All Ppts For Cegeolo Compiled

1
Introduction to Physical
Geology
Outline of Presentation 2
 Introduction to Physical Geology

 Overview of Concepts
 Earth
 Rock Cycle
 Plate Tectonics
Geology 3
 The word geology comes from the Greek geo (Earth) and
logos (discourse).
 Geology is the science that pursues an understanding of
planet Earth.
 Throughout its long existence, Earth has been changing
and will continue to do so. Sometimes the changes are
rapid and violent, as when landslides or volcanic eruptions
occur.
 Learn about minerals, which form the building blocks of
rocks, and how rocks are made and destroyed.
Geology 4
 Geology is traditionally divided into two broad areas:

 physical and historical
 Physical Geology
 Examines the materials composing Earth and seeks to understand
the many processes that operate beneath and upon its surface.
 Historical Geology
 Attempts to understand the origin of Earth and its development
through time.
Geology 5
 Importance/benefits of studying geology:

 We need geology to find and maintain a supply of minable
commodities and sources of energy;
 Geology helps protect the environment;
 Applying knowledge about geologic hazards (such as volcanoes,

earthquakes, tsunamis, landslides) saves lives and property;
 We have a greater appreciation of rocks and landforms through

understanding how they form.
Introduction to Physical 6
Geology
 The subject deals with the physical forces and processes

that bring about changes in the earth’s crust or to the
surface of the earth on account of their prolonged
existence and action.
 Physical Geology is broadly divided into two branches:

 Endogenous Geology - deals with the internal dynamics of the
earth.
 Exogenous Geology - those with external dynamics .
Geology
Endogenous Geology –
deals with the internal
dynamics of the earth.
 The movement of
earth’s crust,
earthquakes, and
volcanic eruptions.
EARTHQUAKE
Geology
Exogenous Geology – FORMATION AND

DEVELOPMENT OF
those with external LANDFORMS
dynamics.
 Includes the formation
and development of
seas, rivers, streams,
landforms
(underground water),
erosion, weathering,
and all sedimentary
and allied processes.
Overview of Concepts: 9
Earth
 Earth system is a small part of the larger solar system.
 The Earth system has its components or “spheres” such

as:
 Atmosphere
 The gases that envelop the Earth.

 Hydrosphere
 The water on or near Earth’s surface.

Earth
 Earth system is a small part of the larger solar system.
 The Earth system has its components or “spheres” such

as:
 Biosphere
 All of the living or once-living material on Earth

 Geosphere
 Also known as solid Earth system

 It
is the rock and other inorganic Earth material that make
up the bulk of the planet.
Earth systems - Atmosphere

 Gaseous environment that surrounds Earth – provides life.
 90% of atmosphere within 10 miles of Earth surface (thin relative to

radius of the solid Earth at 4000 miles).
 Provides air for breathing and protects from Sun’s heat and ultraviolet
radiation.
 Recent concern with atmosphere regarding Ozone holes and Global

Warming.
Earth systems - Hydrosphere
 Water makes our “Blue” planet
unique –sustains life.
 Ocean covers 71% of Earth

surface -average depth of 3800
m (12,500 feet).
 97% ocean water
 3% fresh water
• Fresh water includes: surface water (lakes,

streams), ground water and glaciers
13
Overview of Concepts:
Earth systems - Biosphere
 Biosphere includes all life (including us!).
 Extends from ocean floor to several miles into atmosphere; however,

concentrated at Earth surface.
 Life responds to countless interaction with the environment.

 Successful adaptation to changing environment – evolution of
species.
 Non-successful adaptation – Extinction.
14
Earth systems - Geosphere
 Solid Earth: between atmosphere and oceans – rocks and soil and
other inorganic earth material.
 Surface and subsurface features reveal dynamic processes – Plate

Tectonics
 Face of the Earth
 Earth’s Interior
 Rock cycle - the loop that involves the processes by which one rock
type changes to another.
Overview of
15
Concepts:
Rock Cycle
 The three
major rock
types:
igneous,
metamorphic,
and
sedimentary.
Earth as a system
 Earth is a dynamic planet with many interacting parts or spheres.
 Parts of the Earth system are linked.
 All four of the systems interact with each other to produce soil:
 Soil is a mixture of decomposed and disintegrated rock (geosphere)
and organic matter (biosphere) through its exposure to air
(atmosphere) and water (hydrosphere).
Earth as a system
 Earth can be visualized as a giant machine driven by two engines,

one internal and the other external.
 Both are heat engines, devices that convert heat energy into
mechanical energy.
 Internal Processes: (Powered by the Earth’s interior)

 Heat remaining from Earth’s formation.
 Heat generated continuously by radioactive decay - powers
internal processes that produce volcanoes, earthquakes, &
mountains.
Earth as a system
 External Processes (Surficial Processes): Powered by Sun - drives

external processes
 Atmosphere
 Hydrosphere
 At Earth’s surface
19
Face of the Earth
 Earth’s surface - two principal
divisions
 Continents
 Ocean basins
20
Face of the Earth
 Earth’s surface - two principal divisions
 Continents
21
Face of the Earth
 Continents
 Ocean basins
22
Face of the Earth
 Continents
 Ocean basins
 Significant difference between the continents and ocean basins is

their relative elevations.
 continents average 2750 feet above (Mean Sea Level) MSL
 ocean floor average 12,500 feet below MSL
 continents average 15,250 feet above ocean floor
23
Face of the Earth
 Some geologist use the term:
 felsic (rocks high in feldspar and silicon) for continental crust.
 mafic (rocks high in magnesium and iron) for oceanic crust.
Earth’s Internal Structure

