Geological Consideration in Engineering

By Sandra Tabon MS MPH in EH/SE

DRAFT
Copyright © 2022 Sandra Tabon

All rights reserved.

 Acknowledgment

Those who were able to share their part in the making of this book are acknowledge.

God who is the Maker of all is given the utmost thanksgiving for the realization of the writing and the
publication finally of this material which is intended for learning in the field of engineering. To Him be
the unspeakable glory through Jesus our Lord, forever more. Amen.

The Author

2022
 Preface

The book entitled Geological Consideration in Engineering is aimed to contain a comprehensive

amount of learning materials for the topic on the geological feature of the earth crust which is
considered to be an essential background in the experience in relation to the practice of engineering.
It is intended to contain the basic fundamental knowledge of the geological environment offered by
the condition of the crust of the earth which is tapped in the implementation of intended development
brought about in engineering. Case studies were included for the application of the geological
experiences in each specific engineering work.

In the content of the book are the pieces of information about the earth crust, the different landform,
processes and water bodies including the groundwater as well as the processes that are naturally true
in each feature which are at interaction with the activities and outcome of the development of the
projects especially in the civil engineering field of practice.

A succeeding edition is intended so as to fully develop the learning material to cater to the ever
changing undergraduate engineering curriculum. The book though may be used for various types of
interests.

The Author

2022
 Table of Contents

Acknowledgment

Preface

Table of Contents

Terminology

Chapter 1 Introduction

Chapter 2 Rock Composition and Related Engineering Study

Chapter 3 Rock, Its Origin and Related Engineering Research

Chapter 4 Structural Geology and Rock Mechanics : Its Interaction with Engineering Work

Chapter 5 Geological Investigation and Engineering Project Site

References
Terminology

Abrasive- Substance used for cleaning, polishing, or grinding

Alkali feldspar- Group composed of mixed crystals of potassium feldspar and sodium

feldspar

Ballast- Material that provides stability to a vehicle or structure

Basalt- Finely granulated igneous rock

CDC- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Crude Oil- Compounds of hydrogen and carbon atoms in liquid form

Fossil Fuel- Compound mixtures of fossilized remnant of plants and animals

Gneiss- Foliated metamorphic rock identified with its bands

Granite- Coarse- grained igneous rock

Ion- Atom or group of atoms with one or more electrical charges

Iron Ore- Mineral substance which when heated will yield iron

Lithosphere- Rocky outer part of the earth

Mica- Group of silicate minerals whose individual crystals can be split into extremely thin plates

Mound- Heaped pile

Quaternary- One of the periods in an era in the geologic time

Ridge- Range

Rubble- Fragment

Sandstone- sedimentary rock of fine grains

Shale- fine- grained sedimentary rock

Sounding- Process of measuring the depth of water body

Strata- Layers

Traction- Grip of tire on a road

Trench- Long narrow depression

Tsunami- Series of waves in water body

Water table- upper level of space where rocks and soil are saturated with water
Chapter 1

Introduction

The Association of Environmental and Engineering Geologists described the engineering geology as the
application of the geologic data, techniques and principles. Accordingly its purpose is to assure that
the geologic factors are recognized, adequately interpreted, and presented for use in any engineering
work. A geologist defined geology for engineers as the study of the earth. The engineer may take a
look into the branches of geology and see which one is essential to the practice of the engineering
profession. One branch is petrology which includes a systematic study of rocks and the rock origin. The
rich experiences about rocks to deal with especially in large engineering projects like tunneling, airfield
construction, and ports and harbor facilities are shared in petrology where most primary theories and
concepts are fundamental items to the planning, design, and construction of the massive structure in
the selected site. Mineralogy which is the study of the composition of the rock is another branch which
covered information on which type of rock is performing better than the other based on the properties
for the engineer to decide on the material to be selected for the construction of the engineering
structure or which rock type will need a type of foundation to rest the big structure upon.
Crystallography dealing with the atomic structure and external appearance of the minerals composition
of the rock and geochemistry which is the study of the chemistry of the rocks and where engineers will
see a type of rock which by water solution due to chemistry might weaken the engineering structure
foundation, are branches which in passing would have to contain shared experiences to the engineers in
practice. Stratigraphy which is the study of the layered rocks most of which are sedimentary and
structural geology which deals with the position, deformation and fracture in rocks would bring about
the mechanics and dynamics of forces and hence stresses in the rock which are of essence enabling the
engineer to decide whether a repair or a rock formation removal is needed to be done when a
structure must be construction on the site of an existing deformed rock formation. Geomorphology
which is the study of the origin and development of landforms is so basic for the engineer who is
planning for a project site location.

