Chronostratigraphic Framework and Depositional Environments in The Organic-Rich, Mudstone-Dominated Eagle Ford Group, Texas, USA

Sedimentology (2018) doi: 10.1111/sed.
12437
Chronostratigraphic framework and depositional environments

in the organic-rich, mudstone-dominated Eagle Ford Group,
Texas, USA
D A N I E L M I N I S I N I , J A M E S E L D R E T T 1 , S T E V E N C . B E R G M A N 2 and R O B F O R K N E R 3
Shell Technological Center, Houston 3333 South HW 6, 77082 Houston, TX, USA
(E-mail: daniel.minisini@shell.com)
ABSTRACT
Since the beginning of the century, several authors have hypothesized and
documented the presence of bottom currents during the deposition of mud-
stones, including mudstones rich in organic matter, challenging the assump-
tion that persistent low-energy conditions are necessary prerequisites for
deposition of such sediments. More processes responsible for transport and
deposition of mudstones mean also more processes acting contemporaneously
in different parts of a basin. Without a precise and robust chronostratigraphic
framework, however, it is not possible to characterize these differences. The
new data reported here provide a profoundly different understanding of the
controls on sedimentation in distal continental shelf platforms. To enhance
the understanding of the different coeval environments of deposition coexist-
ing in a muddy system, the Upper Cretaceous Eagle Ford Group, deposited on
the Comanche carbonate platform, has been investigated by integrating sedi-
mentology, mineralogy, geochemistry and palaeoecology, and creating age
models in different physiographic sectors using biostratigraphy and
geochronology. Data from two cores and 41 outcrops were analysed with a
telescopic approach, from grain scale to basin scale. Nine temporal stages
over a ca 8 Myr interval (ca 98 to 90 Ma) were defined in an area that spans
75 000 km2. Finally, the different environments of deposition recorded
within each of the nine stages were interpreted. The construction of the
chronostratigraphic framework also allowed: measuring the duration of a
basin-wide gradational increase in energy in the water column (ca 1 Myr) and
a hiatus confined into the shallower water sector (ca 2 Myr); determining the
mean eruption frequency of volcanoes (ca 9 kyr); and the time of inundation
of the Western Interior Seaway (975 to 971 Ma). The context, the outcrops–
cores–logs correlations, the large data set (Appendix S1), the high-precision
and well-calibrated constraints represent an unprecedented contribution for
future regional facies models of organic-rich units and for improvements of
key aspects in the industry of unconventional resources.
Keywords Black shale, chronostratigraphy, Eagle Ford, facies, mudstone,
Oceanic Anoxic Event, Texas, total organic carbon.
1
Present address: Shell International Exploration & Production B.V, Kesslerpark 1, 2288 GS Rijswijk, the Nether-
lands
2
Present address: SCB GeoSciences, 20625 Chautauqua Beach Rd, SW, Vashon, WA 98070, USA
3
Present address: Statoil RDI Research Center, Austin, TX 78730, USA
© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists 1

2 D. Minisini et al.
INTRODUCTION lateral extent atop the Upper Cretaceous

Comanche platform allows investigation of the
In the last 10 years, geologists have better recog- rock record incorporating a precise astronomi-
nized that the integration of independent disci- cally tuned age model and regional bentonite
plines is key to moving a step further in the timelines. Furthermore, the Eagle Ford Group
understanding of mudstone depositional envi- includes the Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 which also
ronments. The reasons for reinvigoration are allows investigation of the rock record during a
complex but are broadly related to their role as period when large portions of the marine realm
palaeoclimate archives and their relationship became depleted in oxygen and, as a conse-
with climate change, their role as unconven- quence, were prone to preserving organic matter
tional reservoirs and their relationship with (e.g. Jenkyns, 2010; Eldrett et al., 2014). The
hydrocarbon production, as well as, more obli- study area covers 75 000 km2 where 41 outcrops
quely, their presence on Mars and their relation- and two cores ‘behind the outcrop’ were anal-
ship with extraterrestrial water. ysed (Fig. 1). The aims are to build a robust
The extent of lithofacies variability in mud- chronostratigraphic framework at basin scale
stones is poorly known compared with that in within which to reconstruct the lateral variability
sandstones and carbonates, because their inher- in depositional environments and sedimentary
ent variability at small and very small length processes, and to highlight the significance of
scales is not straightforward to characterize (the hiatuses within the rock record, through a multi-
range of scales is as follows: <10 mm for beds, disciplinary approach which includes data
<1 mm for laminae, <625 lm for grains and derived from classical physical sedimentology,
<10 lm for pores). As a consequence, detailed mineralogy, biostratigraphy, palaeoecology,
interpretations of mudstones are mostly excluded geochronology and geochemistry. To reach these
from sophisticated, regional facies models. Fur- aims the basin-wide data set is first presented,
thermore, the studies on organic-rich mudstones followed by an integrated age model and facies
are mainly based on single geographically iso- description following timelines, and finally the
lated small areas, namely a single core (Stein data are discussed assessing their spatial and
et al., 1986; Hickey & Henk, 2007; Voigt et al., temporal distributions.
2008; Trabucho-Alexandre et al., 2012; K€ onitzer It is proposed that reconstruction of this depo-
et al., 2014) or outcrop (Ghadeer & Macquaker, sitional history would greatly benefit the geo-
2012; Harazim & McIlroy, 2015). Where authors science community involved in hydrocarbon
have considered multiple areas (Baudin et al., source rocks studies by providing tools to better
1998; Macquaker et al., 2010a; Al Balushi & Mac- predict facies distribution and source rock attri-
quaker, 2011 – in outcrops; Voigt et al., 2008 – in butes (for example, physical and mechanical
cores; Leckie & Singh, 1990; Hendrix Marc et al., properties). It is also predicted that this integrated
1995 – in outcrop and core), the lack of suffi- high-precision chronostratigraphic framework
ciently precise and robust chronostratigraphic will contribute a foundation for further studies
frameworks, as well as a lack of understanding of analysing deeper relationships among coeval
the completeness of the stratigraphic record, has facies of the Eagle Ford Group, and provide a
precluded accurate stratigraphic correlations to standard for future studies on environments of
adequately constrain lateral facies variability at mudstone deposition and related sedimentary
basin scale in order to describe the relationships processes.
among different depositional environments and
processes (biological, oceanographic, sedimento-
logical and geochemical) that operate to create, GEOLOGICAL CONTEXT
disperse and preserve mud and organic matter in
different parts of a basins. Note that a few excep-
Tectonic context
tions exist to these generalizations (e.g. T€anav-
suu-Milkeviciene & Frederick Sarg, 2012; Plint & Basement rocks in south-west Texas include
Macquaker, 2013; Gambacorta et al., 2014). Proterozoic and Palaeozoic Grenville and Oua-
To shed light upon the depositional history chita orogenic rocks resulting from continental
and the lateral variability in organic-rich lithofa- collisions. Following the assembly of the super-
cies, the Eagle Ford Group, in south-west Texas continent Pangea during Permian times, the
(USA) has been investigated. The Eagle Ford study area experienced subtle effects of rifting
Group is a natural laboratory because its wide between the North and South American
© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology
B
0 km 50 km 100 km
USA
Mexico
A
0 km 100 km 200 km 300 km 400 km 500 km Mexico USA
B
Fig. 3
Mexico USA

Fig. 1. Area of study showing the location of outcrops (blue benchmarks) and cores (yellow pins); associated coordinates are in Table S1 and lithologs in
Figs S3 to S14. An interactive map is loaded in Google Maps. ‘Shallow’, ‘mid’ and ‘deep’ refer to indicative relative palaeo water depths.
Chronostratigraphy and environments of Eagle Ford
3
4
D. Minisini et al.
Comanche Plaorm Comanche Plaorm
DR
BB SMA
Lower Cenomanian Middle Cenomanian

(98·6 Ma) (95·8 Ma)
Shallow marine & ﬂuvial sandstone Siliceous mudstone Nodular limestone Calcareous mudstone
Siltstone Non-calcareous mudstone Muddy limestone Limestone and calcareous mudstone
Silty and sandy mudstone
Fig. 2. Palaeogeographic maps of early Cenomanian (deposition of Buda Limestone) and late Cenomanian (lower Eagle Ford deposition) showing: location
of cores Innes-1 and Iona-1, outcrops in Del Rio area (DR), in Big Bend area (BB) and in San Marcos Arch area (SMA; modified from Ron Blakey and the

Colorado Plateau Geosys-tems Inc).
W E
Conia.
9
DR18 DR11 DR13 DR21 Austin Chalk SA1,2,3,4 AU1-2
90·2
8
90·8
L. Tur.
7
92·0
M. Tur.
6
E. Tur.
94·4
DR12 DR14
DR6
5
upper Eagle Ford
94·7
BB2
core DR5
L. Cen.
Innes-1
DR15
DR22
Austin
Austin
4
DR19
DR1
upper E
Chalk agle Ford
M. Cen.
DR7
96·5
lower E
DR26
3
agle Ford
lower Eagle Ford

97·1
Buda Core
Cw Iona-1 Buda
E. Cen.
1
CL Limestone
J Limestone
D
Ma
H
C
Stages
E
Geol. stages
D
J
C
Jnod M
TUV
22 m G
28 m
8 cm 34 m
44 m E
50 m
65 m
78 m
83 m
Buda

Fig. 3. Simplified regional cross-section with the stratigraphic location of outcrops and cores (not to scale); see Fig. 1 for location on map; Iona-1 core
shows ages and number of stages described in the text. In a broad sense, colours represent the distribution of typical association of facies (see pictures of
outcrops, on the right, and Innes-1 core, on the left, with letters referring to facies codes shown in Table 1). Supplemental Information provides a high-reso-
lution correlation panel (Fig. S1) and detailed logs of all measured outcrop sections (Figs S3 to S14).
5
STAGE 9
STAGE 8
STAGE 7
STAGE 6
STAGE 5
STAGE 4
STAGE 3
STAGE 2
STAGE 1
ALBIAN
CONIACIAN TURONIAN CENOMANIAN
E Lt M E Lt M E
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101
–60
–50
4c
–40 BB2
mk
3c
yr
–30
–
1
ky
r
–1
–20
2
cm
ky
–10 T15
–1
r
SMA 1·
5c
T14
(AU1-2) T13 m
ky –
0 1c
m
r 1
kyr –1
Depth from ground surface (metres)
10
20
T2A Sediment
30 accumulation rate
T1
40
Innes-1
50 T3 T4
T5
60 T6
70 T7
T8B T8A
T9
80 T10 T11
90 Iona-1
100 T12
110
Buda Limestone
Austin Chalk
120
130
C-T boundary
140
Mid Cenom. Event
150
Round Down
X-bentonite
Bridgewick
Navigation
160
Mid dixoni
Hitch Wood
‘Pewsey’
Lulworth
Holywell
OAE-2
Glynde
170
180
89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101
Age (Myr)
Fig. 4. Age-depth profiles of Innes-1 core, Iona-1 core, BB2 outcrop and AU1/AU2 outcrop. Profiles are based on
integration of isotopes, biostratigraphy and U/Pb dating of bentonites, in turn constrained by the astronomical age
model in Eldrett et al. (2015a). Names in the lower part are isotope events based on Eldrett et al. (2015a); green
bands are peaks; orange bands are troughs in the isotope curve. Locations of bentonites on the plot (orange
squares) refer to preferred interpretation age (detailed data set provided in Table S7). To be consistent with the
Iona-1 curve, the date 908 Ma for the bentonite Q (B1B in Eldrett et al., 2015a) is used also in Innes-1, instead of
912 Ma (T2B in this study).

E. Con 9 Austin Chalk
90·2 M26
BENTON.
M25 8 M M Cw M Q
90·8
L. Tur P
7 M Jnod M biot ms
M M South Bosque
92·0 M23 M M
M. Tur
6 biot ms-lm
E. Tur nodular D
M22
C
94·4 M19 B
A
L. Cen 5 J, C
94·7 M16
M Bouldin Flags
M11 X
M. Cen Cloice
4 G D,E
H C,D ls-ms
Pepper
96·5 M5 M
Pink
3 x-lam G M M
E. Cen
M M
M0
E
97·1
M0
2
97·5
1 Buda Limestone ?
98·2
AGE Ma STAGES BB2 INNES-1 DR5 DR26 IONA-1 AU2
RELATIVE
NOT IN SCALE PALEO

WATER
DEPTH
West East
Fig. 5. Time-space diagram of the lithostratigraphy shown in Fig. 3 (not in scale). Time is 8 Myr (from early Cenomanian to early Coniacian), space is
500 km (from Big Bend to San Marcos Arch). Letters indicate facies shown in Table 1, ‘ls-ms’ means limestone–marlstone couplets. See Fig. 1 for location
of cores and outcrops.

