Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction
1.2 braches of geology
The Science of Geology

What is Geology?
Geology -is the science of earth, its composition, structure,
its history and its past plant and animal’s life .
The word geology is derived from the Greek word geo- earth
and logos –discourse.
It includes not only the surface process which have shaped
the earth's surface, but the study of the ocean floors, and the
interior of the Earth.
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It is not only the study of the Earth as we see it today, but
the history of the Earth as it has evolved to its present
condition.

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Branches of Geology
The science is commonly divided into the field of physical
and historical geology

1.Physical geology – deals with the materials that constitute

the earth, the structure and surface features of the earth and
the processes that have given the earth its present structure
and appearance
2.Historical geology -deals with the history of the earth –its
changing face and structure and changing forms of living
things whose remains or traces are found as fossils in the
rocks

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Geology is further divided into a number of branches
according to subject matter and industrial or commercial
applications
Based On Subject Matter
I.Geochemistry-study of the chemistry of the rock and of the
waters and atmosphere
II.Geomorphology-the study of land forms and their origin
and development
III.Geophysics -the application of physics the study of the
earth
IV.Mineralogy -the study of minerals
V.Oceanography - the study of oceans and their basins
VI.Paleontology -study of the life of past geologic periods
and the evolution of plants and animals whose remains and
traces are found in the rocks 4
IV. Petrology - the systematic study of rocks especially
their origin
V. Stratigraphy - the study of layered rocks chiefly those
of sedimentary origin
VI. Structural geology -deals with the forces causing rock
bodies to be deformed or broken

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Branches Based On Application
Economic geology -deals with the commercial and
industrial uses of the sources of the earth
Agricultural geology- the study of soils especially of
their depletion and erosion
Engineering geology -geology applied to the building of
dams, reservoirs, highways bridges tunnels irrigation
works, and other projects
Hydrogeology -the study of surface and under ground
water
Mining geology - geology applied to the finding and
extraction of metallic deposits and nonmetallic resources
Petroleum geology- the study of the origin and
occurrence of petroleum 6
 ROCKS
As a civil engineers why do we study Geology?
Civil engineering works are all carried out on or in the
ground, its properties and processes are therefore significant.
Rocks are the essential building materials of which the
earth is constructed.
The geologist’s definition of rock;
- Any mass of mineral matter, whether consolidated or
not, which is forming part of the earth’s crust.

Rocks may have only one mineral species, in which case

they are known as monomineralic but they usually have an
aggregate of mineral species.
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 ROCKS

Engineering geology contribute to the task of

providing a level of understanding of ground conditions
that ensures the engineering works are constructed for
estimates of time and cost.
Such works should not fail as the result of any
misunderstanding or lack of knowledge about the nature of
the ground conditions.
It provide suitable construction material
It also predict and mitigate the geological hazards
It provide different geological structure which can affect
the engineering works.
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 The philosophy of Engineering Geological
Principles
Behind every discipline there must be a basic philosophy or a
way in which that discipline approaches its problems.
The philosophy of engineering geology is based on three
simple premises:
1. All engineering works are built in or on the ground
The structure is but an extension of the ground.
2. The ground will always, in some manner, react to the
construction of the engineering work.
Assess the magnitude and nature of the reaction of the ground
to both the construction and the operation of the project.
3. The reaction of the ground (its “engineering behaviour”) to
the particular engineering work must be accommodated by
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 The Role of Engineering Geologist
Their main role is to conduct investigations depending
up on:
geologic environment,
geologic material,
geological structures, events, geological history and
other geological conditions for the suitability of the site
for civil engineering works.

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 Applications of Engineering Geology
Civil engineering:
 Buildings, industrial and offshore foundations.
 Reservoirs, fills and embankments.
 Slopes.
 Roads, airports and industrial pavements.
 Bridges.
 Retaining structures.
 Tunnels and underground space facilities.
 Mining and resource development.
 Environment: waste containment systems and site
remediation.
 Military engineering: recent developments.
 Groundwater resources development and
management. 11
Origin of Earth
The Earth and other members of the Solar System are
believed to have been formed about 4600 million years
ago.
The big-bang Theory:
This is by condensation from a flattened rotating
cloud of gas and dust. This contracted slowly, giving rise
to the primitive Sun at its centre - a new star -
surrounded by a mass of cosmic gases in which local
condensations generated the planets.

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The Uniformitarianism Theory
states that geologic change occurs over long periods of
time, by a sequence of almost imperceptible events.
The Catastrophism Theory
Geologic past may have “consisted of epochs of
paroxysmal( a sudden uncontrollable attack) and
catastrophic action, interposed between periods of
comparative tranquility.”
Epochs:- a period of time in history, especially one
during which important events or changes happens.

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 Internal Structure of the Earth
The interior of the earth is variable consisting of
concentric shells which defer in composition, density,
elasticity, and state
a) Earth quake waves- the behavior of earth quake
waves shows clearly that the earth is zoned.

as they travel from one zone to an other ,the waves

change in velocity according to the nature of the
material through which they pass. They are also
reflected and refracted at the boundary between the
zones;
these rather sharp breaks are called discontinuities
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I) The Crust

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 II) THE MANTLE
The mantle is a thick envelope that constitutes
more than 1/3 of the Earth planet. It extends from the
base of the crust (~100km) to 2883 km (the top of the Core).
Generally, it is a semi-molten part of the earth whose the
uppermost parts are rather rigid and is called
(Asthenosphere). The amount of the molten materials
increase downward where a marked decrease in the short
waves is recorded.
The Mantle is divided into two parts, according to its physical
characters:

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 III) The Core
 The Core is the thickest envelope in the earth. It is the
central mass of the planet where it constitutes more than
2/3 of the Earth. It extends from the base of the inner
mantle (~2883km) to the Earth’s center (~7500km).

 The Core composition reflects the original nature of the

earth planet. The core is commonly rich in Fe & Ni, the
same as meteorites, evidencing that all individuals of the
solar system derived from one and the same cosmic body

The core is divided into two parts:

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1) Outer Core:
A very hot envelope of strongly molten materials . It is
mainly composed of molten SIMA as well as some S, Ni
and Fe. Due to the great overlying pressure, this part
behaves as solid, however, it is a real melt, so the short
waves suffer a great reduction in the velocities in this part.

2) Inner Core:
A very hot envelope of strongly molten materials. It is
entirely composed of molten Ni and Fe, the same as
meteorites. Due to the very excessive overlying pressure,
this part behaves as solid, so the short waves display
increase in velocities in this part.
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Geologic Processes

The geologic processes operating upon and with in the crust

of the earth, and are responsible for shaping the earth surface
are:
Gradation- processes of weathering, decomposition and
disintegration
Degradation- wearing down of rocks by water, Ice, and wind
Aggradations- Deposition processes by the accumulation of
sediment
Volcanism- movements of molten rock and the formation of
solid rock
Diastrophism- movements of the solid part of the earth
resulting in displacement (faulting or folding)
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Divisions of The Earth
The earth is divided into three zones corresponding to the
three states of matter constitute the earth.
• Lithosphere
• Hydrosphere
• Atmosphere
Lithosphere -is the relatively brittle outer rock layer,
consisting of the crust and upper mantle; it is broken into
large slabs known as plates.
Hydrosphere -a sphere of water containing absorbed water,
and carrying particles of rock as sediment surrounds the earth
Atmosphere – the envelope of gases surrounding the earth

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