Geomagnet on the earth magnetic field study, geophysics on the application of physics on earth study,
geodesy on the earth form and earth size study, seismology on the earthquake study, hydrogeology
and hydrology on the study of the underground and surface water, oceanography on the ocean and
basin study, and paleontology on the study of the evolution of plants and animals and the life of past
geologic periods, as well as engineering geology on engineering and geology, is each a branch of
geology. Engineering geology, hydrology and hydrogeology are essential components in the study of civil
engineering where application of the concepts and principles of these branches as applicable has been
the reason why a lot of structures still persist as workable and functional beyond depreciation life.

Hydrogeology deals with groundwater. The CDC described groundwater as water found below the earth
surface in the spaces between rock and soil. The groundwater supplies water to the wells and springs
which are important source of water for public and private water systems. In an article about the
sustainability of groundwater, Ponce (2007) described the concepts involving the place of recharge and
place of discharge of groundwater considering humid and other areas where the water table may be
near the surface or not. Water distribution system is design by engineers and in the effort for
prospecting of water, below the ground surface is not spared. In fact, private and public wells have
been essential water supply for irrigation, industries and homes in certain places. Certain states
though got stream flow standards to regulate groundwater withdrawal or pumping. As groundwater
utilization is in its increasing trend, certain techniques were utilized for its exploration. One method
involved the use of an indicative tool to determine the availability of saturated strata, a preliminary
investigation for groundwater assessment. To validate the result of this technique, an exploratory well
must be installed in place.

The earth got water. The universe contained water in certain forms.

The earth properties include its size, density, distance from the sun, and chemistry. The earth has a
diameter which is more than 12,500 kilometers and measurement of more than 40,000 kilometers
around its almost circumferential surface along the equator. Its structure includes its solid inner core of
iron and nickel, fluid layer of iron and nickel, the mantle of hot rock, and the lithosphere with thin, cool
rocky crust.

According to that geologist, geology looks into the earth formation, the types of processes, and the
structure as well as the composition of the earth. Four major earth’s processes were identified as
follow: tectonics, erosion, volcanism, and impact cratering. Tectonics and volcanism had been
triggering seismic activities and the earthquake events had sent engineers to address complex issues
and problems not only before any earthquake but also after such occurrence. An earthquake engineer
was confronted not by an analysis to a quantitative data but on the analysis to qualitative data on
earthquake occurrence. In New Zealand, a study was conducted for region with governing tectonic
loading and seismic moment release. A seismicity model was developed. Consistent anomaly in the
observation was dictated by the deformation in the Quaternary. Observed earthquake events were
attributed to causative faults.
Plate tectonics is the theory on plates on earth’s crust, that move relative to one another It was said
that the lithosphere of the earth is divided into large pieces called tectonic plates. Spreading centers,
subduction zones, and faults mark the plate boundaries. Two plates may be pushed apart in what is
called as spreading. One plate slides or subducts beneath the other. Plates can collide. The rise of the
Himalayan Mountain range is caused by the ongoing collision of two plates. Plates may become stuck
or locked building up stresses causing fault to suddenly break free resulting in the release of seismic
waves. In what is called as transforming faulting, two plates can slide past each other. Earthquakes in
California are due to transform faulting. Slip on faults defining plate boundaries commonly results in
earthquakes, one among the hazards with corresponding risks to civil works.

