Affiliated to Pokhara University

POKHARA ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Phirke, Pokhara-8

A
Project Proposal on
Different Types Of Rocks

Submitted by :
Abhinav Bikram Thapa (21040988)
Adarsha Lamichhane (21040989)
Akrit Wagle (21040990)
Amrit Acharya (21040991)
Diplove Shrees (21041006)
Diwas Regmi (21041008)

Submitted to :
Research Management Cell
Pokhara Engineering College
2023
 Certificate
Of
Project
Proposal
Approval

The project entitled ”Rocks” proposed by the students Abhinav Bikram Thapa (21040988),
Adarsha Lamichhane (21040989), Akrit Wagle (21040990), Amrit Acharya (21040991) ,
Diplove Shrees (21041006) , Diwas Regmi (21041008), of Pokhara Engineering College, under
the department Civil Engineering has been submitted as per the content , style and format
proposed by RMC . The project has been found feasible and thus has been approved.

……………………………………………….
Er. Krishna Ghimire
Co- ordinator, Research Management Cell
Pokhara Engineering College, 2023
ABSTRACT

The project entitled “Different types of Rocks” is a project carried by a group of six students of
2020 batch of PU, Pokhara Engineering College, Phirke, Pokhara-8. This proposal has been
developed to enhance our knowledge on different types of rocks and to identify the components
of rocks in detail. This project also enforces us to analyze and study the socio-economic
importance of rocks in civil engineering projects and construction in the context of Nepal. The
properties of rocks according to their adaptive behaviour allow us to use them at respective
places. It gives idea about use of rock on respective area like on foundation of construction area.

So, the study of rocks is must for obtaining required level of safety. The knowledge about the
nature of rocks, structural deposition of rock types in the proposed area is very necessary for
construction of multi-stored buildings, tunneling, roads and in determining the stability of cuts
and slops.

In this study, an integrated approach will be adopted to identify and characterize different types of
rocks. The civil engineers will know the properties of rocks accurately which enables them to
consider different rocks for any required purpose that is as a foundation rock, as road metal, as
concrete aggregate, as building stones, as the roofing materials for decorative purpose. Also, to
identify area susceptible to failures due to geological hazards such as landslides, earthquake, soil
erosion, weathering effects etc.

Keywords:

Petrology: study of rocks

Coherent: logical and consistent

Lithification: process in which
sediments compact

Feldspar: an abundant rock-

forming mineral

Peridotites: a coarse-grained, dark-colored, heavy, intrusive igneous rock

Pegmatites: a coarsely crystalline granite

Metasomatism: chemical alteration of a rock by hydrothermal and other
fluids

Mineralogy: study of minerals

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………1

2 .Project Objectives………………………………………………………………………………2

3. Literature review……………………………………………………………………..................3

3.1 Petrology and Petrography………………………………………………………………...3

3.2 Rock Cycle…………………………………………………………………………….…2-4

3.3 Classification Of Rocks………………………………………………………………….5-7

3.4 Rock Cleavage………………………………………………………………………….….8

3.4.1 Types of Rock Cleavage…………………………………………………………….8-9

4. Scope of petrology…………………………………………………………………………9-10

5. Limitations of study………………………………………………………………………….10

6.Feasibility of study……………………………………………………………………………10

7. Methodology………………………………………………………………………………10-11

8. Project Schedule………………………………………………………………...……………12

9.
Conclusion…………………………………………………………………………………….13

1. Identification of Igneous rocks…………………………………………………..……13-14

2. Identification of Sedimentary rocks…………………………………………………...14-
15
3. Identification of Metamorphic rocks……………………………………………………...15

10. Reference…………………………………………………………………...………………..15
1. INTRODUCTION

The project work on “Different Types Of Rocks” is carried out with the motive to provide
systematic study about earth materials, structure and systems. Study of rocks incorporates an
understanding of earth science, chemistry, physics, and maths. The learner can walk away with an
understanding of crystal geometry, the ability to visualize 3-D objects or knowing rates of
crystallization.