 Structure of Earth’s interior is
based on:
 Chemical composition
 Physical properties
Earth’s Internal Structure

 The crust is the outer layer of rock.
 which forms a thin skin on Earth’s
surface.
 The mantle lies below the crust.

 a thick shell of rock that separates
the crust above from the core
below.
 The core is the central zone of

Earth.
 It is metallic and is the source of
Earth’s magnetic field.
26
Earth’s Internal Structure-
Chemical composition
 Crust
 Oceanic – 7 km thick, dark
igneous rock basalt and
gabbro, young (<180 my),
dense (3.0 g/cm3)
 Continental – 70 km thick,
granitic rock, old (up to 4000
my), less dense (2.7 g/cm3)
Earth’s Internal Structure 27
by Chemical composition
 Mantle
 contains 82% Earth’s volume,
depth 2900 km
 rock called peridotite, more
dense (3.3 g/cm3)
by Chemical composition
 Core
 iron-nickel w/ minor oxygen,
silicon, sulfur
 extreme pressure – highly dense
(11 g/cm3)
Earth’s Internal Structure by
Physical properties
 Lithosphere – the crust
and the upper mantle
- outer shell of earth
- cold, strong rock
exhibits rigid behavior
- Averages 70 km thick
beneath oceans and
may be 125 to 250 km
thick beneath
continents
by Physical properties
 Asthenosphere – bottom portion of upper
mantle, soft weak layer, partial melting.
Depth of 660 km
Mesosphere – lower mantle, middle

sphere, 660-2900 km depth
- Very hot, with gradual flow of
convection currents
 Core – outer (liquid), generates Earth’s

magnetic field
- inner (solid), behaves as solid due to
pressure
Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics
 The forces generated inside the Earth as the effect of internal heat
are called tectonic forces.
 Tectonic forces cause deformation of rock as well as vertical and

horizontal movement of the portion of the Earth’s crust.
 The existence of mountain ranges indicates that tectonic forces are

stronger than gravitational forces.
Plate Tectonics
 The Theory of plate tectonics
 Continental Drift – the idea that continents moved freely over
the earth’s surface, changing their positions relative to one
another.
 notwidely accepted for more than 50 years because driving
mechanism unknown.
 Plate Tectonics accepted in 1965 as driving mechanism
 Plate tectonics regards the lithosphere as broken into plates
that are in motion.
Plate Tectonics
Plate Tectonics
 Earth’s rigid outer shell composed of numerous slabs (plates)

 mobile, continually changing size and shape
 Plate boundaries
 Most major interactions among individual plates occurs along
their boundaries
 Plate tectonics – first comprehensive model of Earth’s surface

Plate Tectonics 36
Plate Tectonics 37
Types of Plate Boundaries 38
 Divergent – two plates move

apart, resulting in upwelling of
material from the mantle to
create new seafloor, results to
moderate earthquake
 Convergent – two plates move

towards each other, resulting to
destruction of ocean floor,
creation and growth of mountain
range with volcanoes, results to
Earth’s greatest earthquakes and
tsunamis.
Plate Tectonics 39
 Transform – located where plates move

sideways past each other, no creation
or destruction of lithosphere, results to
small to large earthquake.
Continent-continent 40
convergence
 Himalayan
mountain belt.
 The tallest peaks
on Earth are
located here and
they continue to
grow in height
due to continued
collision of the
Indian sub-
continent with the
continental
Eurasian plate.
Continent-continent 41
convergence
 India relative to the Eurasian

plate.
1
Minerals and Rocks

PART 1
 Minerals and Rocks

 Atoms and Elements
Minerals 3
 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid

that has a specific chemical composition.
 Naturally occurring tells us that a mineral must form through

natural geologic processes.
Minerals 4

 Inorganic means that minerals are not composed of the

complex hydrocarbon molecules that are the basis of life-forms
such as humans and plants.
 Inorganic crystalline solids, such as ordinary table salt (halite), that
are found naturally in the ground are considered minerals.
Minerals 5

 Inorganic means that minerals are not composed of the

complex hydrocarbon molecules that are the basis of life-forms
such as humans and plants.
 Organic compounds, on the other hand, are generally not.
 Sugar, a crystalline solid like salt but extracted from sugarcane or
sugar beets.
Minerals and Rocks 6

 Minerals have a specific chemical composition that can be

described by a chemical formula.
 Quartz = SiO2
 which indicates that quartz consists of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O)
atoms in a 1:2 ratio.
Key Characteristics of Minerals 7
Minerals have two key characteristics.