7
8
FACIES G
A B
D. Minisini et al.
8 cm 8 cm
DR5 (4·60 m above Buda) and INNES (76·00-76·20 m)
C D
IONA 139·27 m 2 cm
DR5 (5·90 m above Buda) 20 cm IONA 134·70 m 2 cm 8 cm
F G
IONA 139·27 m
BB2, 4·60 m 20 cm IONA 149·60-·64 m 10 cm

Chronostratigraphy and environments of Eagle Ford 9
Fig. 6. Facies G (carbonate-cement radiolarian-bearing mudstone). (A) Images at same scale, arrows indicate corre-
lation of centimetre-thick beds from outcrop DR5 to Innes-1 core (15 km apart), note that beds with hummocky
cross-stratification and bioclastic lags (dark beds between HCS have up to 14% TOC, see Fig. 10G). (B) Erosional
base, internal truncations, low-angle ripples, fining-upward grain size and thinning-upward bedding. (C) Lime-
stone bed with internal truncations (see yellow dots). (D) CT-scan images showing a rare case of unbroken macro-
fossils. (E) Thin section showing radiolarians (yellow arrows) and calcite-cemented background. (F) Facies Gnod
in outcrop. (G) Facies Gnod in a 360° picture of the unsplit core, vertical exaggeration 29, early cementation
determines laminaset thickness (note bentonite at base). Annotations indicate outcrop/core and depth in the strati-
graphic section.
continents from the Late Triassic into the Early Ford Group was deposited on the broad
Cretaceous (ca 230 to 130 Ma); this rifting was Comanche platform and its intrashelf basins in
followed by the Middle Jurassic opening and Cre- shallow (<100 to 200 m), open marine waters
taceous to Cenozoic subsidence of the Gulf of (Smith, 1970), in a distal sediment-starved set-
Mexico resulting in regional south-eastward tilt- ting hundreds of kilometres from the shoreline.
ing. During the rifting and passive margin Only the sector near the San Marcos Arch palaeo-
phases, the area of study was part of the high, affected by the Llano uplift, recorded sub-
Comanche carbonate platform. Mid to Late Creta- aerial exposure and/or very shallow water during
ceous thrust loading, associated with the Sevier most of the Eagle Ford Group time (Young,
and Laramide Orogenies (ca 100 to 85 Ma and 75 1986).
to 45 Ma, respectively), and the greater Cordil-
leran retro-arc fold and thrust belt contributed to
Stratigraphic context
the development of a >3000 km long foreland
basin: the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway The Eagle Ford Group is separated into informal
(KWIS; Sageman & Arthur, 1994; Fig. 2), an epi- formations and members, whose names and con-
continental sea with bottom slopes dipping 0001 tacts depend on authors, locations and proxies
to 0005° (Schieber, 2016a). Fold and thrust belts, used to differentiate them (see Lowery et al.,
locally named the Sierra Madre Occidental 2014, and references therein). In the study area,
(McDowell & Clabaugh, 1979), and foredeeps, the Eagle Ford Group consists of Boquillas For-
locally named the Chihuahua Trough (DeFord, mation, Eagle Ford Formation, Pepper Shale,
1969; Phelps et al., 2014), developed until Cloice Shale, Bouldin Flags and South Bosque
Eocene times along the inboard side of the Shale. The Eagle Ford Group is also equivalent to
Cordilleran magmatic arc (e.g. Dickinson, 2004; the Agua Nueva and Tamabra formations to the
Yonkee & Weil, 2015). During their Cretaceous west; the Benton Shale, Indianola Group, Mancos
evolution, they were influenced by the subduc- and Colorado shales to the north-west; and the
tion of the conjugate oceanic plateau to the Tokio and Tuskaloosa formations to the east (Pes-
Shatsky Rise (Liu et al., 2010) and dynamic sagno, 1969). In the outcrop belt, the Eagle Ford
topography from the subducting Farallon Group is thermally immature (vitrinite reflec-
Plate (Liu, 2014). During the Mid to Late tance values of 038 to 054%, Sun et al., 2016)
Cretaceous, the thrust belt generated broad ramp- and is composed of calcareous mudstone with
shelves with reactivated basement defining intra- some clay (herein marlstone) rhythmically
shelf basins, such as the Maverick Basin (Winter, interbedded with limestones and bentonites
1961), and structural highs, such as the Terrell (Eldrett et al., 2015a,b). Most of the Eagle Ford
Arch (Adkins, 1932), while the magmatic arc in rocks have carbonate contents above 50%, with
the Peninsular Ranges and Sierra Nevada pro- the exception of bentonitic lithofacies. The Eagle
duced intrusive batholiths and plutons (Gilluly, Ford Group thickness laterally varies by nearly
1965) and caldera plinian eruptions (Elder, two orders of magnitude, ranging from ca 120 m
1988). The Eagle Ford Group was deposited in in the Maverick Basin to few metres around the
the Cenomanian and Turonian at the southern San Marcos Arch (Fig. 2). The lithostratigraphic
confluence of the KWIS and thermally subsiding boundary between the lower and the upper Eagle
Gulf of Mexico in a relatively quiescent tectonic Ford Group, as defined by industrial standards,
setting during a widespread marine transgres- consists of abrupt changes in: Gamma Ray inten-
sion, part of a third-order eustatic cycle (Kauff- sity (decreasing upward), marlstone:limestone
man, 1984). In most of the study area, the Eagle ratio (5:1 in the lower, 3:1 in the upper),
10
FACIES E
A
2 cm
D. Minisini et al.
DR 5 (10 m above Buda = ca. 70·10 m in INNES)
B
E
TUV
C
G
INNES 70·40 m 2 cm
E 50 cm
IONA 145·45 m 5 mm
DR12 (13-14 m) and INNES 48-49 m

IONA 148·22 m

Fig. 7. Facies E (sand-bearing, silt-rich mudstone). (A) Ripple in outcrop DR5 (westward palaeoflow); yellow box
suggests apparent parallel lamination similar to image (B) (A and B have the same scale, no distortion applied).
(B) Event bed in core shows laminaset (seven to nine laminae) with shell fragments on scoured base, low-angle
ripples and, in the upper part, bioturbation (compare with event bed reworking volcaniclastic material, Fig. 9H).
(C) Thin section with discernable low-angle ripple. (D) Low-angle ripple presenting coarse laminae made of fora-
minifera. (E) Images at the same scale showing correlation of centimetre-thick beds from outcrop DR12 to Innes-1
core (11 km apart); arrows show facies (‘E’ sand-bearing, silt-rich mudstone, ‘G’ carbonate-cement radiolarian-
bearing mudstone, ‘C’ silt-bearing, clay-rich mudstone, ‘TUV’ bentonite).
bioturbation (subtle in the lower, evident and Arch area between San Antonio and Austin [SA
conspicuous in the upper), total organic carbon and AU; Fig. 2, coordinates in Table S1 and Goo-
(TOC; 12 to 5% in the lower, 2 to 4% in the gle Maps (https://www.google.com/maps/d/edit?
upper) and several other features as described mid=z6CWkT0XEdt4.kYUdQSIWu2TQ&usp=sha
below. The boundary coincides with a pro- ring)]. Circa 1043 hand specimens for laboratory
nounced positive carbon isotope excursion, studies were collected and, in 2012, two research
known as Oceanic Anoxic Event 2 (OAE-2), cores were drilled behind the outcrops recovering
reflecting the sequestration, at global scale, of the entire Eagle Ford Group (Innes-1 and Iona-1,
12
C-enriched organic matter in marine sediments Fig. 2). The outcrops analysed cover an east–west
(Jenkyns, 2010) and probably related to submar- distance of 500 km, with the bulk of the data
ine Large Igneous Province volcanism (Scaife et derived from a 100 km stretch along Highway 90
al., 2017). between Del Rio and Dryden. Outcrop images
The Eagle Ford Group underlies the Austin were collected using Gigapan (see Appendix S1)
Chalk, characterized by thick and massive and LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging; Min-
blocky limestone beds interbedded with extre- isini et al., 2014). Outcrops were scanned to
mely thin grey marlstone and bentonites (Whit- determine contents of potassium (K), uranium
ney, 1974). The Eagle Ford Group overlies the (U) and thorium (Th) using a hand-held Gamma
Buda Limestone on an erosional unconformity; Ray spectrometer (RS-230; Terraplus Inc., Rich-
the Buda Limestone is a highly bioturbated unit, mond Hill, ON, Canada) to compare with the core
ca 20 m thick. Data and interpretations of the and well Spectral Gamma Ray logs. Note that out-
Buda Limestone and the Austin Chalk are crop sections are mostly extensively weathered
reported in Appendix S1. The Buda Limestone having experienced oxidized meteoric waters,
overlies the Del Rio Formation, a mudstone whereas the cores are only weathered in the top
highly variable in thickness, reflecting the fact few metres, thus providing high-quality samples
that it filled the irregular topography of the Stu- for a variety of analyses. Both cores were scanned
art City carbonate platform (Smith, 1981). with a CT-scanner and imaged with 360° photo-
Because it might be useful for future projects, graphy and, after slabbing, with high-resolution
this study has recognized a volcanic component visible and ultraviolet (UV) photography to better
in the Del Rio Formation, characterized by smec- recognize lithofacies (see Fig. S20). A SuperBrite-
tite–illite clay minerals, anomalously high Th in II hand-held UV-wave lamp (UV Systems Inc.,
the spectral Gamma Ray (>10 to 20 ppm) and Renton, WA, USA) was used to assist in ben-
euhedral zircons that yield Early Cenomanian tonite identification in cores. Polished thin sec-
ages in its upper part (993 02 Ma, bentonite tions of representative lithofacies were prepared
T12); the Del Rio Formation is interpreted in to obtain details on their fabric, composition and
this study as dominantly reworked volcanic ash. diagenesis. Micropalaeontology, nannopalaeon-
tology and palynology were analysed for correla-
tion and palaeoenvironmental reconstructions.
MATERIALS, METHODS AND This study also used: differential combustion to
LOCATIONS measure the organic carbon contents, X-ray
diffraction to obtain the mineralogy of the sam-
During nine field campaigns in south-west Texas ples, mass spectrometry to determine 13C/12C iso-
from 2010 to 2014, 41 outcrops exposing Ceno- tope ratios on both organic and inorganic
manian to Coniacian strata have been described: carbonate fractions in order to create global corre-
35 in the vicinity of the towns of Del Rio and lations, U/Pb Chemical Abrasion Isotope Dilution
Langtry (designated DR), one in the Big Bend Thermal Ionization Mass Spectrometry to deter-
National Park (BB) and five in the San Marcos mine absolute ages from zircons. Additional
12
FACIES C and D
A B C
C
D
D. Minisini et al.
* * 2 cm
D
D H
C
8 cm 8 cm
INNES
61-62·20 m DR5 (12-13 m) IONA 130·40-130·60 m 2 cm
IONA 113·42 m (D)
D E F G
*
10·6% TOC
C
INNES 79·75 m 2 cm 2 cm IONA 148·21 m (C) IONA 148·22 m (D)

Fig. 8. Facies C (silt-bearing, clay-rich mudstone) and D (sand and clay-bearing, silt-rich mudstone). (A) Images
at the same scale showing correlation of centimetre-thick beds from outcrop DR5 to Innes-1 core (15 km apart),
note the alternation of recessive carbonate-poor (Facies C) and prominent carbonate-rich beds (Facies D), ben-
tonites (Facies TUV) create the most recessive strata (yellow asterisk). (B) Alternation of Facies C and D, note the
diffuse contacts of laminae and the presence of discontinuous laminae. (C) CT-scan showing irregular clasts in
facies D. (D) Facies C with 106% TOC and erosional base that indicates bypass event occurring before deposition
of Facies C. (E) CT-scan showing debris in facies C. (F) Thin section of facies C presents mainly scattered pelagic
foraminifera, coccolith-rich pellets, organic matter stringers and rare fish bones floating in a matrix composed of
clay-sized material, including calcite and amorphous organic matter. (G) and (H) Thin sections of facies D pre-
sents aligned and matrix-supported pelagic foraminifera and calcareous shell fragments of different sizes that
determine the diffuse contacts of the laminae, matrix is mainly characterized by clay-sized material, including cal-
cite (both as cement and coccoliths).
information on the field areas and the methods regionally and globally recognized age diagnos-
mentioned above are provided in Appendix S1. tic biostratigraphic, geochemical and carbon iso-
To refine the understanding of the deposi- topic events. These analyses, combined with
tional evolution, lithologies were divided into U/Pb zircon ages from 10 bentonites, provided
terms of basic composition (limestone, marl- constraints for the astrochronological age model
stone and bentonite) and facies (sensu Walker, developed for the Iona-1 core (Eldrett et al.,
1992; James & Dalrymple, 2010) were defined 2015a). This astronomically tuned age model
according to sedimentological and petrographic was used to calibrate the age diagnostic bio-
characteristics. However, in outcrops, extensive stratigraphic and isotopic events recorded
weathering and fewer available thin sections within the studied sections, and then, it was
made the recognition of some of the facies iden- applied to the basin-wide stratigraphic frame-
tified in the cores challenging. In fact, only six work created through the correlations of out-
outcrop facies could be discriminated and asso- crops and cores (Fig. 3 and Fig. S1).
ciated with those described in the cores (see Furthermore, over 290 bentonites have been rec-
Figs 6 to 10, and Figs S2 and S16 to S18). ognized in the Eagle Ford Group, contributing
After a basic interpretation assigning sedimen- ca 5% of the stratigraphic thickness and provid-
tary processes to each facies, a high-precision ing regional timelines for correlation. In addi-
(004 Myr) and robust chronostratigraphic tion to the 10 bentonites from Iona-1, another 14
framework was developed, through the integra- bentonites from the outcrops and Innes-1 were
tion of biostratigraphy, geochronology, analysed to provide absolute age calibration
astrochronology and isotopic records. Then, the (Table S7). The high-resolution correlation
time frame was subdivided into nine stages, cap- between cores (Fig. 11 and Appendix S1 ‘Strati-
turing the main variations affecting the rock graphic Correlations’), the calibration events
record. Finally, within each stage, a description (Markers from M0 to M26, Tables S2 and S3),
of how the facies associated with one another was the regional stratigraphic framework (Fig. 3 and
assembled, including the integration of palaeo- Figs S1 to S14) and the age model (Fig. 4)
ecology, geochemistry and other sedimento- allowed the creation of a robust chronostrati-
logical elements, such as bed geometries, graphic framework for the Eagle Ford Group and
palaeocurrents and trends of vertical thickening its bounding formations at basin scale (Fig. 5).
of beds (Facies section). The aim of the integra-
tion by stages is to deduce the different coeval
Facies
depositional environments that characterized the
basin during its infill history (Basin evolution sec- The facies nomenclature is based on textural
tion). attributes, grain size and mineralogy of the rock,
similar to the scheme presented by Macquaker &
Adams (2003) (Figs 6 to 10 and Figs S16 to S18;
RESULTS see Table 1 for synthesis and Appendix S1 sec-
tion ‘Eagle Ford Facies’ for extensive descrip-
tion). The Bioturbation Index (BI) is based on
Chronostratigraphic framework
Taylor & Goldring (1993). The stratigraphic dis-
The chronostratigraphic framework of the stud- tributions and TOC contents of the facies are
ied sections is based on an integrated suite of shown in Fig. 11, whereas their associations
14
FACIES TUV
A B C
quartz
TUV
biote
C
D. Minisini et al.
TUV
IONA 48·07 m
H
D
TUV
TUV
INNES DR5 (19·20-·70 m above Buda)
8 cm 8 cm INNES 45·13 m 2 cm
63·10-·60 m
E F G H
IONA 126·15 m 2 cm IONA 152·06 m 2 cm 2 cm IONA 97·75 m 2 cm