Post earthquake events were conditions when engineers were called upon to respond, address the
issues, and offer solution to the problems. A research was done to introduce a tool for showing and
sharing information within the after- earthquake- response- management strategies.

Erosion is one among the functions of the fluvial systems of which are rivers and streams. The fluvial
systems processes transport sediment, deposit it as they erode and so sculpt the landforms while
creating and reshaping and these processes can be neighbors to engineering works and structures like
dams across the river and pier by the sea. =River systems processes such as deposition, transport of
materials as sediments and erosion result to landform formation, and movement of materials from
upstream to downstream. These processes are important to engineering projects which include dams,
flood control structures, irrigation facilities, bridges, wharves (structures parallel to shore or banks of
rivers use for docking of ships), and others. Waves on shores can erode or cause certain pattern of
sediment transport and deposition. Fluvial systems then are not all alone in such natural processes
but those of the seas and the like are often in these so that structures nearby are designed and
constructed to be able to withstand the stresses that will result due to these. Nearshore processes such
as interaction of waves, current, tides and land in coastal areas are paid significant consideration
particularly in design and maintenance for such projects as roadways and bridges near the shore. Low
lying roadways and bridges are vulnerable to current, waves and tides impacts during storms and heavy
precipitation as well as hurricanes which usually are coupled by erosion, storm surge and strong wave
forces.

Wind influences the formation of fetch which is the distance over which the wind is blowing, duration
of the length of time over which the wind is blowing, and its speed which is the way of measuring its
strength. Strong winds often form disturbance of the surface of the sea water causing waves. A series
of waves of a tsunami may be caused by forces due to underwater slides by an earthquake. The
engineer being aware of these obtained guidance in estimating the velocity and the design wave height
for the armoring in the protection of infrastructure and the engineering construction of coastal
transportation. Meanwhile, the ocean and sea surface may be disturbed at certain time by a very
strong wind. Any ship in the port may hide during stormy days and if the ship remains in the port
consideration must be made on how much protection is the provided by the port and harbor. A very
strong wind might impose a force which is nearly doubled on moored vessel and so attention must be
paid to the tying of the lines of the vessel tied to the pier as a quick break might cause damage.
Chapter 2

Rock Composition and Related Engineering Study

Review

In 2015 a formula which represented a rock erodibility was found in the first few sentences of an article
on a result of a research on the variability of rock erodibility in bedrock- floored channels with
sandstone bedrock in Utah and basaltic bedrock in Hawaii. After an experiment was done on the
samples, the group of researchers which included Eric Small, made a statement that the erodibility of
the bedrock exposed in the channel bottom, is higher at the margins than near the center of the
channel; and that the erodibility decreases over depths of approximately 1 mm. Before the researchers
reached a conclusion in their study, they released the statements of what they hold on to in line with
their study. They believed that the erodibility influences erosion. They made the statement that the
resistance to erosion is controlled by the characteristics of the bedrock which is exposed in the channel
bottom, after having written that the stream power and shear stress models which described the
erodibility of the bedrock, are generalizations of interacting complex processes and environmental
constraints.

Rock Composition

The teaching and learning about the rock types, namely igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary span
over the decade of educational pursuit for the basic to more advance studies. Any of these types is not
so significant as the other type in engineering. Each is having its own fundamental essence in the
practice of civil engineering. One early study of rocks, soil and minerals got the goal of having to identify
each of these rock types and common rock- forming minerals.