 Composition:
The chemical elements that compose

a mineral, and their proportions.
 Crystal structure:
The organized way in which the
atoms of the elements are packed
together in a mineral.
Composition of Minerals 8
 A few minerals are composed of a single element

(examples are diamond, graphite, gold, copper, and
sulfur).
9
 Most minerals are compounds,

containing more than one element.
 The common mineral halite has a
chemical composition of NaCl.
 It is made of the two elements
sodium and chlorine with one
sodium atom for every atom of
chlorine.
Halite or “rock salt”
 Potassium feldspar, a very common
mineral in the earth’s crust, is made
up of the elements potassium, 10
aluminum, silicon, and oxygen.
 The formula for potassium feldspar is

written KAlSi3O8. This means that for
every atom of potassium in the
mineral, there is one atom of
aluminum, there are three of silicon,
and there are eight of oxygen
 Granite
 Is it a mineral or rock?
made up of crystals
of different
minerals
The mineral quartz

(SiO2) is made up of
atoms of the
elements silicon
(purple) and oxygen
(red) bonded
together
 Rock
 Naturally formed, coherent mass of one or more minerals,
sometimes including organic debris.
 Rocks are composed of minerals and minerals are composed

of atoms of elements bonded together in an orderly crystalline
structure.
 To geologists, minerals are important because they are the

building blocks of the rocks that make up the earth
 Limestone is composed of the mineral calcite.

 It is made up of multiple crystals of calcite either grown in an
interlocking pattern or cemented together.
Limestone
Limestone Rocks, Coron Island, Philippines
Atoms and Elements 14
 Atoms (Building Blocks of Minerals)
 the smallest, electrically neutral assemblies of energy and matter
that we know exist in the universe.
 Atoms, in turn, contain even smaller particles: protons and
neutrons located in a central nucleus that is surrounded by electrons
Simplified view of an atom This model of an atom shows spherically

shaped electron clouds
 The nucleus contains positively charged protons and neutral

particles called neutrons.
 Protons and neutrons are very dense particles with almost

identical masses. By contrast, electrons have a negligible mass,
about 1/2000 that of a proton.
 Both protons and electrons share a fundamental property,

called electrical charge.
 Surrounding the nucleus is a cloud of negatively charged

electrons .
 Studies of the arrangements of
electrons show that they move
about the nucleus in regions
called principal shells, each
with an associated energy level.
 In addition, each shell can hold

a specific number of electrons,
with the outermost shell
containing valence electrons.
This model of an atom shows
spherically shaped electron clouds
 These electrons can be
transferred to or shared with
other atoms to form chemical
bonds.
Structure of an Atom 17
• A stable electronic configuration for an atom is one with a
completely filled outer shell.
energy level or shell maximum number of electrons

first 2
second 8
third 8
 The simplest atoms have only 1 proton in their nuclei,
whereas others have more than 100.
 The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom,

called the atomic number, determines its chemical
nature.
 All atoms with the same number of protons have the
same chemical and physical properties.
 Together, a group of the same kind of atoms is called

an element.
 There are about 90 naturally occurring elements and
several more that have been synthesized in the
laboratory.
 There are ninety-two (92) different kinds of naturally
occurring atoms.
 Each element has the same number of protons and the same
number of electrons.
 Number of protons = Number of electrons.

Number of protons = atomic number.
Number of protons + Number of neutrons = atomic weight.
20
Atoms and Elements: 21
Ions and Bonding

 A molecular compound always consists of two or more kinds of
atoms held together.
 The force that holds the atoms together in a compound is

called bonding.
 Bonding determines the physical and chemical properties of a

compound.
Ions and Bonding

 Some atoms bond to form ionic compounds, some form
molecules, and still others form metallic substances.
 Experiments show that electrical forces hold atoms together

and bond them to each other.
 These electrical attractions lower the total energy of the

bonded atoms, which, in turn, generally makes them more
stable. Consequently, atoms that are bonded in compounds
tend to be more stable than atoms that are free (not bonded).
Ions and Bonding

 Atoms can attain a full outer energy level by either exchanging
electrons (ionic bonding) or sharing electrons (covalent and
metallic bonding) with neighboring atoms.
 Types of bonding:
 Ionic bonding
 Covalent bonding
 Metallic bonding
 Van der Waals bonding
Atoms and Elements: Ions 24
and Bonding
 Ionic Bonding: Electrons Transferred
 Ionic bonding is the most common type of bonding in minerals.
 Atoms with different/opposite charges are attracted to one

another, and this forms the basis for ionic bonding.
 Ionic Bonding: Electrons Transferred
 An ion is an atom that has a surplus or deficit of electrons

relative to the number of protons in its nucleus and therefore a
positive or negative electrical charge.
 A cation is a positively charged ion that has fewer electrons

than protons.
 An anion is a negatively charged ion that has more electrons

than protons.
26
Example of Ionic Bonding

Halite (NaCl)
 Ionic Bonding: Formation of the ionic compound sodium chloride

and Bonding
 Covalent Bonding: Electron
Sharing
 a chemical bond formed by the

sharing of one or more valence
electrons between a pair of atoms.
 Diamond is composed entirely of

covalently bonded carbon atoms.
 Covalent bonds in diamond are

very strong, and diamond is the
hardest natural substance on Earth.
and Bonding
 Covalent Bonding: Electron Sharing
In diamond, the
carbon atoms
are arranged in
a crystalline
structure that
allows each
carbon to
bond covalently
with four other
carbon atoms.
Covalently bonded carbon atoms