IONA 147·90 m

Fig. 9. Facies TUV (bentonites). (A) and (B) Images at the same scale showing correlation of centimetre-thick beds
from outcrop DR5 to Innes-1 core (15 km apart); bentonites, fluorescing under UV light, create recessive horizons
in the outcrop (often occupied by secondary precipitation of gypsum); arrows indicate facies. (C) Thin section of a
bentonite showing grains of chloritized biotite, quartz and apatite phenocrysts within clay matrix. (D) to (H) Dif-
ferent characteristics of the bentonites: bioturbated (D), homogenous (E), deformed (F), cross-laminated (G) and
laminated (H) with laminaset (nine to 11 laminae) indicating an event bed derived from reworking of volcaniclas-
tic material (compare with Fig. 7B).
with palaeoecology and geochemistry are chaotic units (Fig. S3). Silt-bearing, clay-rich
detailed in Fig. S19. mudstones (Facies C) are characterized by ero-
sive bases and high organic content (up to 14%,
Fig. 10G). The upper section lacks chaotic beds
Stages
(facies M) and shows HCS beds with reduced
The chronostratigraphic framework allows sub- wavelength (from 60 to 30 cm), reduced thick-
division of the basin evolution into nine stages. ness (from 30 to 5 cm), and embedded thicker
For the sake of brevity, this section describes marlstones (from 2 to 10 cm) consisting of silt-
only the Eagle Ford Group stages (3 to 8), bearing, clay-rich mudstone (Facies C) and sand-
whereas the stages related to the Buda Lime- bearing, silt-rich mudstone (Facies E) with iso-
stone (Stage 1), Buda–Eagle Ford unconformity lated burrows.
(Stage 2) and Austin Chalk (Stage 9) are reported In Iona-1, the first bed atop Buda shows dark
in Appendix S1. fine-grained matrix encasing centimetre-wide
rounded clasts ripped up from Buda. Above it,
Stage 3: M0 to M5 Iona-1 presents a succession of chaotic units
Stage 3 is bracketed between the base of Eagle (Facies M) that are encased in beds thinning-
Ford Group and the carbon isotope excursion of upward encased into silt-bearing, clay-rich mud-
the mid-Cenomanian Event (M0 and M5, stone (Facies C) and sand-bearing, silt-rich mud-
Table S3). In Stage 3, the Innes-1 and Del Rio stone (Facies E). In the upper section, Iona-1
outcrops present silt-bearing, clay-rich mudstone records alternations of marlstone and limestone
(Facies C, Fig. 8), sand-bearing, silt-rich mud- bedsets forming metre-thick couplets.
stone (Facies E, Fig. 7), carbonate-cement radio- Stage 3 in Del Rio outcrops, Innes-1 and Iona-
larian-bearing mudstone (Facies G, Fig. 6) and 1 all possess common elements, such as marine
chaotic beds (Facies M, Fig. 10) with high TOC bio-assemblages (i.e. phytoplankton, including
values (3% to 14%; red in Fig. 3, Gigapan 1 link planktonic foraminifera, dinoflagellate cysts,
in Appendix S1). Carbonate-cement radiolarian- prasinophyte algae and amorphous organic mat-
bearing mudstones (Facies G) are cross-lami- ter), lack of benthics and bioturbation (both
nated and include a variety of recycled bioclasts abundant in the underlying Buda), the highest
(crinoids and gastropods, both decreasing TOC values (6 to 13%), chaotic beds with TOC
upward, pelagic foraminifera and calcispheres). up to 8 to 10% (Fig. 10E), high concentration of
In the lower section, carbonate-cement radiolar- molybdenum (163 ppm) and isotopic values of
13
ian-bearing mudstone (Facies G) shows coarse- Corg, 13Ccarb and 18O aligned along the general
grained sigmoidal cross-bedding thinning in a trend of the overlying stratigraphic units
down-current direction (with a westward com- (Fig. S19). At least two basin-wide events are
ponent at least in one case) and transforming recorded in Stage 3 (but not recorded in San
up-section into beds with hummocky cross-stra- Marcos Arch): an event recycling rudists, strati-
tification (HCS), showing pre-compaction graphically constrained between the top of Buda
cementation, sharp internal truncations and and the lowermost K peak in the spectral
quasi-planar lamination. Chaotic beds (Facies Gamma Ray (Fig. S15A), and an event recycling
M) comprise breccia, ‘ball and pillow’ struc- volcaniclastic material creating tractive and ero-
tures, bent slabs and convoluted beds, locally sional features registered ca 2 m above the
associated with scours (07 to 31 m wide by 02 Buda–Eagle Ford contact and partially to fully
to 08 m deep) and imbricated boulders (maxi- dolomitized (‘Pink Bed’, Fig. S15B).
mum 1 m wide) that indicate a NNE–SSW direc- Stage 3 in Big Bend records alternations of
tion of sediment transport (Fig. S3). Uncommon marlstone and limestone bedsets, forming metre-
angular boulders of Buda Limestone float in the thick couplets. Marlstones thicken upward (from
16
FACIES M
A B C
2 cm
D. Minisini et al.
IONA 152·45
INNES 77·90-·95 m 2 cm
2 cm DR19, 2 m above Buda
E
F
1m
* * 2 cm
DR21 (21 m in litholog)
*
8·7% TOC
G
HCS * * 10·6%
TOC
MTD
HCS
20 cm
IONA 140·54-·70 m 2 cm DR5, 0-1·1 m above Buda and INNES (79·50-80·60)

Fig. 10. Facies M (chaotic units). (A) Laminated unit eroded and overlain by a breccia with millimetre-thick tabu-
lar clasts. (B) Breccia with centimetre-thick rip-up clasts. (C) and (D) Soft-sediment deformation whose contorted
beds are emphasized in plane view by the CT-scan. (E) Chaotic unit atop bentonite with high amounts of organic
matter (asterisks). (F) Chaotic unit slid onto a bentonite (asterisk). (G) Images at same scale showing correlation of
centimetre-thick beds from outcrop DR5 to Innes-1 core (15 km apart), note that MTD eroded the HCS unit; the
core preserved the HCS unit and recorded just the finest and uppermost part of the MTD; note the black horizon
with 106% TOC encased in the HCS unit deposited above the MTD.
Table 1. Facies of the Eagle Ford Group defined in cores Innes-1 and Iona-1.
Code Facies Main observations Basic interpretation Fig.
G Carbonate-cement 3 to 5 cm thick, scoured, laminated, Stacking of event beds generated by 6

radiolarian-bearing normal-graded beds forming bedsets up bottom currents during oxygenated
mudstone to 25 cm thick with contacts being periods, with mixed productive
sharp or gradational over 1 to 2 cm; surface waters with abundant
laminae, continuous or discontinuous, radiolarians and foraminifera;
may be curved non-parallel, straight where hummocky cross-stratification
parallel or wavy non-parallel; appears, deposition occurred
grains: radiolarian and pelagic foraminifera above storm-wave base
filled and/or completely replaced by
calcite; matrix: micrite
Gnod Nodular calcite As G; micrite in the centre and large calcite Similar to G, deposited during 6F, G
cement-dominated crystals in the flanks of the nodule, low sediment accumulation rate
mudstone replacement gradually decreases outward; and affected by local diagenesis
nodules pinch out over 5 to 10 cm
H Carbonate-cement Homogenous or banded, with plane contacts Formed in bypass sectors with S16
mudstone gradational over 1 to 2 cm, laminae thin low sediment accumulation rate;
downward in the lower contact and thin strongly over-printed by
upward in the upper, hints of burrows diagenetic cementation
and relict lamination in the centre of the
bed, persistent replacement by calcite
crystals, organic stringers exist among
those crystals
Hnod Nodular micritic As H; replacement consists of micrite Similar to H, deposited during S16B
mudstone low sediment accumulation rate
and affected by local diagenesis
J Burrowed sandy 5 to 35 cm thick, gradational irregular Healthiest environment for the S17B
limestone contacts over 5 to 10 cm related to benthic fauna who colonized the
bioturbation, multiple ichnofacies and substrate and whose activity, together
generations of burrows; grains: benthic with early diagenesis, obliterated
and pelagic foraminifera, calcispheres, the original sedimentary structures
radiolarians, fragments of gastropods,
crinoids, bivalves: matrix: micrite
Jnod Nodular burrowed As J; Thalassinoides ichnofacies Similar to J, deposited during low S17C
sandy limestone sediment accumulation rate and
affected by local diagenesis
C Silt-bearing, 7 to 10 cm thick, dark-grey, sharp bases, Hemipelagic deposition, potentially 8B, D
clay-rich homogenized or with subtle discontinuous on anoxic sea floor; locally,
mudstone laminae with diffuse contacts; grains: organic deposition related to suspended
matter stringers, coccolith-rich pellets, pelagic load of fluid mud layers
foraminifera, rare fish bones; matrix: clay-sized
material, including calcite, authigenic quartz,
illite, mixed-layer illite/smectite, amorphous
organic matter, pyrite
C/D Alternation of Alternation of C and D facies at centimetre Alternation of conditions 8B
C and D scale described in C and D
CL Silt-dominated, Lighter-grey, higher carbonate content, more Similar to C but deposited –

clay-rich mudstone benthic fauna and lower TOC than C in a more oxygenated
environment

Table 1. (continued)
Code Facies Main observations Basic interpretation Fig.
Cw Clay-rich mudstone As C with 3 cm thick cross-laminated As C, with periodic currents S18

with coarse beds with symmetrical ripples related to waves that left behind
cross-laminated having rounded crests and bidirectional coarse sediment; deposited in a
sandstone and unidirectional components; shallower and more bioturbated
grains: poorly sorted, fragments of environment than E, D or C
inoceramus, crinoids and oysters,
abundant calcispheres
D Sand and Stacked laminated thin beds that form Deposition characterized by high 8B
clay-bearing, 7 to 25 cm thick bedsets, laminae are straight bypass and low bed load, thus
silt-rich parallel or curved non-parallel, commonly generating discontinuous laminae;
mudstone discontinuous with diffuse contacts, some small benthic fauna moving within
scours and low-angle ripples; grains: pelagic the horizontal thickness of the
foraminifera, calcareous shell fragments, lamina bioturbated the contacts
organic stringers and coccolith-rich pellets
locally filled with organic matter; matrix:
clay-sized material, including calcite (both
as cement and coccoliths), authigenic quartz,
illite and mixed-layer illite/smectite, some
kaolinite, amorphous organic matter
and pyrite
D/E Alternation Alternation of D and E facies at centimetre Alternation of conditions –
of D and E scale described in D and E
E Sand-bearing, Stacked successions of 5 to 20 mm thick beds Deposited below storm-wave 7
silt-rich with scoured bases and continuous laminae, base; affected by pulses of
mudstone straight parallel or curved non-parallel, some enhanced bottom-current
scours and low-angle ripples; grains: activity recycling pellets and
pelagic foraminifera, coccolith-rich pellets, pelagic fauna generated in the
organic stringers, calcispheres, fish bones and water column and settled from
fragments of inoceramus; matrix: clay-sized suspension as marine snow;
material, including calcite sediment–water interface was
(cement and coccoliths), authigenic quartz, oxygen depleted and reduced
illite and mixed-layer illite/smectite, for prolonged periods
kaolinite, amorphous organic matter and
pyrite
T Clay-dominated 5 cm thick homogenous, bioturbated, grey Deposition of fine-grained S15E
mudstone mudstone lacking coarse grains; presence sediment (including volcaniclastic
of plagioclase, K-feldspar and biotite, material) with different provenance
clay contents up to 87 vol% with high than the rest of the other facies
smectite/illite
TUV Bentonite 05 to 100 cm thick, clay-dominated (illite Volcaniclastic material deposited 9
and smectite), rare grains of quartz, feldspar, at the sea floor by fall out or
biotite, apatite and zircon, through ocean currents
fluorescing yellow to green under UV light
M Chaotic bed >1 m, erosional base, irregular thickness, Product of disruption of 10
angular clasts, local soft-sediment deformation, shallowly-buried sediment
convoluted bedding and/or matrix-sustained
rip-up clasts
2 to 12 cm), whereas limestones thin upward highest values in the entire formation (Fig. S21).
(from 26 to 4 cm) displaying gradually less Locally, the lower section displays ellipsoidal
cross-stratification and less erosional surfaces. In limey concretions (average values of maximum
general, the micropalaeontological assemblages axis, minimum axis and height are 41 cm,
are quite sparse and comprise rare specimens of 36 cm and 14 cm, respectively) that cement
planktonic foraminifera (mainly Hedbergellids), large fragments of molluscs, oysters and inocera-
foraminiferal organic linings and woody phyto- mus (up to 8 cm), documenting colonization
clasts. Nitrogen isotopes (d15N) show the horizons; coarse-grained limestones with small-

facies
J
Jnod realtive sea-level curve
G
AGE
INNES-1 IONA-1 low high

STAGE
Gnod –29 –27 –25 –23 –29 –27 –25 –23

0 1 2 m 0 1 2
H m MFS
Hnod 25 40 40 40 40 40
26 26 26 42 42 42
C 44
8 9
44 44
D 28 28 28 46 46 46
M25 48 48 48
Late Tur
D/C 30 30 30 30 M24 50 50 50
D/E 52 52 52
7
32 32 32 54 54 54
E 56 56 56
T 34 34 34 58 58 58
35 M23 60 60 60 60 60
TUV 36 36 36 62 62 62
CL 64 64 64
38 38 38 66 66 66
Mid Tur
DL 68 68 68
M 40 40 40 40 70 70 70
72 72 72
M23 42 42 42 74 74 74
M22 76 76 76
78
6
44 44 44 78 78
M21 45 80 80 80 80 80
46 46 46 82 82 82
84 84 84
M20 86 86 86
48 48 48
Early Tur
M19 88 88 88
OAE-2
M18 50 50 50 50 M22 90 90 90
92 92 92
M17 M21 94 94 94
52 52 52 96 96 96
M16 98 98 98
M15 54 54 54 M20 100 100 100 100 100
55 M19 102 102 102
OAE-2
56 56 56 M18
5
M17 104 104 104

58 M14 58 58 M16 106 106 106
M13 M15 108 108 108
110 110 110
Late Cen.
M12 60 60 60 60 112 112 112

114 114 114
62 62 62 116 116 116
M11 118 M14 118 118
64 64 64 M13 120 120
M10 65 M12 120 120 120
122 122 122
M9 66 66 66 M11 124 124 124
126 126 126
68 68 68 M10 128 128 128
130 130 130
4
M8 70 70 70 70 M9 132 132 132