Rocks are all around us. They help us to develop new technologies and are used in our everyday
lives. Our use of rocks includes building material, cosmetics, cars, roads, and appliances. In order
to maintain a healthy lifestyle and strengthen the body, human need to understand the importance
of rocks. Rocks play a vital role in natural systems such as providing habitat like cliffs, caves, for
many endangered species and also provide soil nutrients. Natural objects, such as rocks contribute
to the beauty and wonderment of the National Parks and should be left, as they were found so
that others can experience a sense of discovery.

Humanity has made use of rocks since the earliest humans. The use of rock has had a huge impact
on the cultural and technological development of the human race. Rock has been used by humans
and other hominids for at least 2.5 million years. The mining of rock for its metal content has
been one of the most important factors of human advancement, and has progressed at different
rates in different places, in part because of the kind of metals available from the rock of a region.
This early period, called the Stone Age, saw the development of many stone tools. Stone was
then used as a major component in the construction of buildings and early infrastructure. Mining
developed to extract rocks from the Earth and obtain the minerals within them, including metals.
Modern technology has allowed the development of new man-made rocks and rock-like
substances, such as concrete.

Geologists classify rocks in three great groups according to the major Earth processes that formed
them. The three groups are igneous rocks, sedimentary rocks, and metamorphic rocks. Anyone
who wishes to build a meaningful rock collection should become familiar with the characteristics
and interrelationships of these great groups.

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2. PROJECT OBJECTIVES

i. To identify the different types of rock and understand how these rocks are formed.

ii. To understand that buildings were made from local rocks and therefore reflect the local
geology.

iii. To spark an interest in Geology and how it relates to our lives through the buildings
around us.

iv. To analyze and determine properties of rocks for engineering appliances.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW

Rock, in geology, naturally occurring and coherent aggregate of one or more minerals. They make
up the backbones of hills and mountains and the foundations of plains and valleys. Beneath the
soil you walk on and the deep layers of soft mud that cover the ocean basins is a basement of hard
rock. Rocks are made up of different minerals, broken pieces of crystals, or broken pieces of
rocks. Some rocks are made of the shells of once-living animals, or of compressed pieces of
plants. What a rock is made of, the shapes of the grains, and how the grains fit together all
provide valuable clues to help us unlock the rock's history hidden within.

1. Petrology and Petrography

The branch of geology dealing with various aspects of rocks such as their formation,
classification and occurrence is called petrology.A thorough grasp of petrology is most essential
for a geologists, a civil engineer, a mining engineer, a town planner and an architect.

The branch of geology dealing with the description and systematic classification of rocks,
especially by microscopic examination of thin sections. Petrography is a subfield of Petrology

3.2 Rock cycle

Many of Earth’s key processes function in cycles and rock cycle is no exception. The rock cycle
is a web of processes that outlines how each of the three major rock types-igneous, metamorphic,

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and sedimentary—form and break down based on the different applications of heat and pressure
over time.

Transition to igneous rock: When rocks are pushed deep under the Earth's surface, they may melt
into magma. If the conditions no longer exist for the magma to stay in its liquid state, it cools and
solidifies into an Igneous rock. A rock that cools within the Earth is called intrusive or plutonic
and cools very slowly, producing a coarse-grained texture such as the rock granite. As a result
of volcanic activity, magma (which is called lava when it reaches Earth's surface) may cool very
rapidly on the Earth's surface exposed to the atmosphere and are called extrusive or volcanic
rocks. These rocks are fine-grained and sometimes cool so rapidly that no crystals can form and
result in a natural glass, such as obsidian, however the most common fine-grained rock would
be known as basalt. Any of the three main types of rocks (igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic rocks) can melt into magma and cool into igneous rocks.

Transition to Sedimentary rocks: Igneous rocks and other types of rocks on Earth’s surface are
exposed to weathering and erosion processes to produce sediments. Weathering is the physical
and chemical breakdown of rocks into smaller fragments, and erosion removes those fragments
from their original location. Once igneous rocks are broken down and transported, these
fragments or grains are considered sediments. Sediments such as gravel, sand, silt, and clay can
be transported by water in streams, ice in the form of glaciers, and air in the form of wind.
Sediments ultimately come to rest in a process known as deposition. Then, the deposited
sediments accumulate in place, often underwater such as a shallow marine environment, get
buried. Sedimentary rocks can be formed from the lithification.