share electrons so that each has a
full outer energy level.
and Bonding
 Metallic Bonding: Electrons Free to Move
 A third type of bonding, metallic bonding , is found in metals, such

as copper or gold.
 Closely packed atoms share electrons in higher energy-level shells

among several atoms.
 The atoms are closely packed, and the electrons move freely
throughout the crystal so as to hold the atoms together.
 The ease with which electrons move accounts for the high
electrical conductivity of metals.
and Bonding
Metallic Bonding: Electrons Free to Move
Metallic bonding is the result of

each atom contributing its valence
electrons to a common pool of
electrons that are free to move
throughout the entire metallic
structure.
and Bonding
 Van der Waals Bonding
 weak secondary attraction between certain molecules formed by
transferring electrons.
 Much weaker than ionic, covalent, or metallic bonding.
 This is the very weak force that holds adjacent sheets of mica or
graphite together. It is also the force that holds water molecules
together in ice.
and Bonding
 Van der Waals Bonding
1
Minerals and Rocks

 Mineral
Composition and
Formation
 Physical Properties of Minerals
Mineral Composition and 3
Formation
 How Do Minerals Form?
The three mechanisms that generate minerals and rocks are
the following:
 Precipitation of mineral matter from a solution

 Crystallization of molten rock by cooling
 Deposition as a result of biological processes
Formation
 Precipitation of mineral
matter from a solution
 Two factors contributing to
precipitation:
 a drop in temperature and
water lost through evaporation
 This can cause the solution to
become closer to reaching
saturation. Because they are located in arid regions
with high evaporation rates, these water
 Once saturation is reached, bodies regularly precipitate the minerals
the ions begin to bond, halite, sylvite, and gypsum, as well as other
forming crystalline solids soluble salts, called evaporite deposits
(called salts) that precipitate
from (settle out of) the
solution
Formation
 Crystallization of molten rock by cooling
 The crystallization of minerals from molten

rock, although more complicated, is a
process similar to water freezing.
 When magma is hot, the atoms are very
mobile, but as the molten material cools,
the atoms slow and begin to chemically
combine.
Formation
 Deposition as a result of biological processes
 Water-dwelling organisms are responsible for transforming substantial
quantities of dissolved material into mineral matter.
 For example, corals are organisms capable of creating large
quantities of marine limestones, rocks composed of the mineral
calcite.
 Many organisms, including human beings, create magnetite within
their skull cases.
 Bacteria also form huge amounts of sulfur by processing preexisting
sulfate minerals. Most of our commercial supply of sulfur, in fact,
comes from the mining of these biogenic deposits.
Crystal Structure of 7
Minerals
 The atoms in most solids are organized in regular, geometric
patterns, called the crystal structure.
 Solids that have a crystal structure are said to be crystalline.
 Minerals consist of an orderly array of atoms chemically

bonded to form a particular crystalline structure
 Ice in a glacier meets the definition of a mineral.
 Solids that lack crystal structures are amorphous.

 glass and amber.
Minerals
• notice how the sodium and chlorine ions alternate so

that each cation is in contact only with anions.
Minerals
 Mineral quartz exhibits crystalline structure

Geometric Pattern of 10
various ions
Minerals
 Two minerals can be constructed of geometrically similar building
blocks yet exhibit different external forms.
Structural Variations in 12
Minerals: Polymorphism
 Some minerals can have the same chemical composition but
have different crystalline structures—described as
polymorphism
 Diamond and Graphite are polymorphs of Carbon

Structural Variations in 13
Minerals: Polymorphism
 Diamond – hardest mineral,
usually transparent and has a
brilliant luster.
 Formed by covalent bonding in
three-dimensional arrangement.
 Graphite – one of the softest
mineral, dark and appears
metallic.
 Formed by covalent bonds that
form sheets that are held together
by much weaker electrostatic
bonds (Van der Waals Bonding)
Common Minerals in 14
Earth’s Crust
 Only 12 elements occur in the continental crust in amounts
greater than 0.1 percent by weight.
 These 12 elements make up 99.23 percent of the crustal mass.
 The crust, therefore, is constructed mostly of a limited number

of minerals.
 Approximately 4,000 minerals have been identified, but only about
30 are commonly encountered.
Mineral Properties and 15
Bond Types
 Minerals properties depend strongly on the kinds of bonds
present.
 Ionic and covalent bonds are strong, making minerals hard

and strong.
 Metallic and van der Waals bonds are much weaker.

Two elements, oxygen and silicon, make up more
than 70% of the weight of the continental crust of 16
the Earth
Three Mineral Groups 17
 Silicate minerals (SiO4)4-, the most abundant in Earth’s crust.
 Nonsilicate
 Carbonate (CO3)2-, phosphate (PO4)3-, and sulfate (SO4)2-
minerals.
 Ore minerals, sulfides (S2-) and oxides (O2-) that contain

valuable metals.
Silicate minerals : The 18
Largest Mineral Group

 Silica is a term for oxygen combined with silicon. Because
silicon is the second most abundant element in the crust, most
minerals contain silica.
 Silicon is the element used to make computer chips.
This basic building block of a crystal

is called a silicon-oxygen
tetrahedron (also known as a silica
tetrahedron).
Silicate minerals : The 19
Largest Mineral Group