Mid Cen.
M7 134 134 134

72 72 72 M8 136 136 136
M7 138 138 140 138
74 M6 74 74 M5 140 140 140
75 M4 M6 140 M4
MCE
M5 M3 142 142 142 Eagle
MCE
M3 76 76 76 M2 144 144 144
M2 146 146 146 Ford
M1 78 78 78 M1 148 148 148
150 150 150
80 80 80 80 152 152 152 SB
2 3
154 154 154

Early Cen.
bentonite 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 10 15 bentonite 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 5 10 15
bar code ms ls MTD Inoceramus bioturbation index δ13 C org TOC bar code ms ls MTD Inoceramus bioturbation index δ13 C org TOC
1
Buda
Del Rio Fm
Fig. 11. Stratigraphy and correlation of cores Innes-1 and Iona-1, retrieved behind outcrop DR 11 and DR 21, respectively (location in Fig. 1). From left to
right: stratigraphic markers (M) described in Supplemental Information (Table S3), depth below ground, bentonite bar code, lithology with facies (see
legend to the top left), relative quantity of Inoceramus, BI, d13Corg, TOC with associated facies. Far right shows a relative sea-level curve, the stages and the

ages of the basin infill history.
19
20
Outcrop BB2 Core INNES-1 Core IONA-1 Outcrop BB2 Core INNES-1 Core IONA-1
–25 ‰ –25 ‰ –25 ‰
m m m
M25 M25
50
M25
M24
D. Minisini et al.
M24
M24
M23
SB
M23
M22 M23
in
M22
M21
ac
c
M21
o
de mo
M20
depth (m)
M20
cre da
M23 M19
as tio
M18 M22 M19
n
OAE-2
M22 M17 M21

M16
OAE-2
M15 MF
M20 M16
S M19 M15
M18
on
M17
OAE-2
M16
ati
depth (m)
M14 M15
M13
mod
M13
o
M12
M11 M12
acc
M11
in
M13 M14
M10 M12
ase
M10
re
M9 M11
inc
M10 M9
depth (m)
M8 70 M9
M7 M8
M8 M7
M7
M6 M6
M6
MCE
200 200 400

MCE
M5
MCE
cumulave thickness (cm) cumulave thickness (cm) 0

cumulave thickness (cm)
M0
M0
Fig. 12. ‘Fischer plots’ (Goldhammer, 1987; Day, 1997) graphing cumulative departure from mean thickness of limestone–marlstone couplets as a function
of depth; the cyclic development of the couplets is related to Milankovitch-driven climate change and in this context of a greenhouse platform ramp (not
accommodation limited), high-resolution trends show changes in productivity or accumulation rates; however the coarse trend of the curves is related to
accommodation and represents an independent proxy supporting the placement of maximum flooding surfaces (MFS) and sequence boundaries (SB).
Uppermost units of Innes-1 and Iona-1 are dominated by concretions. For colours of stratigraphic units refer to Fig. 3.

m m
25
5 8 cm
Innes-1 Iona-1 30
10
Ma
15 35
STAGES
VII
20 40
Thickness Thickness 90·2 INNES 34·25 m -Facies Jnod IONA 53·30 m - Facies Jnod
25 between between 45
8 9
Markers (m) M25 Markers (m)
30
90·8
50
35 13 13 55
7
40
VII
60
92·0 VI
45 M22 - M23 M23
6 M23 65
7
50
70
M22
4
55
INNES 45·30 m - Facies J IONA 97·45 m - Facies CL
6 75
60
6
22 80
65
15 85
70
M1
9 VI 90
75 M1 V
6
95
80 5
11
85 100
V 94·4
INNES 52·80 m - Facies J
M1
3 IONA 103·15 m - Facies J
5
90 3·5 105
94·7
95 110
M
9
100
14
115
105
120
10 m M IV
5
110
125
M
115 20 km 0 IV 22 130 INNES 69·20 m - Facies H IONA 137·40 m - Facies G
III
4
135
Total Gamma Ray
II
140 III
I
IONA130·50 m - Facies D
INNES 74·60m IONA 142·20
134·20 m -Facies E
145
96·5
11 Facies G w/HCS Facies M w/high TOC

150
97·1
97·5 II
155
INNES 76·20 m IONA 140·60 m
1 2 3
160 Facies M w/breccia Facies M w/soft-sed def
I
165 INNES 77·95 m IONA 152·45 m
Fig. 13. Tentative geometries of main stratigraphic units of Eagle Ford based on timelines, cyclostratigraphy, lateral variation of lithofacies and unconformi-
ties. Innes-1 and Iona-1 cores appear at the same scale and show Spectral Gamma Ray (see Fig. S1 for absolute values). Pictures show side by side coeval
21
facies of different stages, deposited 108 km apart.

100 km
DR A
SM
Io
na
Early Cenomanian Storms generate Mid Cenomanian Sea-level rises,
97·1 to 96·5 Ma HCS beds and 96·5 to 94·7 Ma max anoxia, max productivity,
lowermost Eagle Ford trigger failures lower Eagle Ford generation of ls-ms couplets
Late Cenomanian Cold currents from N, Early–Mid Turonian Generation of

94·7 to 94·4 Ma fauna thrives, max 94·4 to 92·0 Ma bioturbate ls-ms couplets,
transition lower-upper Eagle Ford bioturbation upper Eagle Ford 2 Myr hiatus in shallow sector
Mid–Late Turonian Wave action,

92·0 to 90·8 Ma sediment failures, Late Turonian Stronger wave action,
uppermost Eagle Ford reworked material 90·8 to 90·2 Ma flows with NE component,
uppermost Eagle Ford rapid transgression

Fig. 14. Main stages of the basin infill history of the Eagle Ford Group (Stages 1, 2 and 9 are in Supplementary
Information). In Stage 3, storms with east–west direction generate HCS beds and trigger failures creating chaotic
beds; in Stage 4, sea-level rises, primary productivity and anoxia just below the sea floor are at their maximum
allowing the preservation of organic matter in the rock record, the alternation with periods of high carbonate pro-
duction generate limestone–marlstone couplets (ls-ms); in Stage 5, boreal currents descend from the north mixing
the water column and allowing fauna to thrive; in Stage 6, the water column is oxygenated, the alternation of high
primary productivity and high carbonate production generate bioturbated limestone–marlstone couplets; in late
Stage 7 the stronger wave action and sediment failures rework material in the basin; in Stage 8 a shallow environ-
ment dominated by wave action is rapidly transgressed.
scale HCS (sensu Tinterri, 2006) faintly affected from wavy cross-laminated to tabular finer-
by unidirectional bottom currents, directed to grained, the quantity of scours and ripples
the south-east (N 140–155 E, three data points); decreases (Fig. S4) and their Mn and Mn/Fe val-
and asymmetrical ball and pillow structures ues increase (Fig. S19). The marlstones contain
indicating a south-east palaeoslope direction high TOC (up to 68% in Innes-1, up to 125% in
(i.e. N 140–160–180 E, three data points). Stage Iona-1) which decreases upward. In Innes-1 and
3 in San Marcos Arch presents a discontinuous in the Del Rio outcrops, limestones are more rep-
20 cm thick bed of coarse grainstone. resentative in cumulative thickness than in Iona-
The carbon isotope curve in Innes-1 captured 1 (18% versus 13%) and they are more affected
the mid-Cenomanian Event (M4, Fig. 11; by diagenesis, because they appear fully obliter-
Table S3) which presents a bentonite encased in ated (carbonate-cement mudstone, Facies H) with
its middle (M5, Fig. S1). That bentonite is corre- respect to Iona-1 where lamination and grain
latable with the outcrops DR5 and DR19 where components are still discernable (facies G). In
it has been dated (T8A and T8B in Table S7; Innes-1, scours are common through the entire
M5, Fig. S1). The age results 9671 Ma in DR5 Stage 4, whereas in Iona-1 they are common only
and 9697 Ma in DR19 hence confirm the inte- in the lower section of Stage 4. In outcrop, the
grated astronomical age model of Eldrett et al. few records of palaeoflow directions indicate
(2015a) who constrained the mid-Cenomanian westward flows (Fig. 7A). Some laminated marl-
Event between 9624 Ma and 9670 Ma (includ- stones contain wood fragments up to 30 cm, or
ing errors). diastemic surfaces that are burrowed and are
overlain by ripples made of sand-size bioclasts
Stage 4: M5 to M16 (Fig. S4 at 85 m, and Fig. S6). In Iona-1, the
Stage 4 is bracketed between the mid-Cenoma- cumulative thickness of limestone–marlstone
nian Event and the Last Occurrence (LO) of couplets increases abruptly at 132 to 134 m (M9,
Rotalipora cushmani (M5 and M16 in Table S3). Fig. 12). Interestingly, this depth coincides with
In Stage 4, the entire basin presents cyclic alter- a drop in dinocyst diversity, an increase in
nations of limestones (Facies G and H, Fig. 6 and Heterohelicid foraminiferal abundance, the dis-
Fig. S16) and organic-rich marlstones (facies C, D appearance of sand-bearing, silt-rich mudstone
and E, Figs 7 and 8) defining limestone–marl- (facies E) and the change of limestone tops from
stone couplets with extremely low BI (yellow in sharp to predominantly gradational (Fig. 11 and
Fig. 3; Gigapan 2 link in Appendix S1). The cou- Fig. S19). In Iona-1, below the main carbon iso-
plets include numerous interbedded bentonites tope excursion, the d13Corg curve shows values of
(facies TUV, average one bentonite every 20 cm, isotope excursions ca 15&, between 11136 m
Fig. 9) that often underlay the limestone beds. and 10717 m. Interestingly, this stratigraphic
The number of couplets deposited contempora- unit coincides with the start of bioturbation
neously in Stage 4 (between M6 and M16) is the (Fig. 11).
same in Innes-1 and Big Bend (29), whereas there The Stage 4 recorded in both cores an increase
are 48 in Iona-1 (Fig. 12; Table S3). Upward in apatite (P2O5), the highest abundances of
thickening and average thickness of the couplets organic matter comprising amorphous organic
are similar basin wide (60 cm, ranging from 10 to matter, dinocysts composed primarily of P-cysts
170 cm), except for the basal part of Iona-1 where (high P/G ratio) and prasinophyte algae, along
the thickness of the lowermost couplets with the lowest terrestrial/marine ratio of paly-
decreases upward (Fig. 12). The limestones (av- nomorphs and an upward decreasing trend of
erage 10 cm, maximum 35 cm) represent ca 20% Mo/TOC (Fig. S19). Planktonic foraminiferal
of each couplet, and going upward they change abundances are relatively low and assemblages
show low diversity, comprised of Heterohelicids total Gamma Ray drastically drop, and the d13C
(R-strategists; data not reported here). shows the most positive values (Fig. 11, Figs S1
Palaeoecological analyses indicate that, and S19). Stage 5 is additionally characterized
between markers M7 and M12, both cores show by bioturbated limestone–marlstone couplets
an abundance of the peridinioid dinocysts Bose- that thin upward: burrowed sandy limestone
dinia cf. sp 1 and 3, and that, between 21 m (Facies J), clay-dominated mudstone (Facies T)
and 26 m, Big Bend shows a higher diversity and silt-bearing, clay-rich mudstone (Facies C;
and abundance of planktonic foraminifera and Fig. 8 and Fig. S17), abundance of benthic fora-
dinoflagellate cysts. Below the BI increase, minifera, peaks of TiO2/Zr and pyrite, and low
between M11 and M12, soft-sediment deforma- values of redox-sensitive elements, Mo/TOC,
tion in Innes-1 (60 m) correlates with a con- prasinophyte algae and dinocyst P/G ratio
densed horizon of shell hash in Iona-1 (122 m; (Fig. S19). Furthermore, in this stage, the ben-
Fig. S15D). Where the BI increases, right below tonites lack strong fluorescence under the UV
M15, climbing ripples of coarse bioclasts in light. The few ripple forms surviving bioturba-
Innes-1 (5487 m) correlate with a unique 06 m tion record south-eastward palaeoflow (N130E
thick homogenous marlstone in Iona-1 in DR28) and thick limestones (up to 40 cm)
(10815 m) and with a 03 m thick laminated appear with Chondrites, Planolites and other
limestone characterized by higher BI in Big indistinct burrows in multiple orientations (up
Bend (2570 m above Buda; Fig. S15E). to 10 cm long), some of them pyritized. Using
In San Marcos Arch (outcrops AU1 and AU2), M19, M20 and most positive values of the car-
the Eagle Ford Group is divided into four units: bon isotope excursion of the OAE-2 as strati-
Pepper Shale (580 to 710 m), Cloice Shale (71 graphic markers, three event beds are correlated
to 115 m), Bouldin Flags (115 to 140 m) and from Innes-1 to Iona-1. In Innes, they present
South Bosque Shale (14 to 20 m; Fig. 5 and cross-lamination (scattered, centimetre-thick,
Fig. S14). The first three units were deposited in low-angle ripples; 466, 480 and 500 m) and, in
Stage 4. In these units, limestone–marlstone cou- Iona-1, homogenous, 6 to 13 cm thick, dark fine-
plets are not well-developed. Young (1974, grained beds (996, 1013 and 1035 m). In Big
1986) reports that the Pepper Shale consists of Bend, Stage 5 recorded limestones with wavy
montmorillonitic claystone, little silt, thin- contacts, non-parallel wavy laminations and low
shelled mud-burrower molluscs, few inoceramus BI In San Marcos Arch, only the upper section of
and agglutinated foraminifera. The Cloice Shale Stage 5 is preserved; biostratigraphic markers of
shows mudstone with variable carbonate content Cenomanian (LO Axopodorhabdus albianus and
interbedded with grainstones. Lowery et al. H. chiastia) and basal Turonian (LO Eprolithus
(2014) measured average 7% TOC for both Pep- octopetalus) appear within the Bouldin Flags
per and Cloice Shales. The Bouldin Flags con- member in outcrop AU1 and AU2 (Table S2,
tains high K and numerous bentonites (T13, T14 Fig. S14) at 1330 m (as N4-N7a) and at 1370 m
and T15 ca 50 cm vertically apart, are dated (as N9), respectively. The occurrence of R. cush-
9541, 9528 and 9517 010 Ma, Table S7), mani above this stratigraphic interval, as
limestones are coarse (calcarenites) with sharp recorded by Lowery et al. (2014), is therefore
contacts, appear massive, thinly laminated or considered reworked and, thus, the interval
cross-bedded, locally encasing pyritic blobs, fish 1330 to 1370 m (i.e. above the LO of A. albianus
scales, carbonized wood fragments (up to 04 m) and H. chiastia at 1330 m and below the FO of
and shell lags with numerous oysters. Helvetoglobotruncana helvetica at 1420 m, as
F17 in Table S2) is assigned to the Whiteinella
Stage 5: M16 to M19 archaeocretacea Zone and is partially coeval to
Stage 5 is bracketed between the LO of R. cush- OAE-2. The d13Ccarb analyses, run on the same
mani and the LO of Helenea chiastia (M16 and outcrop by Lowery et al. (2014, Fig. 5B), show an
M19 in Table S3; light blue in Fig. 3, Gigapan 3 excursion comparable to OAE-2.
link in Appendix S1). This Stage recorded the
transition of the lower to the upper Eagle Ford Stage 6: M19 to M23
Group (as defined by industrial standards) and, Stage 6 is bracketed between the LO of H. chias-
compared with Stage 4, the BI increases from 1 tia and the First Occurrence (FO) of
to 2 to 4 to 5, the terrestrial/marine ratio of paly- Senoniasphaera turonica (M19 and M23 in
nomorphs triples (mainly related to bisaccate Table S3; green in Fig. 3, Gigapan 4 link in
pollen of conifer vegetation), the TOC and the Appendix S1). In the early Stage 6, both cores
and Del Rio outcrops present cyclic alternations and shell hash horizons forming symmetrical rip-
of burrowed sandy limestone (Facies J, Fig. S17) ples. Most of the nodules are related to macrofau-
and marlstones (facies C, CL and D, Fig. 8, nal burrows that may be up to 20 cm long. The
Table 1) defining limestone–marlstone couplets nodular nature of this unit impedes the possibil-
with lower total Gamma Ray, lower TOC and ity to clearly distinguish marlstone–limestone
fewer bentonites if compared with the couplets couplets. Bentonites decrease up-section and are
of Stage 4 (Fig. 11). The higher BI overprints the mainly recorded in the rare laminated marlstones
original sediment structures, and therefore the (sand and clay-bearing, silt-rich mudstone, Facies
facies appear more homogenous, less laminated D and sand-bearing, silt-rich mudstone, Facies E,
and with vertical gradational contacts over sev- Figs 7 and 8); otherwise, they appear only as
eral centimetres. In Innes-1 and the Del Rio out- thick bioturbated beds, like the regional strati-
crops, burrowed sandy limestone (Facies J) graphic markers M24 and M25 (named bentonite
appears heavily bioturbated and with sharp P and Q). Innes-1 and Iona-1 also recorded scat-
tops. Iona-1 shows the thickest stratigraphic col- tered chaotic beds (Fig. 10) and a sharp increase
umn and the thickest marlstone bedsets. In both in apatite (P2O5, Fig. S19).
cores, the redox-sensitive trace metals remain Stage 7 in Big Bend registered the thickest
low except in a few marlstones (Fig. S19), and stratigraphic section, characterized by biotur-
the planktonic assemblages are dominated by bated marlstone–limestone couplets, recurrent
open marine forms (for example, keeled plank- bentonites, firmgrounds (37 to 39 m), ripples
tonic foraminifera; Gonyaulacacean dinocysts and chaotic beds (48 to 50 m) and presence of
including flanged forms such as Pterodinium prasynophite algae and dinoflagellates compris-
spp.). In the upper part, Stage 6 recorded ero- ing Spiniferites spp. (44 to 47 m; Figs S1 and
sional features and condensed sections that gen- S13).
erated hiatuses in the sedimentary record: Iona- Stage 7 in the San Marcos Arch recorded
1 registered chaotic beds (Facies M) with soft- mainly the South Bosque Shale with alterna-
sediment deformations and skeletal grainstones tions of carbonate-poor and carbonate-rich marl-
with an erosional base (ca 68 to 70 m) and a stones (silt-bearing, clay-rich mudstone, Facies
preponderance of nodular burrowed sandy lime- C, and sand and clay-bearing, silt-rich mud-
stones (Facies Jnod, ca 61 to 68 m; Fig. 11, stone, Facies D). The carbonate content is not
Fig. S17); Innes-1 recorded a 20 cm thick nodu- enough to create well-indurated prominent lime-
lar limestone with multiple generation of bur- stones, and hence the couplets are difficult to
rows (4210 m), corresponding to the FO of both discern. The South Bosque Shale is emplaced
Quadrum gartneri and S. turonica (M22 and atop a sharp contact, above which appear ben-
M23 in Table S3); and Big Bend recorded a clus- thic epi-fauna and in-fauna, numerous phos-
ter of centimetre-thick, coarse, fining-upward phatic fossils, few coarse recycled beds with
beds with carbonaceous clasts, shell fragments shallow-water fossils and high values of potas-
and abundant foraminiferal organic linings (31 sium. Lowery et al. (2014) report an average
to 32 m above Buda). TOC of 4%.
Stage 7: M23 to M25 Stage 8: M25 and M26