Transition to Metamorphic rocks: Rocks exposed to high temperatures and pressures can be
changed physically or chemically to form a different rock, called metamorphic. Regional
metamorphism refers to the effects on large masses of rocks over a wide area, typically associated
with mountain building events. These rocks commonly exhibit foliation. Another main type of
metamorphism is caused when a body of rock comes into contact with an igneous intrusion that
heats up this surrounding country rock. This contact metamorphism results in a rock that is
altered and re-crystallized by the extreme heat of the magma and/or by the addition of fluids from
the magma that add chemicals to the surrounding rock (metasomatism). Any pre-existing type of
rock can be modified by the processes of metamorphism.

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The rock cycle can account for everything on our planet from sand to the Earth’s types of crust. It
is greatly influenced by the other elements on our planted : water and air mainly. The most
exciting thing about rock cycle is that it exists on other planets.

Fig: Rock Cycle

(Source: https://www.flickr.com/photos/121935927@N06/13581730833)

Fig: Flow Diagram of Rock Cycle

(Source : http://www.cotf.edu/ete/modules/msese/earthsysflr/rock.html)

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3. Classification of Rocks

On the basis origin ,all the rocks of the crust are divided into three main groups and they
are:
i) Igneous Rocks
ii) Metamorphic Rocks
iii) Sedimentary Rocks

3.3.1 Igneous Rocks

These types of rocks are formed by the solidification of magma either under the surface of earth
or over it. There are three types of Igneous Rocks according to the solidification process:

i) Plutonic Rocks: The rocks which are formed underneath the surface of earth are called
plutonic rock.
ii) Volcanic Rocks: The rocks which are solidified on the surface of the earth are called
plutonic rocks.
iii) Hypabyssal Rocks: The rocks which are solidified on the way of extrusion process are
called hypabyssal rocks.

Examples of Igneous Rocks are:

Granite: generally equi-granular texture, light color appearance.

Gabbro: coarse grain and dark color

Dolerite: containing dark minerals in good proportion with
medium grain sized.

Fig: Igneous Rocks

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3.3.2 Metamorphic Rocks

These are formed by alteration of alignment, texture, structural, chemical, composition etc. in pre-
existing rocks due to action of temperatures, pressure and chemical reaction. Metamorphic rocks
are generally hard and having interlocking grains. On the basis of presence or absence of layered
structure or foliation, metamorphic rocks are classified into two types:

i) Foliated Rocks: All metamorphic rocks showing development of foliation or

parallelism of mineralogical constituents are grouped as foliated rocks.

ii) Non-Foliated Rocks: All those metamorphic rocks characterized with total or nearly
absence of foliation or parallelism of mineralogical constituents.

Examples of Metamorphic Rocks are:

Phyllite: soapy feeling.

Schist: rough, irregular and undulated plane, unequal growth of minerals.

Gneiss: band of contrast color, foliated texture on a scale of cm or more.

Fig: Metamorphic Rocks

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3.3.3 Sedimentary Rocks

These rocks are derived from pre-existing rocks through the process of erosion, transportation and
deposition by various natural agencies such as wind, water, glaciers etc. The loose sediments
undergo composition and form resulting products as sedimentary rocks. According to mode of
transportation sedimentary rocks are divided into three different types:

i) Clastic Rocks: The rocks which are formed from broken rock fragments weathered
and eroded by river, glacier, wind etc. are known as clastic rocks.

ii) Chemical Deposits: The rock which are formed by chemical precipitation are known
as chemical deposits.

iii) Organic Deposits: The rocks which are formed by deposited organically are called
organic deposits.

Examples of Sedimentary Rocks are:

Sandstone: rough, granular structure, composed of rounded grains of quartz of same size.

Claystone: having less than 1/256 mm particle size, texture and composition of shale.

Conglomerate: tan or brown color, coarse grained (2-64mm),composed of quartz,

feldspar.