 The 5 types of silicate structures
1. Isolated Silicate Structure
2. Single - Chain Silicates
3. Double-Chain Silicates
4. Sheet Silicates
5. Framework Silicates
1. Isolated Silicate Structure
20
or Single Tetrahedra
 Silicate minerals that are structured so that none of the
oxygen atoms are shared by tetrahedra
 Olivine is among Earth’s most abundant mineral groups, a
very common constituent of igneous rocks in oceanic crust
and the upper part of the mantle.
Olivines 21
Diagram of the crystal structure of

olivine
 Olivine occurs in such flawless and beautiful

crystals that is used as a gem, peridot
2. Single - Chain Silicates 22
 A single chain silicate structure forms when two of a

tetrahedron’s oxygen atoms are shared with adjacent
tetrahedra to form a chain.
Pyroxene group (ex. 23
Augite)
 Augite is the most common pyroxene. It is an essential
mineral in mafic igneous rocks.
 Augite is usually black, with stubby crystals.
3. Double-Chain Silicates
24
 A double-chain silicate is essentially two adjacent single chains
that are sharing oxygen atoms.
 The amphibole group is composed of double-chain silicates.
Amphibole group 25
(ex. Hornblende)
 The most common of the amphiboles is called hornblende.
 Hornblende is a common constituent of
any igneous and metamorphic rocks.
Asbestos (Fibrous chain
26
silicate)
 Chain silicates tend to be shaped like columns, needles, or even
fibers.
 Fibrous aggregates of certain chain silicates are called asbestos.
 Asbestos does not ignite or melt in fire.

4. Sheet Silicates
27
 In a sheet silicate structure each tetrahedron shares
three oxygen atoms to form a sheet.
 Example: Mica group and clay-minerals
 Sheet silicates are generally soft and flaky.
Mica group (ex. Muscovite) 28
 The mica minerals are distinguished by their
perfect basal cleavage, which means that they
are easily split into thin, often transparent
sheets.
Muscovite, KAl2(Si3Al)O10(OH)2, is a common mica.

Mica group (ex. Biotite) 29
 Biotite is a dark, iron-rich member of the mica family. Like other

micas, biotite possesses a sheet structure that gives it excellent
cleavage in one direction
Clay Minerals 30
 The clay minerals represent an important
sub-group of the sheet silicates.
 The term clay is used to denote particular
mineralogical properties, in addition to a
small particle size. It has the tendency to
develop plasticity when mixed with water.
 The most common clay minerals groups
are: kaolinite, montmorillonite or smectite,
and illite.
Clay Minerals 31
 KAOLINITE formed by the decomposition of
feldspar (e.g. granite). It is the principal
components of china clay.
 Kaolinite is also use in the manufacture of pills;
the main ingredient in Kaopectate, a remedy
for intestinal distress
 Engineering properties: low compressibility,

high friction angle (25o – 30o )
 MONTMORILLONITE or SMECTITE is formed by the
alteration of basic igneous rocks containing
32
silicates rich in Calcium and Magnesium.
 Can swell significantly by the adsorption of water.

 Engineering Properties : exhibit considerable
potential for volume change; known as
expansive clay.
- very high compressibility
- very low friction angle (φ’ ≈ 5o)
33
The “roller-coaster road” is the result of uneven swelling and

heaving of expansive clays
5. Framework Silicates or
34
Three-dimensional networks
 When all four oxygen ions are shared by adjacent tetrahedra,
a framework silicate structure is formed.
 The strongest silicate minerals.
Feldspar and
Quartz are
examples of
framework
silicates
Feldspar group 35
 Accounts for about 60 percent of all minerals in the continental
crust.
 Feldspars crystallize from magma as igneous rocks and are also
present in many types of metamorphic rock.
 Two most common members:
Orthoclase (potassium feldspar) Plagioclase (sodium and

calcium feldspar)
Quartz 36
 Quartz is pure SiO2.

 Quartz is the second most abundant mineral in the Earth’s
continental crust, after feldspar.
 Found in many colors.
Nonsilicate Minerals 37
 Carbonates Group
 Phosphates Group
 Sulfates Group
 Ore Mineral Group
Carbonates Group 38
 The carbonate anion, (CO3)2-, forms three common minerals:

 Calcite (CaCO3) occurs mainly in limestone and marble
 Aragonite - is a polymorph of calcite
 Dolomite (CaMgCO3)2 An important sedimentary and
metamorphic mineral, found in dolostones and also in limestones
and marble.
39
Calcite in the form of a pink Calcite in the form of

marble limestone
Aragonite Dolomite
Phosphates Group 40
 Apatite is the most common phosphate mineral.
Contains the complex anion ((PO4)3-.
Apatite-(CaF) - Calcium fluoro-phosphate
Apatite-(CaCl) - Calcium chloro-phosphate
Apatite-(CaOH) - Basic calcium phosphate
 Common mineral in many varieties of igneous and sedimentary

rocks.
 The main source of the phosphorus required by plants. The bones
and teeth of most animals, including humans, are composed of
calcium phosphate, which is the same material as Apatite.
Sulfates Group 41
 All sulfate minerals contain the sulfate anion, (SO4)2-