Stage 7 is bracketed between the FO of S. turo- Stage 8 is bracketed by bentonite Q and the
nica and the bentonite Q (M23 and M25 in Eagle Ford – Austin Chalk contact (M25 and
Table S3; purple in Fig. 3). In Stage 7, Del Rio M26 in Table S3) and recorded the thinnest
outcrops, Innes-1 and Iona-1 recorded mainly stratigraphic unit in the Eagle Ford Group. In
alternations of bioturbated marlstones (silt-bear- Stage 8, Del Rio outcrops, Innes-1 and Iona-1
ing, clay-rich mudstone, Facies C, and silt-domi- show local chaotic beds, abundant echinoids
nated, clay-rich mudstone, Facies CL, Fig. 8) having common geopetal structures and com-
and burrowed sandy limestones (Facies J, mon cross-stratified calcarenitic lenses (Facies
Fig. S17). This latter facies shows common Cw, Fig. S18) encased in homogenized marl-
nodular burrowed sandy limestone 10 to 100 cm stone (silt-bearing, clay-rich mudstone, Facies C,
wide and 5 to 15 cm thick (Facies Jnod, and silt-dominated, clay-rich mudstone, Facies
Fig. S17), cross-lamination, multiple burrows CL) with high BI (pink in Fig. 3, Gigapan 5 link
cross-cutting one another, commonly preserving in Appendix S1). The lenses underwent differ-
their three-dimensional structure, and macro- ential compaction and display bioturbation with
fauna, including in situ echinoids, rare oysters millimetre-wide burrows, wavy external
geometry with 20 cm wavelength, internal trun- epicontinental sea where the broad and shallow
cations and ripples indicating palaeoflow direc- sea reduced the wave fetch by bottom friction
ted towards N70E (Fig. S18). In Stage 8, Big and consequent energy loss (Schieber, 2016a,b).
Bend shows local symmetrical ripple forms indi- The internal truncations in bedsets with HCS
cating bidirectional palaeoflow N40 or 220E and suggest that each of those bedsets represents
a metre-thick chaotic bed with erosional base amalgamated storm deposits. The large size of
and rip-up clasts (Fig. S13). San Marcos Arch the first HCS bedset indicates that it deposited
recorded subtle erosional features, a thin con- when the environment had the shallowest water
densed unit with phosphate nodules and fish depths (ca 30 m), whereas the upward thinning
debris, and burrows cross-cutting the contact and the reducing wavelength of the overlying
Eagle Ford – Austin Chalk. HCS bedsets indicate increasing water depth
with time (e.g. Dumas & Arnott, 2006). The
deepening is also supported by the decrease in
DISCUSSION crinoids and gastropod fragments in the HCS, a
relative increase in pelagic foraminifera, and by
the thickening of the interbedded marlstones.
Basin evolution
Furthermore, the upward thinning of the chaotic
The stages regarding Buda Limestone (Stage 1), units in Iona-1 and the disappearance of the col-
Buda–Eagle Ford unconformity (Stage 2) and onization horizons in Big Bend emphasize the
Austin Chalk (Stage 9) are reported in coeval basin-wide response to the sea-level rise.
Appendix S1. Petrographic analyses show extensive pre-
compaction matrix calcite cementation indicat-
STAGE 3: M0 to M5, early Cenomanian; 971 ing that, soon after deposition, the HCS beds
to 965 Ma underwent early diagenesis. The preservation of
Stage 3 is bracketed between M0 and M5 (Tables the delicate spherical shells of pelagic foramini-
S2 and S3) and occurred in the Early Cenoma- fera suggests that cementation occurred before
nian (Figs 4, 5 and 14). During Stage 3, the cal- the shells collapsed under the weight of the sed-
carenitic sigmoidal cross-stratification atop Buda iment burying them. Assuming that the shells
and the rip-up clasts of Buda encased in the collapse when buried beneath more than 1 m of
lowermost Eagle Ford Group indicate significant sediment, and that the sediment accumulation
erosion and bedload of unidirectional bottom rate was between 1 cm and 10 cm kyr 1, cemen-
currents and could be associated with cata- tation would have occurred 10 to 100 kyr after
strophic flood events, similar to those proposed deposition. High-energy storm events eroded
by Mutti et al. (1996). In this view, the erosive and disrupted these early cemented HCS by
base of Eagle Ford and its first deposit could focusing overpressures on the sea floor, creating
represent the inundation of the Cretaceous Wes- breccia in shallow sectors (Del Rio outcrops and
tern Interior Seaway (KWIS; e.g. Stanley, 1999) Innes-1) and soft-sediment deformations in dee-
which connected North America and the Equa- per sectors (Iona-1), as documented in the mod-
torial Atlantic, allowing rapid incursion of ern environments (e.g. Lee et al., 2007) (Fig. 13).
warm, normal saline Tethyan waters (Arthur & Sediment disruptions in both sectors underwent
Sageman, 2005) and coincided with a wide- only a short displacement (hundreds to thou-
spread marine incursion and transgression, part sands of metres), as indicated by the angular
of the third-order Greenhorn Cycle (e.g. Kauff- clasts and the preservation in them of the origi-
man, 1984). The marine incursion was probably nal microstratigraphy (Fig. 10B).
tectonically induced because the Late Creta- The presence of imbricated boulders and ero-
ceous greenhouse climate would have precluded sive channelized features at the base of the Eagle
continental ice sheets and high-amplitude gla- Ford Group document particularly strong gravity
cioeustacy (e.g. Kidder & Worsley, 2010). The flows that locally moved material south/south-
sigmoidal cross-stratification is overlain by HCS westward, probably following the maximum dip
which indicates storms imprinting the sediment dictated by the structural high of the San Mar-
and associated storm-aided transport (Higgs, cos Arch (Fig. S3, DR26). Some of these gravity
1990; Friedrichs & Wright, 2004; Dumas & flows affected large parts of the basin, as sup-
Arnott, 2006). The storm deposits suggest water ported by the regionally correlatable beds of
depths of ca 50 to 100 m (e.g. Plint & Mac- recycled rudists and volcaniclastic material
quaker, 2013); 30 to 50 m if considering an (Fig. S15A and B).
In general, early diagenesis affected all litholo- affected only the shallower areas, while the dee-
gies of Eagle Ford. In fact, carbonate-rich sedi- per sectors (Iona-1) began recording limestone–
ment with high TOC is characterized by early marlstone couplets (Fig. 13).
dissolution of unstable biogenic particles of In Big Bend, the thinner storm deposits, the
aragonite, Mg-calcite and opal that yields mate- smaller HCS and the uncommon chaotic facies
rial that is recycled into early cements and reac- indicate deeper water or a more distal environ-
tive organic matter, causing dissolution and ment than in the Del Rio area, whereas coloniza-
precipitation (Milliken, 2014). In the Eagle Ford tion horizons indicate a less hostile
Group, this early diagenesis occurred before sig- environment and the peak in d15N a signal of
nificant compaction and burial, at or near the nutrient input (Fig. S21). The foraminiferal
water/sediment interface (e.g. Westphal, 2006) organic linings and the woody phytoclasts sup-
as supported by the three-dimensional preserva- port a shallow-shelf environment (the lack of
tion of trace fossils, the formation of geopetal calcareous benthic foraminifera in Big Bend is
structures, differential compaction around nod- attributed to a problem in the wash extraction
ules and cementation of undeformed rounded technique of microfossils from limestones – see
foraminifera, calcispheres and radiolarians. Discussion in Denne et al., 2014). In San Marcos
The chronostratigraphic framework and the Arch, waves and currents continuously eroded
facies analyses of Stage 3 allow the inference that or winnowed the shallow physiographic sector
while the coarse facies with HCS were being and created a depositional hiatus.
deposited during storms in the shallow reaches Although the high molybdenum values and
of the basin, laminated limestones (carbonate- abundance of amorphous organic matter indicate
cement radiolarian-bearing mudstone, Facies G) a low degree of oxygenation in the sediment
were deposited in the deeper regions of the basin, (Tyson, 1995; Algeo & Tribovillard, 2009;
the two facies are therefore cogenetic (Fig. 13 and Table S2), the sedimentary record demonstrates
Fig. S15C). In the time span between periods of that several and frequent high-energy processes
storms, organic-rich marlstones, presumably dri- impacted the sea floor suggesting higher oxygen
ven by storm overturn of the water column, levels than those implied by the geochemical
draped the basin. In the shallow reaches, these data. In this stage, redeposition of high TOC
storms are estimated to have eroded a few material and rapid burial may have been the
decimetres/metres of the organic-rich marl main mechanism emplacing and preserving the
(potentially Facies C, D and E) before the organic matter.
emplacement of the storm deposits, and trans-
ported it basinward, as shown in the deep sector STAGE 4: M5 to M16, mid-Cenomanian; 965
(Iona-1) by the high TOC recycled material to 947 Ma
(Figs 10E and 13). Similarly, the high TOC silt- Stage 4 is bracketed between M5 and M16
bearing, clay-rich mudstone (Facies C, Fig. 7D) (Tables S2 and S3) and occurred mainly in the
showing a sharp base and homogenous fabric in mid-Cenomanian (Figs 4, 5 and 14). The highest
the shallow sector (Innes-1) may be the result of P/G ratios are interpreted as important peaks in
weaker storms that recycled organic matter from organic palaeo-productivity (Fig. S19) because
a stage area and whose associated HCS formed the P-cysts are heterotrophic and associated
only landward, thus following Walther’s Law. As with high nutrient input (Sluijs et al., 2005; Van
a consequence, only thin mud horizons remained Helmond et al., 2014). The lowest terrestrial/
between the HCS bedsets in the shallow area. marine ratios of palynomorphs (Fig. S19) indi-
The low BI and the absence of benthic fauna in cate that relative terrestrial contributions were at
relatively shallow water was related to rapid sed- a minimum, whereas the concomitant decrease
iment accumulation rate and a consequent hos- in ripples and scours suggests waning of bottom
tile environment for burrowers, which allowed currents. The high values of Mo/TOC and the
the preservation of both the high TOC in the highest presence of prasinophytes suggest a
marlstone and the HCS structures in the lime- restricted depositional setting (Tribovillard
stones, both generally obliterated by bioturbation et al., 2012a,b) where the productivity occurred
because of recolonization of the sea floor soon in a stratified water column (Prauss, 2007;
after the high-energy events (e.g. Ekdale et al., Fig. S19). All of the previous observations,
1984; Tyson, 2001; Aplin & Macquaker, 2011). together with the basin-wide increase in the
When the energy in the environment decreased cumulative thickness of the limestone–marlstone
because of the relative sea-level rise, storms couplets (Fig. 12), suggest that the deepening of
the basin related to relative sea-level rise contin- soft-sediment deformation in Innes-1 and a shell
ued in Stage 4. As a consequence of the sea- hash in Iona-1, both encased between strati-
level rise, the environment of deposition also graphic markers M11 and M12 (Table S3), and
became more distal. Although it could suggest interpreted as facies genetically related to
longer depositional hiatuses, the gradational storms, because the slopes of 0001 to 0005°
increase in Mn values in limestones remains would have been too low for the ignition and
unclear (Fig. S19). maintenance of gravity flows (Fig. S15D). It is
In both cores, the high concentrations of apa- inferred that the nutrients fuelling the produc-
tite (P2O5) and the high P/G ratios suggest that tivity were mainly supplied by the volcanic
Stage 4 experienced the highest primary organic ashes. In fact, in Stage 4, bentonites were
matter productivity of the surface waters. The emplaced, on average, every ca 9 kyr (Table S6).
successive decreasing trends of apatite and P/G This high recurrence of bentonites implies a
ratios show how the productivity gradually high incidence of Plinian volcanic activity,
decreased with time, as the basin was deepen- resulting in windblown ash deposition into the
ing. The contemporaneous high values of redox- ocean and, therefore, as documented elsewhere
sensitive elements (Mo, U, V, Ni and Zn, by Frogner et al. (2001) and Duggen et al.
Fig. S19, and Re – not reported), the lack of (2010), in elevated nutrient fluxes in an area dis-
apparent bioturbation and the preservation tant from any major riverine input, where algae
of millimetre-thick bentonites over distances of and plankton formed the bulk of the organic
several hundreds of metres suggest that a con- matter (Sun et al., 2016). A secondary source of
stant anoxic and reducing environment occurred nutrients may have been related to the more sal-
mainly at the sea floor, or just below it (Brum- ine, nutrient-loaded Tethyan water mass that flo-
sack, 2006; Tribovillard et al., 2006; Algeo et al., wed northward into the Comanche platform
2012; and references therein), and not in the (Eldrett et al., 2017) creating a frontal upwelling
entire water column. In fact, currents, probably and shallowing of the nutricline.
derived from storms, were periodically active in The presence of aryl isoprenoids in this stage,
the bottom water, as shown by the presence of associated with photosynthetic green sulphur
low-angle ripples and scours in TOC-rich sand- bacteria, implies at least temporary and/or par-
bearing, silt-rich mudstone (Facies E, Fig. 7A) tial photic zone euxinia (Sun et al., 2016).
indicating that the organic-rich sediment depos- Because of the physiographic context (a broad
ited when bottom currents were active, hence epicontinental seaway), it is unlikely that the
probably in an environment where the water entire water mass of the photic zone underwent
above the sediment–water interface was oxy- total euxinia/anoxia. Therefore, the presence of
genated (e.g. Vilibi
c & Supi c, 2005). Because of mats at the sea floor in the photic zone is pro-
the low-angle ripples, the millimetre-deep posed. Alternatively, if the photic zone could
scours, the continuity of thin bentonites and the not reach the sea floor, euxinic conditions may
redox-sensitive elements, it is inferred that these have been confined within the microenviron-
bottom currents were weak (ca 15 to 20 cm s 1, ments of pellets and marine snow aggregates
values derived from laboratory experiments, per- (sensu Macquaker et al., 2010a), which included
formed at Indiana University (USA), that created organic material produced in the photic zone.
extremely similar sedimentary structures). The The euxinia/anoxia within the marine snow pro-
bottom currents were weak to the point that they tected the organic material from the surrounding
did not bring oxygen below the sea floor, thus oxygenated water column, allowing it to reach
maintaining the redox front near or at the sedi- the sea floor during episodes of relative calm
ment–water interface, hence also hampering bio- and stratified water column. Because the redox
turbation. boundary was at the sediment–water interface,
The prolonged episode of enhanced produc- the organic matter encapsulated in the marine
tivity in the water column and the concomitant snow was preserved as soon as slightly buried.
reducing environment at the sea floor led to This would imply that the biomarkers indicating
exceptional preservation of abundant organic euxinia were part of organic matter encapsulated
matter. In addition to these background weak in the marine snow.
currents, the environment of deposition was The abrupt increase in the cumulative thick-
punctuated by sporadic stronger pulses of high- ness of limestone–marlstone couplets in Iona-1
energetic events affecting large parts of the (132 to 134 m, M9) may indicate a higher sedi-
basin, as documented by the correlation of a ment accumulation rate triggered by a local
increase in accommodation (Fig. 12). The abrupt to basin-wide bottom currents, and indicates the
increase in the cumulative thickness, together paroxysmal moment of the increase in energy in
with the decrease in TOC and the higher recur- the water column bringing sediment input and
rence of sand and clay-bearing, silt-rich mud- oxygen to the entire basin (Fig. S15E).
stone (Facies D), at the expense of sand-bearing, The observations indicate that shallower sec-
silt-rich mudstone (facies E), points towards tors (Innes-1 and DR outcrops, on the Terrell
stronger currents with higher sediment load. Arch structural high) experienced lower sedi-
The comparison of geometries, timelines and ment accumulation rates than deeper sectors
lithologies of the Eagle Ford rock record (Iona-1, on a flank of the Maverick Basin), due
between Innes-1 and Iona-1, suggests that the to: (i) the stronger and more frequent activity of
deposition of the Eagle Ford Group developed a currents sweeping the sea floor, as shown in the
clinoform growing south-eastward atop the rock record; and (ii) the aforementioned increase
Comanche platform, where traction currents in accommodation in the deeper sector (M9 in
delivered sediment to a location where accom- Iona-1). This higher energy in shallower sectors
modation was available (Fig. 13). determined pulses of erosion and sediment
