well as oceanic circulation. Variations in the shape of Earth’s orbit,
angle of axial tilt, and orientation of the axis all cause changes in the
distribution of solar energy.
• Volcanic aerosols act like a sunshade, screening out a portion of
incoming solar radiation. Volcanic sulfur dioxide emissions that reach the
stratosphere are particularly important. Combined with water to form tiny
droplets of sulfuric acid, these aerosols can remain aloft for several years.
• Volcanoes emit carbon dioxide. During times of especially large
eruptions, such as those that produced oceanic lava plateaus during the
Cretaceous period, volcanic emissions of carbon dioxide may contribute
to the greenhouse effect sufficiently to cause global warming.
• Since Earth’s climate is fueled by solar energy, variations in the Sun’s
energy output affect Earth temperatures. Sunspots are dark features on
the surface of the Sun associated with periods of increased solar energy
output. The number of sunspots rises and drops throughout an 11-year
cycle. During the peak of the cycle, the Sun puts out about 0.1 percent
more energy than during the lowest part of the cycle. This small cyclical
effect is not correlated with the current episode of global warming.
Contrast positive and negative feedback mechanisms and provide
­examples of each.
Key Terms: climate feedback mechanism, positive feedback mechanism,
negative feedback mechanism
• A change in one part of the climate system may trigger changes in
other parts of the climate system that amplify or diminish the initial
effect. These climate feedback mechanisms are called positive feedback
mechanisms if they reinforce the initial change and negative feedback
mechanisms if they counteract the initial effect.
• An example of a positive feedback mechanism is the melting of sea
ice due to global warming. A decrease in sea ice exposes more low-
albedo open water, which increases warming, which causes more sea
ice to melt, and so forth. Cloud production can constitute a negative
feedback mechanism: Warming increases evaporation, which leads to the
formation of more clouds, which causes cooling.
• Computer models of climate give scientists a tool for testing hypotheses
about climate change. Although these models are simpler than the real
climate system, they are useful tools for predicting the future climate.
? This ice breaker is plowing through sea ice in the Arctic Ocean.
What spheres of the climate system are represented in this photo?
How has the area covered by summer sea ice been changing since
satellite monitoring began in 1979? How does this change influence
temperatures in the Arctic?

20.6 Human Impact on Global Climate

Summarize the nature and cause of the atmosphere’s changing compo-
sition since about 1750. Describe the climate’s response.
Key Terms: trace gases, black carbon

• Humans have been modifying the environment for thousands of years.

Clearing or burning ground cover and overgrazing land have changed

Wolfgang Bechtold/Imagebroker/Alamy
important climatic factors such as surface albedo, evaporation rates, and
surface winds.
• Human activities produce climate change by releasing carbon dioxide
(CO2) and trace gases. Humans release CO2 when they cut down forests
or burn fossil fuels such as coal, oil, and natural gas. A steady rise in
atmospheric CO2 levels has been documented at Mauna Loa, Hawaii,
and other locations around the world.
• More than half of the carbon released by humans is absorbed by new
plant matter or dissolved in the oceans. About 45 percent remains in
the atmosphere, where it can influence climate for decades. Air bubbles
trapped in glacial ice reveal that there is currently about 30 percent
more CO2 than the atmosphere has contained in the past 800,000 years.
20.8 Some Consequences of Global Warming
Summarize some of the possible consequences of global warming.
• As a result of extra heat retained by added CO2, Earth’s atmosphere has
warmed by about 1°C (1.8°F) since the late 1800s, most of it since 1980. • In the future, Earth’s surface temperature is likely to continue to rise.
The temperature increase will likely be greatest in the polar regions and
Temperatures are projected to increase by another 2°C to 4.5°C (3.5°F
least in the tropics. Some areas will get drier, and other areas will get
to 8.1°F) in the future.
wetter.
• Trace gases such as methane, nitrous oxide, and CFCs also play
significant roles in increasing global temperature. • Sea level is predicted to rise for several reasons, including the melting
of glacial ice and thermal expansion. (A given mass of seawater takes up
• When emitted due to human activities, tiny liquid and solid particles more volume when it is warm than when it is cool.) Low-lying, gently
suspended in the air, called aerosols, have an effect on global climate. sloped coastal areas (which are often highly populated) are most at risk.
Many aerosols reflect a portion of incoming solar radiation back to space
and therefore have a cooling effect. Some aerosols, called black carbon, • The extent and thickness of sea ice in the Arctic have been declining
since satellite observations began in 1979.
absorb incoming solar radiation and warm the atmosphere. When black
carbon is deposited on snow and ice, it reduces surface albedo and • Because of the warming of the Arctic, permafrost is melting, releasing
increases the amount of light absorbed at the surface. CO2 and methane to the atmosphere in a positive feedback loop.
? Do aerosols spend more or less time in the atmosphere than • Because the climate system is complicated, dynamic, and imperfectly
greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide? What is the significance understood, it could produce sudden, unexpected changes with little
of this difference in residence time? Explain. warning.

M20_TARB6622_13_SE_C20.indd 554 11/11/16 1:19 PM

 Chapter 20      Global Climate Change      555

G ive It Some Thoug ht

1 Refer to Figure 20.1, which illustrates various components of Earth’s 6 Motor vehicles are a
climate system. The boxed labels represent interactions or changes significant source of
that occur in the climate system. Select three of these boxes and CO2. Using electric cars,
provide an example of an interaction or change associated with each. such as the one pictured
Explain how these interactions may influence temperature. here, is one way to
2 When this weather balloon was reduce emissions from
launched, the surface air tempera- this source. Even though
ture was 17°C. The balloon is now these vehicles emit little
at an altitude of 1 kilometer. What or no CO2 or other air
term is applied to the instrument pollutants directly into
package being carried aloft by the air, can they still be
David Pearson/Alamy
the balloon? In what layer of the connected to such emis-
atmosphere is the balloon? If aver- sions? If so, explain.
age conditions prevail, what is the 7 During a conversation, an acquaintance indicates that he is skeptical
air temperature at this altitude? about global warming. When you ask him why he feels that way, he
How did you figure this out? says, “The past couple of years in this area have been among the cool-
3 Figure 20.15 shows that about est I can remember.” While you assure this person that it is useful to
30 percent of the Sun’s energy question scientific findings, you suggest to him that his reasoning in
this case may be flawed. Use your understanding of the definition of

David R. Frazier/Science Source

intercepted by Earth is reflected
or scattered back to space. If climate along with one or more graphs in the chapter to persuade this
Earth’s albedo were to increase to person to reevaluate his reasoning.
50 percent, how would you expect 8 A 2015 report by the National Research Council recommends that cli-
Earth’s average surface tempera- mate intervention research be conducted to explore strategies to help
ture to change? Explain. offset global warming. One strategy would involve injecting aerosols
4 Volcanic events, such as the erup- into the stratosphere.
tions of El Chichón and Mount a. Explain how such an aerosol strategy might influence global warming.
Pinatubo, have been associated with drops in global temperatures. b. What natural cause of climate change operates on the same princi-
During the Cretaceous period, volcanic activity was associated with ple as the one you describe in your answer to Part a?
global warming. Explain the apparent paradox. 9 This large cattle feedlot is in the Texas panhandle. How might consum-
5 The accompany- ing less beef influence global climate change?
ing photo is a 2005
view of Athabasca
Glacier in the Cana-
dian Rockies. A line
of boulders in the
foreground marks
the outer limit of the
glacier in 1992. Is the
behavior of Athabasca
Glacier shown in this
Hughrocks

image typical of other

glaciers around the
world? Describe a
significant impact of
such behavior.

Glow Images

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