Fig: Sedimentary Rocks

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4. Rock Cleavage

Rock cleavage is defined as the capacity of the rock to split along certain directions yielding
parallel or sub parallel smooth surfaces.

1. Types of Rock Cleavage

Rock Cleavage is distinguished into three types :

i) Slaty Cleavage: Slaty cleavage is a type of cleavage that is defined as consisting of

0.01 millimeters or less of spacing between its layers. Slaty cleavage occurs through
tectonic stress.

Fig: Slaty Cleavage

(Source:https://study.com/learn/lesson/rock-cleavage-and-schistosity.html)

ii) Disjunctive Cleavage: Disjunctive cleavage is a type of spaced cleavage where the
deformation of the rock through tectonic and metamorphic activity changes and is
inconsistent through time. This deforms the rock layers so that they don't remain in
parallel lines.

Fig: Disjunctive Cleavage

(Source:https://study.com/learn/lesson/rock-cleavage-and-schistosity.html)

iii) Crenulation Cleavage: Crenulation cleavage occurs in rocks that undergo multiple
phases of deformation which creates folding within the rock system. These folds
appear at the microscopic scale, and folds deform foliations that have previously
formed in the rock.

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 Fig: Crenulation Cleavage

(Source:https://study.com/learn/lesson/rock-cleavage-and-schistosity.html)

4. ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE/SCOPE OF ROCKS

i) Many of the igneous rocks such as granites, syenites and dolerites are extensively
used as materials for construction.

ii) Igneous rocks are typically impervious, hard and strong and form very strong foundations
for most civil engineering projects such as dams and reservoirs.

iii) Some igneous rocks like peridotites and pegmatites are valuable as they may contain
many valuable minerals of much economic worth.

iv) Igneous rock can be used inside buildings when igneous rock are cut and polished such as
banks and offices, and are also used as grave stones.

v) Crystalline igneous rocks can be used for jewelery and other similar things.

vi) Sedimentary rocks give an idea of the biological history of the earth and the geological
events that occurred previously although they can’t be accurately dated.

vii) Most of the sedimentary rocks act as natural reservoirs of oil and ground water supplies.

viii) Metamorphic rock like Marble is commonly used in the construction of palatial and
monumental buildings in the form of blocks, slabs, arches.

ix) Marble is used in architecture design. E.g. Taj Mahal

x) Marble is used for its chemical properties in pharmaceutical and agriculture.

xi) Marble is used for optical properties cosmetics, paint and paper.

xii) Granite can be use as construction material, dimension stone, an architectural stone, a
decorative stone and it has also been used to manufacture a wide variety of products.

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xiii) Granite is used in building, bridges, paving, monuments and many other exterior projects

xiv) Granite has been used for Olympic gold medal in the curling at 2018. Curling stone
weights between 38 to 44 pounds and are made from granites with specific physical
properties.
xv) These rocks helps to develop new technologies used in our everyday lives which includes
cosmetics, cars, and appliances.

5. LIMITATIONS OF STUDY

i. The study will be conducted only near the bank of river.

ii. The study cannot be done at volcanic erupted area .
iii. The study is not conducted in the Himalayan range .

6. FEASIBILITY STUDY:

The feasibility of this proposal is easy in most case but microscopic study of crystalline form
of different rock is difficult because of lack of technology. Many problems in encountered on
this proposal . Due to the minimum time schedule , the study of igneous rock can not be
performed.

6. METHODOLOGY

In geology, pictures of rocks can be used to best determine the category a particular rock belongs
to: igneous, sedimentary or metamorphic. By comparing the rock samples with photographic
examples, we can identify the key characteristics such as how the rock was formed, what minerals
and other materials it contains, and where the rock may have come from before beginning the
identification process, it is made sure that the sample has been washed to remove dirt. It is also
confirmed that there is a freshly cut surface so that color, grain structure, stratification, texture,
and other characteristics can be identified. Following flowchart shows the identification of
different types of rocks