Between the stratigraphic markers M12 and bypass. The short pulses created starved ripples
M15 (Table S3), the environment experienced a and subtle scours in silt-bearing, clay-rich mud-
long-term gradational increase in energy in the stone (Facies C) and sand and clay-bearing, silt-
water column, as evidenced by the gradational rich mudstone (Facies D), whereas the longer
disappearance of the prasinophytes, the con- periods without deposition allowed a diagenetic
comitant decrease in P/G and Mo/TOC, the re- overprint of the sea floor creating carbonate-
occurrence of ripples, sand-bearing, silt-rich cement mudstone (Facies H). Based on the cor-
mudstone (Facies E) and chaotic units, as well relations shown in Table S2 (and described in
as the start of bioturbation (Fig. 11 and ‘Notes on correlation between cores Innes-1 and
Fig. S19). The gradual increase in energy in the Iona-1’ in Appendix S1), in some instances, dur-
water column occurred contemporaneously in ing the generation of carbonate-cement mud-
both core sites and, based on the age model, it stone (Facies H) in shallow water, carbonate-
took 1 Myr before a well-mixed fully open mar- cement radiolarian-bearing mudstone (Facies G)
ine system was re-established (Innes-1: 54 to deposited in deeper water, and during the depo-
62 m; Iona-1: 106 to 122 m; Figs 4 and 11). Con- sition of silt-bearing, clay-rich mudstone and
temporaneously, in Big Bend (21 to 26 m), bio- sand and clay-bearing, silt-rich mudstone
assemblages recorded the transition from an (Facies C and D) in shallow water, sand and
inner shelf, significantly distant from the coast, clay-bearing, silt-rich mudstone and sand-bear-
towards outer neritic environments, as sup- ing, silt-rich mudstone (Facies D and E) depos-
ported by higher diversity and abundance of ited in deeper water (Fig. 13). This low
both planktonic foraminifera and dinoflagellate sediment accumulation rate produced thinner
cysts. The differentiation of Big Bend may sig- couplets with thicker limestones in the shallow
nify either a further deepening of Big Bend, areas than in the coeval deep areas.
probably related to local tectonic subsidence Since it is documented that limestone–marl-
because it was located closer to the thrust front, stone couplets are related to obliquity and pre-
or improved water column conditions so that cession Milankovitch cycles in Iona-1 (Eldrett
deeper habituating foraminifera survived, et al., 2015a,b), it is reasonable to assign the
whereas before they could not survive because same allocyclic cause to the couplets in Innes-1
of the more hostile environment. The latter and Big Bend, which are also cyclic with self-
hypothesis is favoured because, during Stage 4, similar thickness and distinguishable thicken-
both in Big Bend and in Innes-1 the same thick- ing–thinning trends (Fig. 12). The basin-wide
ness of sediment was recorded (Fig. S1) suggest- chronostratigraphic correlation of the thicken-
ing that the two locations (ca 100 km apart) ing–thinning trend of the couplets and the cycle
experienced common subsidence and sediment bundles modulated within this long-term trend
accumulation rates, probably because they were emphasize the allocyclic climatic signature on
both far from sediment entry points. The correla- the rock record. However, it is beyond the aim
tion along M15 of climbing ripples in Innes-1, a of this study to try to reconcile the different
60 cm thick homogenous marlstone in Iona-1 number of cycles recorded during the same per-
and a bioturbated laminated limestone in Big iod in different parts of the basin (i.e. 29 in
Bend is interpreted as facies genetically related Iona-1 versus 48 in Innes-1 and Big Bend), and
they are here tentatively related to variations in palynomorphs (T/M, Fig. S19), related to an
bottom water energy. increase in bisaccate pollen of conifer vegeta-
The conditions were different closer to the tion, could reflect the cooling associated with
coast in San Marcos Arch where, regardless of the Plenus Marl Event, rather than an increased
regional deepening, energy of currents and hydrological cycle (see Discussion in Eldrett
waves increased, large pieces of wood reached et al., 2017). Thus, the increased TiO2/Zr is not
this location and planktonic assemblages were related to higher terrigenous sediment input, but
more diverse and healthier, suggesting better instead may reflect either a change in sediment
mixing and a more oxic water column, even provenance or the alteration of biotite and other
where rocks register 7% TOC. The double thick- reworked volcanic ash components from the
ness of the Eagle Ford Group recorded in Austin abundant peculiar bentonites, characterized by
(AU1 and AU2) with respect to San Antonio the lack of UV-fluorescence.
(SA1, 2 and 3) could be related to the Woodbine Given that the onset of Stage 5 corresponds
delta flushing higher sediment input into the with an abrupt shift in the Fischer plots repre-
Eastern Texas basin (east of the San Marcos senting a decrease in accommodation (M16 in
Arch) or to preferential sediment deposition of Fig. 12), it is likely that the bottom water oxy-
local contour currents and eddies, as observed genation and the change in sediment prove-
in modern environments (e.g. Zenk, 2008). nance was also linked to the onset of a
In Stage 4, it is suggested that organic matter regressive cycle of sea-level fluctuation, gener-
reached the sea floor through the oxygenated ally promoting a well-mixed water column and
water column while encapsulated in marine new oceanographic regimes (Fig. 11). In San
snow during periods of relative calm when weak Marcos Arch, the sedimentological features
bottom currents slightly buried it in the anoxic indicate high-energy processes sweeping the sea
and reduced sea floor, thus preserving it. It is also floor. In fact, the absolute age of bentonite T13
suggested that recurrent short-lived periods of (9541 012 Ma) together with the biostrati-
higher oxygen levels both in the water column graphic analyses document that these processes
and the sediment are not accurately recorded by created an erosional hiatus of ca 1 Myr prevent-
the geochemical data that may represent medium ing the preservation of the latter half of Stage 4
to longer-term depositional records. and the early phase of Stage 5 (Fig. 4). A poten-
tial conflict between geochronology (T15 age is
STAGE 5: M16 to M19, late Cenomanian; 947 9517 Ma) and the calibrated age model (T15
to 944 Ma stratigraphic position corresponds to 9439 Ma)
Stage 5 is bracketed between M16 and M19 may be due to the small quantity of zircons
(Tables S2 and S3) and occurred in the late found (3) or to the uncertainty of the age-model
Cenomanian (Figs 4, 5 and 14). Stage 5 is based on relatively low sampling resolution
marked by a basin-wide increase in benthic fora- (05 m).
minifera defining the ‘benthonic zone’ of Eicher Stages 4, 5 and 6 encompass OAE-2 defined
& Worstell (1970), also named the Benthic Oxic by the positive carbon isotope excursion (CIE;
Zone (Keller & Pardo 2004). This together with Figs 11 and 12). Whereas in some other parts of
the increase in the BI, the drop of TOC, Mo/ the world the OAE-2 interval records organic-
TOC and redox-sensitive elements, demonstrates rich sediment (e.g. Jenkyns, 2010), in the shal-
the improved oxygenation of the surficial sedi- low water of the KWIS the environment of depo-
ments (Fig. 11 and Fig. S19). The decrease in sition was well-oxygenated and punctuated by
prasinophyte algae points towards a well-mixed multiple event beds, highlighting that the depo-
water column, the south-eastward palaeoflow sition of organic-rich sediment related to OAEs
indicators document a change in flow direction, is modulated and ultimately dependent on local
and the three event beds correlating from Innes- and regional processes (primary production, bot-
1 to Iona-1 (Fig. S15E) represent more energetic tom currents and sediment input; e.g. Trabucho-
flows affecting a larger geographic area in the Alexandre et al., 2010).
southern gateway of the KWIS. The d13Corg curve in Iona-1 shows isotope
More oxygen, south-eastward flows and stron- excursions of ca 15&, between 11136 m and
ger currents in Stage 5 support the idea of the 10717 m. Eldrett et al. (2017) conclude that the
Plenus Marl Event moving cool boreal currents onset of OAE-2 occurs at the first possible rise of
towards the equatorial areas (Zheng et al., 2013). the carbon isotope curve (11245 m in Iona-1,
Consequently, the relative increase in terrestrial corresponding to 9501 Ma in the age model),
hence redefining the duration of OAE-2 to The decrease in organic productivity may be
092 017 Myr, that is longer than previously also related to the less frequent input of volcani-
reported, i.e. 045 Ma by Voigt et al. (2008). In clastic material. However, for this stage and
Innes-1 and Big Bend, the base of the CIE is sharp beyond, this idea is ruled out because the
(53 m and 27 m, respectively), hence they lack decrease in bentonite recurrence coincides with
these precursors (Figs 11 and 12). In Innes-1, the an increase in the BI (i.e. 54 m in Innes-1,
sharp base of the CIE coincides with the occur- 106 m in Iona-1; Fig. 11), hence suggesting that
rence of firmgrounds and of the abrupt increase the lack of bentonitic beds is related to bioturba-
in the BI, pointing to a hiatus at the base of the tion rather than the lack of volcanic activity.
carbon isotope excursion. The precursors are Considering this, the calculation of the age of
absent also in the reference section of the KWIS each bentonite is more certain in the lower Eagle
(Joo & Sageman, 2014). Several stratigraphic sec- Ford Group (947 to 968 Ma), when bentonites
tions that provided data to study the OAE-2, may were emplaced on average every ca 9 kyr, than
also present a hiatus at their base. If this is true, in the upper Eagle Ford Group (902 to
the inferred duration, predisposing factors and 947 Ma), when they were emplaced every ca
triggers of the OAE-2 may be biased. 74 kyr, but several may have been obliterated
The general decrease in TOC, characteristic of through bioturbation and recycling by more
all stages following Stage 4, is interpreted to be active currents (Table S6).
due to the gradual reduction in organic produc-
tivity, to the auto-dilution by enhanced carbon- STAGE 6: M19 to M23, early-mid Turonian;
ate productivity and to the mineralization/ 944 to 920 Ma
oxidation processes. The reduction in productiv- Stage 6 is bracketed between M19 and M23
ity is supported by the clear change in bio- (Tables S2 and S3), it occurred in the early-mid
assemblages that highlights the decreased nutri- Turonian (Figs 4, 5 and 14) and is characterized
ents in the water column: in fact, the P/G and by a regional hiatus of variable duration. In
the R-mode planktonic foraminifera, indicative Stage 6, data similar to the previous stage (low
of surface nutrients, decrease; the prasinophyte TOC, low Gamma Ray, high BI, starved ripples
algae abundance, indicative of a restricted depo- of Facies D and planktonic assemblages) and the
sitional setting (Eldrett et al., 2017), drops (the consistent occurrence of dinocysts with high-
less the prasinophytes, the less stratified the latitude affinities suggest continued influence of
water column). The organic geochemical analy- boreal waters. The low values of the redox-sensi-
ses of Sun et al. (2016) also support the reduc- tive trace metals combined with the presence of
tion in organic productivity. The enhanced keeled foraminifera and Gonyaulacacean dino-
carbonate productivity diluting the organic mat- cysts indicate a relatively open marine environ-
ter is supported by the higher biogenic carbonate ment with only episodic times of anoxia, the
content which indicates more diverse and more latter is supported by the isolated peaks of TOC,
abundant calcareous planktonic foraminifera, redox-sensitive trace metals and low BI (Fig. 11
despite less nutrients. The high BI indicates that and Fig. S19; Eldrett et al., 2017). This oxy-
organisms oxidized the organic matter and the genated environment permitted colonization by
early carbonate cement suggests that mineraliza- benthic biota and subsequent bioturbation of the
tion provided the solutes for the diagenesis sediment which, in turn, disrupted lamination,
(Eldrett et al., 2015b). However, the high per- consumed organic matter, obliterated the thin-
centage of amorphous organic matter in the nest bentonites and made diffuse the contacts of
upper Eagle Ford Group may indicate that oxi- the limestone–marlstone couplets (see images
dation and mineralization played a minor role. highlighted green in Fig. 3). The most continu-
It is deduced that, despite being in the shallow ous sedimentary record occurred in Iona-1
waters of a platform, the nutrient concentrations where a long series of bioturbated limestone–
decrease; they decrease because of the south- marlstone couplets were deposited in a similar
ward flow of the more oxygenated, more oligo- fashion to the couplets in Stage 4, related to cli-
trophic, boreal water mass that replaced the matic signatures driven by Milankovitch cycles
eutrophic Tethyan waters (as indicated by bio- (Eldrett et al., 2015a,b). Meanwhile, the thin
assemblages). Although nutrients were relatively deposit, the high BI and the sharp tops of bur-
less in absolute terms, nutrients were still high rowed sandy limestones (Facies J) in Innes-1
compared to present-day shelf environments and the DR outcrops point towards sweeping
(recording >1% TOC even when oxidized). currents in the shallow sector that inhibited
sediment deposition, determining low sediment registered an intense biological activity of macro-
accumulation rates and creating firmgrounds fauna, producing the same nodular facies
(e.g. Savrda et al., 2001; Fig. 13). recorded in Iona-1 in late Stage 6. In Stage 7,
The main firmground in Innes-1 (4210 m) both Innes-1 and Iona-1 recorded this similar
shows the FO of Q. gartneri coinciding with the environment of deposition. The intense bioturba-
FO of S. turonica (markers M22 and M23 in tion churned most of the thinner bentonites, thus
Table S3), two genera whose first occurrences mixing them with the background sediment, and
are separated by ca 2 Myr (from 9210 to indicating again that the lack of bentonites is
9410 Ma, Fig. 4). This 2 Myr hiatus is also related to the bioturbation rather than the lack of
expressed by the truncation of the upper portion volcanic activity. In fact, coeval units in Big
of the OAE-2 carbon isotope excursion (Fig. 11). Bend recorded frequent bentonites and towards
During this 2 Myr hiatus, Iona-1 recorded 25 m the end of Stage 7 powerful volcanic eruptions
of continuous sedimentation, except for a short occurred, leaving in the rock record at least two
hiatus of ca 200 kyr (Eldrett et al., 2015a) corre- basin-wide decimetre-thick bioturbated ben-
sponding to chaotic beds (facies M), in specific, tonites (M24 and M25). In between these two
erosive skeletal grainstones and soft-sediment eruptions, the increasing proportion of shell deb-
deformation (68 to 70 m; Fig. 11). Preceding the ris and benthic fauna, as well as chaotic units
2 Myr hiatus, the Fischer plots both in Innes-1 and symmetrical ripples, suggests a shallowing
and Big Bend indicate a trend of decreasing trend and higher-energy processes in the water
accommodation, suggesting a relative shallowing column, probably including waves and gravity
(Fig. 12). Furthermore, in Big Bend the end of flows. Big Bend, Del Rio (DR18, DR11 and
the decreasing accommodation corresponds to a DR21), Innes-1 and Iona-1 recorded recurrent
cluster of event beds with erosional bases inter- chaotic deposits (Fig. 5 and Fig. S1). The dis-
preted as storm beds (31 to 32 m above Buda, tance from Big Bend to DR21, in the Del Rio area,
Fig. S13). These storm beds in Big Bend, the is 330 km, which makes the chaotic deposits a
2 Myr hiatus in Innes-1 and the erosive event in regional marker, thus potentially associated with
Iona-1 (creating a hiatus of ca 200 kyr) are prob- another relative sea-level fall, possibly tectoni-
ably associated with a regional sequence bound- cally induced. In this view, another sequence
ary, related to a relative sea-level fall (SB in boundary is placed at the end of Stage 7 that
Fig. 12). A coeval erosive event is also docu- may correspond to the sharp regression recorded
mented throughout European and Mediterranean in the short-term sea-level curve of Haq et al.
sections (e.g. Wendler, 2013) and may be indica- (1987), dated at ca 90 Ma (Fig. 11).
tive of a global sea-level fall related to global In Big Bend, where macrofauna are not as com-
tectonics because the Late Cretaceous green- mon, deposition consisted of bioturbated lime-
house climate would have precluded continental stone–marlstone couplets, probably because it
ice sheets (e.g. Kidder & Worsley, 2010), was located in a more distal area, or deeper water,
although some authors dispute this ice-free view with less nutrients. However, the presence of the
(e.g. Plint, 2009). In San Marcos Arch, the dinocyst Spiniferites spp., indicating an outer
sequence boundary should be located in the neritic environment, gives a signal where oceanic
erosional unconformity atop Bouldin Flags, water was arriving. The meaning of the prasyn-