 Only two are common:
 Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O).
 Anhydrite(CaSO4) forming from the dehydration of
Gypsum
 Use in the manufacture of some cement, a source of sulfate
for sulfuric acid.
Ore Mineral Group 42
 Sulfides
 Oxides
Ore Mineral Group: 43
Sulfides
 Common sulfides:
 Pyrite (FeS2) - commonly called “Fool’s Gold”, found to
contain minor nickel and cobalt.
 Galena (PbS) - is the primary ore mineral of lead
 Sphalerite (ZnS) – major ore of zinc.
Ore Mineral Group: 44
Oxides
 Common oxides:
 Magnetite (Fe3O4) - the only mineral that acts as a natural
magnet, or is strongly attracted to magnets
 Hematite (Fe2O3) - caused the color of most red and brown rock
in sandstone, It is also be responsible for the red color of many
minerals such as Garnet and Ruby.
Ore Mineral Group: Oxides 45
 Other oxide ore minerals are:
 Rutile (TiO2), the principal source of titanium.
 Cassiterite (SnO2), the main ore mineral for tin.
 Uraninite (U3O8), the main source of uranium.
Rutile Cassiterite Uraninite

Physical Properties of 46
Minerals
 Color
 Streak
 Luster
 Hardness
 External Crystal Form
 Cleavage
 Fracture
 Density and Specific Gravity
Minerals
 Color
 Although color is generally the most conspicuous characteristic of
any mineral, it is considered a diagnostic property of only a few
minerals.
Minerals
 Streak
 The color of a mineral in powdered form and is often useful in
identification.
 A mineral’s streak is obtained by rubbing it across a streak plate (a
piece of unglazed porcelain) and observing the color of the mark
it leaves.
 Although a mineral’s color may vary from
sample to sample, its streak is usually
consistent in color.
Minerals
 Streak
 Not all minerals produce a streak when rubbed across a streak
plate.
 Quartz,for example, is harder than a porcelain streak plate
and therefore leaves no streak.
 Streak can also help distinguish between minerals with metallic

luster and those with nonmetallic luster.
 Metallicminerals generally have a dense, dark streak, whereas
minerals with nonmetallic luster typically have a light-colored
streak.
Minerals
 Luster
 The appearance or quality of light reflected from the surface of a
mineral.
 Minerals that have the appearance of a metal, regardless of color,
are said to have a metallic luster.
Minerals
 Luster
 Metallic materials that developed a dull coating or tarnish when
exposed to the atmosphere are said to have a submetallic luster.
 they are not as shiny as samples with freshly broken surfaces.
 Nonmetallic luster
 vitreous or glassy, a dull appearance like soil or a pearly luster
(such as a pearl or the inside of a clamshell), silky luster (like satin
cloth) or a greasy luster (as though coated in oil).
Minerals
 Hardness
 One of the most useful diagnostic properties is hardness, a measure of
the resistance of a mineral to abrasion or scratching.
 This property is determined by rubbing a mineral of unknown hardness
against one of known hardness or vice versa.
Minerals
 Hardness
 A numerical value of hardness can be obtained by using the Mohs
scale of hardness, which consists of 10 minerals arranged in order
from 1 (softest) to 10 (hardest).
 It should be noted that the Mohs scale is a relative ranking and does
not imply that a mineral with a hardness of 2, such as gypsum, is twice
as hard as a mineral with a hardness of 1, like talc. In fact, gypsum is
only slightly harder than talc.
Minerals
Minerals
 The crystal form of a mineral is a set of
faces that have a definite geometric
relationship to one another
 If two or more faces on a crystal are
identical in shape and size, they
belong to the same crystal form. Crystals of potassium feldspar
Cluster of quartz crystals Inter grown cubic crystals of fluorite

Minerals
 The angle between two adjacent faces of quartz is always exactly
the same, no matter what part of the world the quartz sample comes
from or the color or size of the quartz.
Minerals
 Cleavage
 Cleavage is the tendency to break in preferred directions along
bright, reflective planar surfaces.
 A cleavage surface is a breakage surface, whereas a crystal face is a
growth surface.
 A mineral tends to break along certain planes because the bonding
between atoms is weaker there.
58
Minerals
 Fracture
 Fracture is the way a substance breaks where not controlled by
cleavage.
 Minerals that have no cleavage commonly have an irregular fracture.
 Some minerals break along curved fracture surfaces known as
conchoidal fractures. These look like the inside of a clam shell.
 Minerals that have cleavage can fracture along directions other than
that of the cleavage.
60
Conchoidal fracture in quartz

Minerals
 Density and Specific Gravity
 Density is commonly expressed as specific gravity, the ratio of a mass
of a substance to the mass of an equal volume of water.
 Minerals with a high density, such as gold, contain atoms with high
mass numbers that are closely packed.
 Minerals with a low density, such as ice have loosely packed atoms.
Igneous Rocks and
Processes
Outline of Presentation: 2
Igneous Rocks
 Rock Cycle
 Origin
 Composition
Rock Cycle
4
5
(Continental crust)
(lithosphere)
(asthenosphere)
6
(Continental crust)
(lithosphere)
7
(Continental crust)
Metamorphism-refers to changes to
rocks that take place in Earth’s interior.
• The changes may be new textures,
new mineral assemblages, or both.
• Transformations occur in the solid state
(meaning the rock does not melt).
• The new rock is a metamorphic rock.
(lithosphere)
Igneous Rocks: Origin 8
 It starts with “Hot mantle partially melts to become magma”
 Magma is molten rock that forms deep beneath Earth’s surface.