Engineers encounter sand, gravel, clay and silt in project sites. Ralph Peck (1973) and two other authors
of the book entitled Foundation Engineering in its second edition, described rock as a natural aggregate
of mineral grains connected by strong and permanent cohesive forces; and soil as a natural aggregate of
mineral grains with or without the organic constituents, that can be separated by gentle mechanical
means. There is the statement in that book which followed to contain that there is no distinction
between soil and rock. Throughout this text though, the soil is taken as a product of the weathering of
the rock and the rock is meant to be one which is freed of deformations. Otherwise, the rock is
deformed or weathered and so is already a product of the deformation or disintegration and is hence a
component of the soil. Sand, gravel, silt and clay then is each an aggregate and may be part of a portion
of the soil in a job site but every of these may or may not be a construction material depending upon
the aggregate use in a project such as for instance the sand and gravel for concrete pavement which is
to be made while freed from the presence of clay and silt; and the silt and clay as well as large
percentage of sand for an earth road.
Each aggregate is made of mineral. Metals such as iron, copper, nickel, aluminum, gold, zinc, and
silver are sourced from minerals. Iron is processed from iron ore. The iron then is refined to produce
steel which is shaped and graded in accordance to its use in the construction industry. Nonmetals which
include gypsum, limestone, talc, clay, and halite also are from minerals. Mineral was learned to be
naturally formed crystalline (as atoms are arranged) inorganic solid having a definite chemical
composition. Clay which is nonmetal mineral is of importance in the earth road construction as its
percentage component with silt and sand meets certain specification. Cement is important component
of concrete and gypsum is essential in cement manufacturing where it acts as retarding agent in
controlling the rate of the hardening of the cement.

The Commission on Higher Education in the Philippines (2017) in its memorandum on civil engineering
curriculum, suggested that the content of the geology for the engineers is to include the following
subject matters: Mineralogy to cover the topics on the elementary knowledge on symmetry, elements
of crystallographic systems, physical properties of minerals, the study of the following rock- forming
minerals as quartz, family feldspar, family augite, hornblende, biotite, muscovite, calcite, garnet,
properties, process of formation of all minerals, coal and petroleum, and their origin and occurrence in
India.

Quartz is made of atoms of silicon and oxygen in a tetrahedron formation of four triangular faces. It has
scratch hardness of 7 and is durable as it is resistant to chemical or mechanical attack. It is found
abundant in certain igneous rocks such as granite. It is rare or absent in basalt whose large fragments
may be found in rubble mound breakwaters of some or a few harbors. Metamorphic rocks may
contain an abundant amount of quartz especially those which were formed with shale, granite or
sandstone. Metamorphic gneiss of coarse grains may be of quartz and other minerals. Various forms
and quantity of quartz are found in sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary shales and siltstone contain very
small size of grains of quartz. Sandstone of sedimentary type contains various sizes of grains of quartz.

A friable sandstone is processed for the sand which is considered as a fine aggregate unlike a coarse
aggregate like gravel. If the sandstone of nearly pure quartz is processed as a sand, then sand pile can
be of almost pure quartz. Sand and sandstone meeting the specifications can be used for glass making
or metal casting. Certain sand is utilized as traction sand in rail transportation. Traction sand works as
ballast to maintain the balance. While a durable sand can be a concrete ingredient, it can be used as
excellent filter to remove the bacteria and sediment from water.

Feldspar is said to be the most abundant mineral in the earth crust while being the major constituent of
moon rock. The use of feldspars range from the making of ceramics to ceramic glaze as well as use in
abrasive. At high temperature the feldspar cools. Its particular component separates with small grains
and streaks appearing as a mixture of coarse texture results. With atomic framework of the planes of
weakness, feldspar exhibiting good cleavage, brakes readily into blocky pieces. It is used in the
classification of igneous rocks. It is abundant in metamorphic rocks, in some sediments, and in
sedimentary rock. Alkali feldspar weather to clay. In certain region, alkali feldspar accumulates in the
sand and the sandstone may be formed from the sand. Alkali feldspar is abundant in granite of
intrusive igneous which is composed mainly of the alkali feldspar and quartz. Felspar contains the
silicon and aluminum ions bound by the oxygen ions and in certain sites of their framework of atoms
are calcium, potassium and sodium ions. If alkali feldspar is said to weather to clay, further study or
research must be done on the rubble breakwater construction using granite which is composed of
alkali feldspar in abundance.