which erased most of the OAE-2 carbon isotope ophite algae, interpreted here as an indication of
excursion, preserving only parts in the a stratified water column, remains unclear. Their
W. archaeocretacea Zone. The appearance of fre- presence could be reconciled inferring cyclicity
quent bioturbated nodular limestones above the in the environmental conditions, as supported by
sequence boundary (Facies Jnod in outcrops, the occurrence of well-defined climate-induced
Innes-1 and Iona-1) documents an increased limestone–marlstone couplets. Cyclicity is
macrofauna activity. inferred also in San Marcos Arch where pulses of
oxygenation triggered an increase in benthic
STAGE 7: M23 to M25, mid-late Turonian; fauna, a spike in macrofossils and a decrease in
920 to 908 Ma organic matter (Lowery et al., 2014).
Stage 7 is bracketed between M23 and M25
(Tables S2 and S3) and occurred in the mid–late STAGE 8: M25 to M26, late Turonian; 908 to
Turonian (Figs 4, 5 and 14). In Innes-1, the 902 Ma
reduction in bottom-current activity allowed Stage 8 is bracketed between M25 and M26
deposition to restart and the rock record (Tables S2 and S3) and occurred in the late
Turonian (Figs 4, 5 and 14). During Stage 8, variable conditions within an organic-rich, mud-
most of the basin recorded cross-stratified cal- stone-dominated sequence have been demon-
carenitic lenses, indicating shallowing of the strated, highlighting the lateral facies variability
environment, now dominated by combined and the different sediment accumulation rates in
flows with unidirectional components directed different parts of the basin, including domains
north-eastward (Fig. S18). Big Bend, based on subjected to long hiatuses versus continuous
the ripples and the chaotic deposits, recorded sedimentation (Fig. 5 and Fig. S1), coexistence
bidirectional currents north-east/south-west of hummocky cross-stratification (HCS) and high
while subject to punctual sediment failures, total organic carbon (TOC) thin strata (Fig. 10G),
while the San Marcos Arch area was mainly and local preservation of ripples composed of
subject to erosion. The ‘Rubble Zone’ in the organic-rich material (Fig. 7A).
uppermost Eagle Ford Group in San Marcos The first Eagle Ford Group deposit recorded
Arch (sensu Lundquist, 2000) displays phos- in Del Rio outcrops, showing coarse sigmoidal
phate nodules, glauconite and fish debris, proba- cross-stratification, may represent the inunda-
bly representing a lag deposit. This, together tion of the Cretaceous Western Interior Seaway
with the reappearance of bentonites (Fig. 11), (KWIS), connecting North America and the
peaks in redox-sensitive trace metals (Fig. S19) Equatorial Atlantic. This event is constrained
and some beds with higher TOC in Iona-1, between 975 Ma and 971 Ma (Fig. 5, Stage 2 in
points towards the onset of a transgression Appendix S1).
(Fig. 11). In San Marcos Arch, the sharp litho- The highest TOC in the Eagle Ford Group was
logical contact and the burrows cross-cutting the recorded at the onset of a third-order transgres-
top of Eagle Ford indicate that during Austin sion of the Greenhorn cycle at ca 97 Ma and is
Chalk deposition, the Eagle Ford Group was not interpreted as being deposited when water depths
yet lithified and suggest the presence of a short were relatively shallow (ca 30 m; Fig. 11). During
hiatus. Also, the sharp decrease in Spectral deposition of organic-rich material, the sediment
Gamma Ray and the absence of the regional ben- just below the sea floor was oxygen depleted and
tonites P and Q support the idea of an unconfor- reduced for prolonged periods [preservation of
mity in the San Marcos Arch area. organic matter, lack of benthic fauna, lowest bio-
turbation index (BI), presence of dwarf foramini-
fera, low diversity in the bio-assemblages and
CONCLUSIONS high values of redox-sensitive elements], while
the water column was affected by weak, frequent,
A robust chronostratigraphic framework at basin basin-wide, oxygenated bottom currents (scours,
scale of the Eagle Ford Group has been devel- ripples, erosions and burrowed diastemic sur-
oped, integrating biostratigraphy, astrochronol- faces). As a consequence, part of the organic-rich
ogy, high-precision U/Pb zircon dating and material was transported and re-deposited by bot-
isotope curves. This chronostratigraphic frame- tom currents.
work represents a foundation for further studies Organic matter was preserved not only by
analysing deeper relationships among coeval deposition solely on an anoxic sediment while
facies of the Eagle Ford Group, and sets a stan- the water column was stratified, but also by
dard for future studies on mudstone environ- recycling from a staging area with rapid burial
ments of deposition and associated sedimentary and by preservation in anoxic microenviron-
processes (Figs 3, 4, 5 and Fig. S1), as well as on ments of marine snow falling through an oxy-
hydrocarbon source rocks by providing tools to genated water column affected by weak bottom
better predict vertical and horizontal facies currents (ca 15 to 20 cm s 1). The presence of
heterogeneity, mechanical properties and well continuous millimetre-thick bentonites over sev-
landing zones. eral hundreds of metres lateral distance, and
Nine temporal stages over a ca 8 Myr interval centimetre-thick over 10 to 50 km distances
(from ca 98 to ca 90 Ma) were defined in an area indicate that the Eagle Ford Group depositional
that spans 75 000 km2 and the different environ- environment experienced periods of quiescence.
ments of deposition recorded within each of the Bottom currents were active in the basin at
nine stages have been interpreted by analysing, pulses, recording millimetre-scale scours and
with a telescopic approach, the sedimentology, low-angle ripples at least 21 times within a
mineralogy, palaeoecology and geochemistry of limestone–marlstone couplet, which represents
two cores and 41 outcrops (Fig. 14). Extremely ca 20 to 40 kyr. However, these bottom currents
were not strong enough to distort or obliterate defined an eruption frequency for the lower Eagle
the facies cyclicity related to Milankovitch Ford Group (947 to 968 Ma) of ca 9 kyr
forces (limestone–marlstone couplets) or destroy (Table S6). This highly recurrent volcanic activity
lateral bentonite correlations (see Facies E in represented an exceptional mechanism for nutrient
Appendix S1 and Fig. 12). delivery that probably enhanced the efficiency of
Most Eagle Ford Group facies were affected by organic carbon production and burial. The absolute
early diagenesis, and therefore they do not pre- age of the mid-Cenomanian Event was defined by
sently appear in the same way as when they dating a bentonite encased in its middle, 9671 Ma,
were deposited; i.e. carbonate-cement mudstone hence confirming the integrated astronomical age
(Facies H, Fig. S16) was derived from silt-bear- model of Eldrett et al. (2015a).
ing, clay-rich mudstone (Facies C, Fig. 8B) or Whereas in some parts of the world, OAE-2
from sand and clay-bearing, silt-rich mudstone records organic-rich sediment, in the shallow
(Facies D, Fig. 8B). The bulk of Eagle Ford water of the Western Interior Seaway, the envi-
Group biogenic carbonate, biogenic silica and ronment of deposition was well-oxygenated and
organic matter derived from productivity in the punctuated by multiple event beds, highlighting
photic zone, whereas most of the phyllosilicate that the deposition of organic-rich sediment
minerals in the mudstone and some of the silica related to OAEs is modulated by local and regio-
cements derived from volcanic ash beds. How- nal processes (primary production, bottom cur-
ever, further petrographic analyses are needed to rents and sediment input; Fig. 11). Based on
adequately unravel the history related to the isotope curves, sediment structures and regional
early diagenesis (and provenance) of the sedi- correlations, it is documented that the base of
ment deposited in the area of study. the carbon isotope excursion defining the OAE-2
The chronostratigraphic framework allows is eroded in Innes-1 and Big Bend (Fig. 12).
measurement of: (i) a basin-wide gradational Consequently, the studies dedicated to the dura-
increase in energy in the water column of ca tion, the predisposing factors, and the triggers of
1 Myr duration (above M12); and (ii) a deposi- OAE-2 and other anoxic events should be revis-
tional hiatus confined into the shallow-water ited where biased by the absence of the onset of
sector of ca 2 Myr duration (M22 and M23, the anoxic event.
Table S3). Part of the deposition of the Eagle Cycle stacking is commonly used as both a
Ford Group developed a clinoform growing correlation tool and an analytical black box for
south-eastward atop the Comanche platform interpretation of driving mechanisms of deposi-
where traction currents delivered sediment to a tion without linking the sedimentological mean-
location with available accommodation (Fig. 13). ing of their lithofacies. This study emphasizes
Stratigraphic markers allow bed correlation at that cycles in different environments form via
basin scale showing how facies change during different mechanisms and, as a consequence,
the waning of high-energetic bottom currents, their trends could be different, and hence not
capable of moving material for hundreds of kilo- comparable (Fig. 12).
metres (Fig. S15). The lateral facies relation-
ships, useful in predicting and characterizing
sedimentological processes, provide constraints ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
for future facies models in an organic-rich mar-
ine depositional setting. The authors sincerely thank all of the colleagues
Circa 290 bentonites have been recognized in who were instrumental in many phases in this
the Eagle Ford Group stratigraphy (mainly in the integrated and multi-disciplinary project, in par-
lower Eagle Ford Group) providing timelines for ticular: the Shell Mudrock Research Team for
correlation and high-precision absolute ages; discussions and collaboration; Prof Brian Lock
their frequency (as high as one every 17 cm), for introducing DM to the Eagle Ford in SW
thickness (average 1 cm, maximum 65 cm) and Texas; the Moody family for providing access to
their intimate associations with high TOC encas- their land for acquiring the Iona-1 core, and
ing rock (see barcodes in Fig. 11) are keys to Billy Foster for the Innes-1 core; the Late
unravelling the geomechanics and the resource Charles Cameron for showing us the streamcuts
density of source rocks of great interest to the on his ranch; Carolyn Boyd and the Archeologi-
energy industry. cal Research & Education Center staff for their
High-precision ages of the unreworked ben- hospitality at Shumla; Mike at Langtry for food
tonites, determined using the integrated age model, and stories; the Comstock US Border patrol staff
for advice and camaraderie in the field; the sher- Baudin, F., Fiet, N., Coccioni, R. and Galeotti, S. (1998)
iffs of Val Verde and Kinney counties for sur- Organic matter characterisation of the Selli Level (Umbria-
Marche Basin, central Italy). Cretac. Res., 1998, 701–714.
vival advice in the Trans-Pecos and Great Plains Brumsack, H.J. (2006) The trace metal content of recent
areas; Ezequiel Gonzalez for help in Matlab; organic-rich sediments: implications for the Cretaceous
Aysen Ozkan for her help with the thin sections; black shale formation. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol.
Mark Chapin for internal review; Shell Interna- Palaeoecol., 232, 344–361.
tional Exploration and Production Inc. manage- Day, P.I. (1997) The fischer diagram in the depth domain:
A tool for sequence stratigraphy: research method paper.
ment for permission to publish. We greatly J. Sediment. Res. 67, 982–984.
benefited from discussions with Bob Loucks, DeFord, R.K. (1969) Some keys to the geology of northern
Steve Ruppel, Brad Sageman, Steve Meyers, Chihuahua. New Mexico Geological Society Guidebook,
Hugh Jenkyns and Steve Hesselbo. We thank 20th field conference, Mexico, pp. 61–65.
Juergen Schieber, Joe MacQuaker, Jo~ ao Trabu- Denne, R.A., Hinote, R.E., Breyer, J.A., Kosanke, T.H., Lees,
J.A., Engelhardt-Moore, N., Spaw, J.M. and Tur, N. (2014)
cho-Alexandre and the Chief Editor of Sedimen- The Cenomanian-Turonian Eagle Ford Group of South
tology, Nigel Mountney, for thoughtful reviews Texas: insights on timing and paleoceanographic
that greatly improved the manuscript. In addi- conditions from geochemistry and micropaleontologic
tion, DM thanks Gauchito Gil for perennial spur analyses. Palaeogeogr. Palaeoclimatol. Palaeoecol., 413, 2–
and support during challenging times. 28.
Dickinson, W.R. (2004) Evolution of the North American
Cordillera: Annual reviews of earth and planetary.
Science, 32, 13–45.
DATA AVAILABILITY Duggen, S., Olgun, N., Croot, P., Hoffmann, L.J., Dietze, H.,
Delmelle, P. and Teschner, C. (2010) The role of airborne
The Supplemental Information is archived at the volcanic ash for the surface ocean biogeochemical iron-
cycle: a review. Biogeosciences, 7, 827–844.
data repository PANGAEA (https://doi.org/10. Dumas, S. and Arnott, R.W.C. (2006) Origin of hummocky
1594/pangaea.878564) and will also be found in and swaley cross-stratification—the controlling influence
the supporting information tab of this article of unidirectional current strength and aggradation rate.
online. Geology, 34, 1073–1076.
Eicher, D.L. and Worstell, P. (1970) Cenomanian and
Turonian foraminifera from the Great Plains, United
States. Micropaleontology, 16, 269–324.
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Winter, J.A. (1961) Stratigraphy of the lower Cretaceous Figure S10. Litholog of outcrop DR17.
(subsurface) of South Texas. Trans. Gulf Coast Assoc. Figure S11. Lithologs of outcrops DR18 and DR20.
Geol. Socs., 11, 15–24. Figure S12. Litholog of outcrops DR21.
Yonkee, W.A. and Weil, A.B. (2015) Tectonic evolution of Figure S13. Litholog of outcrop BB2.
the Sevier and Laramide belts within the North American Figure S14. Lithologs of outcrops AU1-2, SA-1, SA-2
Cordillera orogenic system. Earth Sci. Rev., 150, 531–593. and SA-3 in San Marcos Arch area.
Young, K. (1974) Lower Albian and Aptian (Cretaceous) Figure S15. Basinwide correlations at bed scale.
ammonites of Texas. Geosci. Man, 8, 175–228.
Figure S16. Facies H (carbonate-cement mudstone).
Young, K. (1986) Cretaceous marine inundations of the san
Figure S17. Facies J and Jnod (burrowed sandy lime-
marcos platform, Texas. Cretac. Res., 7, 117–140.
stone).
Zenk, W. (2008) Abyssal and contour currents. Dev.
Sedimentol., 60, 35–57.
Figure S18. Facies Cw.
Zheng, X.-Y., Jenkyns, H.C., Gale, A.S., Ward, D.J. and Figure S19. Plots derived from analyses of samples
Henderson, G.M. (2013) Changing ocean circulation and from Innes-1 and Iona-1 cores; horizontal axes show
hydrothermal inputs during Ocean Anoxic Event 2 paleoecological, geochemical and mineralogical prox-
(Cenomanian-Turonian): Evidence from Nd-isotopes in the ies, vertical axes show stratigraphic position; colours
European shelf sea. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 375, 338–348. and symbols of samples represent facies (legend in
the bottom right), background colours represent asso-
ciations of facies (see Fig. 3).
Manuscript received 1 April 2017; revision accepted
Figure S20. Core pictures of Innes-1 and Iona-1 both
30 October 2017
under natural light and UV light.
Figure S21. Stratigraphy of outcrop BB2 in Big Bend
National Park: bentonite barcode, litholog, Spectral
Supporting Information Gamma Ray, association of facies (see color code in
Fig. 3), and geochemical proxies.
Additional Supporting Information may be found in Table S1. Coordinates of outcrops and cores.
the online version of this article: Table S2. Biostratigraphic events (foraminifera,
nannoplankton, radiolarians and dynocists), dCorg iso-
Figure S1. Correlation panel of cores and stratigraphic tope peaks, regional bentonites.
sections of the Eagle Ford Formation in the Big Bend, Table S3. Markers guiding the correlation Innes-Iona.
Del Rio and San Marcos Arch areas (ca. 500 km from Table S4. XRD Bulk Mineralogy (weight %) by RIR
west to east). Method (Reference Intensity Ratio) in Iona-1 core.
Figure S2. Calibration of lithofacies identified in out- Table S5. XRD Bulk Mineralogy (weight %) in out-
crop, where rocks undergo extensive weathering, and crop BB2.
in split core, where rock surfaces are fresh and show Table S6. Depth, age and frequency of the 283 ben-
further sedimentological details; colour code of facies tonites in Iona-1 core.
correspond to legend in Fig. 11. Table S7. Bentonite ages from outcrop and research
Figure S3. Lithologs of outcrops DR1, DR15, DR19, core samples derived from dating zircons using the
DR22, DR26 and partial DR5. U/Pb ID-TIMS method.
Figure S4. Litholog of outcrop DR5. Appendix S1. Text providing insights about outcrop
Figure S5. Litholog of outcrop DR6 and DR16. locations, methods, description of facies, interpreta-
Figure S6. Litholog of outcrop DR7. tions of Buda Limestone and Austin Chalk, explana-
Figure S7. Litholog of outcrops DR8, DR9 and DR10. tion of stratigraphic correlations, hyperlinks to Google
Figure S8. Lithologs of outcrop DR11 and DR13. Map and Gigapan.
Figure S9. Lithologs of outcrops DR12 and DR14, and
associated legend (useful for all other lithologs).