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 Grain Size

Color

Minerology

Specific Gravity

Texture/Structure

Tenacity

Hardness

Diaphaneity

Diagnostic

Fig: Identification of different types of rocks

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7. PROJECT SCHEDULE

Collection of
Project Setting Literature Proposal Proposal
details and
Selection Objectives review information Writing presentation

Fig: Project Task flowchart

S.N Description Poush Poush Poush Magh Magh

2nd week 3rd week 4th week 1st week 2nd week

1 Literature Review

2 Project Class

3 Proposal writing
and formatting

4 Proposal
submission and
presentation

Fig: Duration of project Schedule

8. CONCLUSION

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Rocks are the foundation of any engineering structures. They are extremely vital to scientists as
they provide clues about the Earths history. Rocks have a broad range of uses that makes them
significantly important to humans. Hence, from this proposal we were able to identify those
rocks on the basis of their respective diagnostic properties.

8.1 Identification of Igneous Rocks:

Igneous rock is created by volcanic activity, from cooled and hardened magma and lava as tough,
frozen melts with little texture or layering. It is most often black, gray, or white, and often has a
baked appearance. Igneous rock may form crystalline structures as it cools, giving it a granular
appearance; if no crystals form, the result will be natural glass.

Table 8.1

Rock Type Usual Color Other Grain Size Composition

Pumice light many small bubbles fine lava froth from sticky lava
Felsite light contains quartz fine or mixed high-silica lava

Basalt dark has no quartz fine or mixed low-silica lava

Granite light wide range of color and coarse feldspar and quartz with minor
grain size mica, amphibole or pyroxene

Tonalite light to little or no alkali feldspar coarse plagioclase and quartz with
medium dark minerals

Gabbro medium to no quartz; may have coarse high-calcium plagioclase and

dark olivine dark minerals

8.2 Identification of Sedimentary Rocks:

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Sedimentary rock, also called stratified rock, may range from green to gray, or red to brown,
depending on iron content and is usually softer than igneous rock. It is often hardened sediment
with sandy or clay-like layers (strata) and may have fossils and water or wind marks.

Table 8.2

Rock Type Hardness Grain Size Composition Other

Sandstone hard coarse clean quartz white to brown
Siltstone hard fine very fine sand; no feels gritty on teeth
clay
Shale soft fine clay minerals splits in layers
Coal soft fine Carbon black; burns with tarry smoke
Limestone soft fine Calcite fizzes with acid
Dolomite soft coarse or Dolomite no fizzing with acid unless
rock fine powdered

8.3 Identification of Metamorphic Rocks:

Metamorphic rocks are tough, with straight or curved layers (foliation) of light and dark minerals.
They come in various colors and often contain glittery mica while the crystals in them are
arranged in bands. Metamorphic rocks can be differentiated with the help of foliation. Most of
the metamorphic rocks such as Slate, Phyllite, Gneiss etc. are foliated whereas some
metamorphic rocks like marble and quartzite are non-foliated.

Table 8.3

Rock Type Foliation Grain Usual Color Other

Size
Slate foliated fine dark soft; strong cleavage

Phyllite foliated fine dark shiny; crinkly foliation

Schist foliated coarse mixed dark and wrinkled foliation; often has large
light crystals

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 Gneiss foliated coarse mixed banded

Amphibolite foliated coarse dark mostly hornblende

Marble Non- coarse light soft; calcite or dolomite by the acid

foliated test
Quartzite non- coarse light quartz (no fizzing with acid)
foliated

9. REFERENCE

This proposal is about the study of different types of rocks and their identifications. To study
about different types of rocks various resources were explored. They are:

i. A Textbook Of Engineering And General Geology, 8th Edition, 2008

ii. https://www.britannica.com/science/rock-geology
iii. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rock_cycle
iv. https://nbmg.unr.edu/_docs/ScienceEducation/Activities/RocksAndGeology.pdf
v. https://opentextbc.ca/geology/chapter/3-1-the-rock-cycle/
vi. https://www.michigan.gov/-
/media/Project/Websites/egle/Documents/Programs/OGMD/Catalog/08/GIMDL-
USGSCR.PDF?rev=b7b83a55629d458c9e1482da487fdf9c

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