 Lava is magma on the Earth’s surface.
 Over time, magma cools and solidifies (solidification). This process,

called crystallization, may occur either beneath the surface or,
following a volcanic eruption, at the surface.
 In either situation, the resulting rocks are called igneous rocks.

Igneous Rocks: Origin (Process) 9
 Igneous rocks may be either extrusive if they form at the Earth’s
surface (e.g., basalt) or intrusive if magma solidifies underground.
 Extrusive igneous rocks (Volcanic rocks) form when magma erupts at
the surface and rapidly cools.
 Intrusive igneous rocks (Plutonic Rocks) form when magma intrudes
into bedrock and slowly cools.
(Continental
crust)
(lithosphere)
Igneous Rocks: 10
Composition
 Igneous rocks are composed mainly of silicate minerals.
 Dark (or ferromagnesian) silicates
 Olivine, pyroxene, amphibole, and biotite mica
 Light (or nonferromagnesian) silicates
 Quartz, muscovite mica, and feldspars
 Chemical analyses show that silicon and oxygen are by

far the most abundant constituents of igneous rocks.
Igneous Rocks: 11
Composition
 These two elements, plus ions of aluminum (Al), calcium (Ca),
sodium (Na), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe),
make up roughly 98 percent, by weight, of most magmas.
 In addition, magma contains small amounts of many other

elements, including titanium and manganese, and trace
amounts of much rarer elements, such as gold, silver, and
uranium.
Four Basic Igneous 12
Compositions
 Granitic (felsic)
 Basaltic (mafic)
 Andesitic (intermediate)
 Ultramafic
Granitic (felsic) [feldspar and silicon] 13
 Geologists also refer to granitic rocks

as being felsic, a term derived from
feldspar and silica (quartz). (Light-
colored silicates)
 In addition to quartz and feldspar,

most granitic rocks contain about 10
percent dark silicate minerals, usually
biotite mica and amphibole.
 Granitic rocks are rich in silica (about

70 percent) and are major
constituents of the continental crust.
Basaltic (mafic)[magnesium and iron] 14
 Rocks that contain at least 45 percent

dark silicate minerals and calcium-rich
plagioclase feldspar (but no quartz) are
said to have a basaltic composition.
 Basaltic rocks contain a high percentage

of ferromagnesian minerals, so geologists
also refer to them as mafic.
 Dark silicates and calcium-rich feldspar.

Basaltic (mafic) [magnesium and iron] 15
 Because of their iron content, mafic rocks

are typically darker and denser than
granitic rocks.
 Basaltic rocks make up the ocean floor

as well as many of the volcanic islands
located within the ocean basins.
 Basalt also forms extensive lava flows on

the continents.
Granitic Versus Basaltic
16
Compositions
Felsic for Mafic for

continental oceanic
crust crust
Andesitic (intermediate) 17
 Composition between granitic and basaltic rocks.
 Intermediate rocks contain at least 25 percent dark silicate minerals,

mainly amphibole, pyroxene, and biotite mica, with the other
dominant mineral being plagioclase feldspar.

 This important category of igneous rocks is often associated with

volcanic activity that is typically confined to the seaward margins of
the continents and on volcanic island arcs such as the Aleutian chain.
Aleutian chain
Aleutian chain
Ring of Fire Aleutian 20
chain
Ultramafic 21
 Another important igneous rock, peridotite, contains mostly

olivine and pyroxene and thus falls on the opposite side of the
compositional spectrum from granitic rocks.
 Because peridotite is composed almost entirely of

ferromagnesian minerals, its chemical composition is referred to
as ultramafic.
 Although ultramafic rocks are rare at Earth’s surface, peridotite

is the main constituent of the upper mantle.
Composition
1
Igneous Rocks and

Processes
Outline of Presentation: 2
Igneous Rocks
 Texture
 Classification
Igneous rock textures
Igneous Rocks: Texture 6
 The term texture is used to describe the overall appearance of

a rock based on the size, shape, and arrangement of its
mineral grains—not how it feels to touch.
 Texture is an important property because it reveals a great deal

about the environment in which the rock formed.
 Three factors influence the textures of igneous rocks:

 The rate at which molten rock cools
 The amount of silica present in the magma
 The amount of dissolved gases in the magma
 Three factors influence the textures of igneous rocks:
 The rate at which molten rock cools
 Dominant factor
 Slow
cooling permits ions to migrate freely until they
eventually join one of the existing crystals.
 Slow cooling promotes the growth of fewer but larger
crystals.
 Cooling occurs rapidly—for example, in a thin lava flow—

the ions quickly lose their mobility and readily combine to
form crystals.
 The result is a solid mass of many tiny intergrown
crystals.
Igneous Rocks: Types of
Igneous Texture
Igneous Rocks: Types of 10
Igneous Texture
1. Glassy Texture
2. Porphyritic Texture
3. Phaneritic (Coarse-Grained) Texture
4. Vesicular Texture
5. Pyroclastic (Fragmental) Texture
6. Aphanitic (Fine-Grained) Texture
7. Pegmatitic Texture
Glassy Texture 11
 During some volcanic eruptions, molten
rock is ejected into the atmosphere,
where it is quenched (very quickly cooled)
to become a solid.
 Rapid cooling of this type may generate
rocks having a glassy texture.
 Glass results when unordered ions are