Chronostratigraphic Framework and Depositional Environments in The Organic-Rich, Mudstone-Dominated Eagle Ford Group, Texas, USA

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Chronostratigraphic Framework and Depositional Environments in The Organic-Rich, Mudstone-Dominated Eagle Ford Group, Texas, USA

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Sedimentology (2018) doi: 10.1111/sed.

Chronostratigraphic framework and depositional environments

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists 1

INTRODUCTION lateral extent atop the Upper Cretaceous

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

Comanche Plaorm Comanche Plaorm

Lower Cenomanian Middle Cenomanian

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

lower Eagle Ford

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

of cores and outcrops.

DR5 (5·90 m above Buda) 20 cm IONA 134·70 m 2 cm 8 cm

BB2, 4·60 m 20 cm IONA 149·60-·64 m 10 cm

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

DR 5 (10 m above Buda = ca. 70·10 m in INNES)

DR12 (13-14 m) and INNES 48-49 m

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

INNES 79·75 m 2 cm 2 cm IONA 148·21 m (C) IONA 148·22 m (D)

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

IONA 126·15 m 2 cm IONA 152·06 m 2 cm 2 cm IONA 97·75 m 2 cm

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

IONA 140·54-·70 m 2 cm DR5, 0-1·1 m above Buda and INNES (79·50-80·60)

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

G Carbonate-cement 3 to 5 cm thick, scoured, laminated, Stacking of event beds generated by 6

CL Silt-dominated, Lighter-grey, higher carbonate content, more Similar to C but deposited –

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

Code Facies Main observations Basic interpretation Fig.

Cw Clay-rich mudstone As C with 3 cm thick cross-laminated As C, with periodic currents S18

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

INNES-1 IONA-1 low high

Gnod –29 –27 –25 –23 –29 –27 –25 –23

M17 104 104 104

M12 60 60 60 60 112 112 112

M8 70 70 70 70 M9 132 132 132

M7 134 134 134

M5 M3 142 142 142 Eagle

154 154 154

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

M22 M17 M21

200 200 400

cumulave thickness (cm) cumulave thickness (cm) 0

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

160 Facies M w/breccia Facies M w/soft-sed def

facies of different stages, deposited 108 km apart.

Late Cenomanian Cold currents from N, Early–Mid Turonian Generation of

Mid–Late Turonian Wave action,

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

Stage 7: M23 to M25 Stage 8: M25 and M26

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

© 2017 The Authors. Sedimentology © 2017 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology

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