A blocky fragment of an augite, a pyroxene, got rough surfaces compared to feldspar or micas. Its
cleavage surfaces are intersecting at around 90 degrees while not splintery or shiny. Certain road
construction such as a gravel road would require gravel which is blocky with rough surfaces and not of
smooth round shape. Augite chemical formula revealed that its mineral structure is of oxygen,
calcium, aluminum, sodium, and silicon with magnesium and iron atom. Augite is found in igneous rock
such as basalt.

Hornblende’s variable composition includes oxygen, silicon, hydrogen aluminum, and iron with
calcium, sodium, magnesium and potassium. Its color ranges from light green to dark green as those
with the latest color are iron- rich ones. Iron is a raw material in the steel making industry which
processes steel as structural material for vertical and horizontal construction. Hornblende is found in
igneous rock such as basalt and metamorphic rock such as gneiss. Flaky biotite is undesirable in the
construction project but may be of value when processed to manufacture certain product of economic
importance. Its specific gravity increases as its iron content is increasing. It is found in igneous and
metamorphic rocks. Muscovite is very common in varieties of metamorphic rock such as gneiss and
slate. Its igneous occurrence includes granite. It may be part of sediments eroded from igneous and
metamorphic rock. It has widespread occurrence in sedimentary rock.

Calcite is one interesting carbonate mineral composed of oxygen, calcium and carbon. In Indiana, US, a
limestone got calcite or calcium carbonate as its major mineral while limestone is a major raw material
for Indiana’s road, building and concrete production. From Indiana limestone, glass and other products
are manufactured. Pure limestone of more than 90 percent calcite considered as a chemical raw
material is priced high. Calcite is soft. Garnet is relatively a hard complex mineral though. It is utilized
as gemstone and for abrasive. Its composition includes oxygen, magnesium, iron or chromium,
aluminum, and silicon.

Playing its role in the engineering and construction industry, coal is. It is said to be a fossil fuel, a
nonrenewable energy source. It is formed over millions of years from the burial of photosynthetic
organisms including plants. On a Purdue University website, coal is described as a sedimentary rock that
burns, one which was formed from the decomposition of plant matter. Coal’s published - empirical
formula shows that it may be is composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulfur. The
destructive distillation process involving coal may result into a tar which is good enough for road project
construction material. During many decades ago, coal tar had been used for creosote to preserve
wooden material such as pier wooden piles underwater, tar paint, and road tar for road construction,
maintenance and repair. In the 1990s, the production of the aromatic hydrocarbons relied on the
petrochemical industry and coal tar was utilized only for certain uses which include wood preservation
and anti- corrosion coating.

The term petroleum is used to call a broad range of hydrocarbons in the form of liquid, solid or gas
which are found beneath the earth’s surface. Natural gas and crude oil are the common forms of
petroleum. Crude oil is refined in a manufacturing process that may produce gasoline, kerosene and fuel
oil. A by- product in this process is an asphalt cement which may either be mixed with gasoline solvent
to produce a liquid form of bituminous material called a rapid-curing cutback which is better known with
the acronym RC. The asphalt cement may be processed with kerosene to make what is called as
medium curing cutback (MC). Certain adjustment in the distillation process may result to the so- called
slow curing cutback (SC) which was named as road oil. Each cutback is a liquid form of the bituminous
binding material which is producing a workable road surfacing material that is of normal consistency
compared with a solid asphalt. Though then, the use of cutback in road construction, repair and
maintenance has reduced because of the issue on air pollution.

Edit

Chapter 3

Rock, Its Origin and Related Engineering Research

Chapter 4

Structural Geology and Rock Mechanics : Its Interaction with Engineering Work

Chapter 5

Geological Investigation and Engineering Project Site

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