“frozen in place” before they are able to Obsidian arrowhead
unite into an orderly crystalline structure.
 Obsidian, a common type of natural glass,

is similar in appearance to dark chunks of
manufactured glass.
 obsidian was a prized material from which
Native Americans chipped arrowheads
and cutting tools
Porphyritic Texture 12
 Different minerals crystallize under
different environmental conditions
(temperatures and pressure).
 it is possible for crystals of one mineral
to become quite large before others
even begin to form
 If molten rock containing some large

crystals moves to a different
environment—for example, by erupting at
the surface—the remaining liquid portion
of the lava cools more quickly.
 The resulting rock, which has large crystals
embedded in a matrix of smaller crystals, is
said to have a porphyritic texture.
Porphyritic Texture 13
 The large crystals in porphyritic

rocks are referred to as
phenocrysts (pheno=show,
cryst=crystal), whereas the
matrix of smaller crystals is called
groundmass.
 A rock with a porphyritic texture

is termed a porphyry.
Phaneritic (Coarse- 14
Grained) Texture
 When large masses of magma slowly crystallize at great depth,
they form igneous rocks that exhibit a coarse-grained texture
described as phaneritic (phaner = visible).
 Coarse-grained rocks consist of a mass of intergrown crystals

that are roughly equal in size and large enough to distinguish
the individual minerals without the aid of a microscope
 Geologists often use a small magnifying lens

to aid in identifying minerals in a phaneritic rock.
Vesicular Texture 15
 Common features of
many extrusive rocks are
the voids left by gas
bubbles that escape as
lava solidifies.
 These nearly spherical Rocks that exhibit a vesicular

texture often form in the
openings are called upper zone of a lava flow.
vesicles, and the rocks
that contain them are
said to have a vesicular
texture.
 Another common vesicular rock, called pumice,
forms when silica-rich lava is ejected during an
explosive eruption
Pyroclastic (Fragmental) 16
Texture
 Another group of igneous rocks is formed from the consolidation of
individual rock fragments ejected during explosive volcanic eruptions.
 The ejected particles might be very fine ash, molten blobs, or large
angular blocks torn
from the walls of a vent during an
eruption.
 Igneous rocks composed of these

rock fragments are said to
have a pyroclastic texture,or
fragmental texture
Texture
 A common type of pyroclastic rock, called welded tuff.
 It is composed of fine fragments of glass that remained hot
enough to fuse together.
 Pyroclastic rocks are made of individual particles or fragments

rather than interlocking crystals, their textures
often resemble those exhibited by sedimentary
rocks rather than those associated with
igneous rocks.
Texture
welded tuff
Aphanitic (Fine-Grained) 19
Texture
 Igneous rocks that form at the surface or as
small intrusive masses within the upper crust
where cooling is relatively rapid exhibit a
fine-grained texture termed aphanitic. (a =
not, phaner = visible).
 By definition, the crystals that make up

aphanitic rocks are so small that individual
minerals can be distinguished only with the
aid of a polarizing microscope or other
sophisticated techniques.
Aphanitic (Fine-Grained) 20
Texture
 Therefore, we commonly characterize fine-grained rocks as
being light, intermediate, or dark in color.
 Using this system of grouping, light-colored aphanitic rocks are

those containing primarily light-colored nonferromagnesian
silicate minerals.
Pegmatitic Texture 21
 Under special conditions, exceptionally coarse-

grained igneous rocks pegmatites, may form.
 Rocks of this type, in which most of the crystals are

larger than 1 centimeter in diameter, are described
as having a pegmatitic texture.
Pegmatitic Texture 22
 Most pegmatites occur as small masses or thin veins within or
around the margins of large intrusive igneous bodies.
 Pegmatites form late in the crystallization of a magma, when

water and other materials, such as carbon dioxide, chlorine,
and fluorine, make up an unusually high percentage of the
melt.
 The composition of most pegmatites is similar to that of granite.

 Thus, pegmatites contain large crystals of quartz, feldspar, and
muscovite. However, some contain significant quantities of
relatively rare and hence valuable elements—gold, tungsten,
beryllium, and the rare earth elements that are used in modern
high-technology devices, including cell phones and hybrid autos.
23
Igneous
Rocks:
Classification
24
Module 4
Sedimentary Rocks
and Processes
2
Outline of
Presentation: Origin Classification
Sedimentary
Rocks
EESU
3
4
5
6
Sedimentary Rocks: Origin 7
 Most sedimentary rocks form from

loose grains of sediment.
 Sediment is the collective name for

loose, solid particles of mineral that
originate from:
1. Weathering and erosion of
preexisting rocks (detrital sediments).
2. Precipitation from solution, including
secretion by organisms in water
(chemical sediments).
8
Turning sediment into rock
Diagenesis = chemical,
physical, and biological
changes that take place
Many changes occur after sediments are
to sediment after it is deposited.
deposited.
• Occurs within the upper few
kilometers of Earth’s crust.
• dia = change, genesis =
origin
9
Turning sediment into rock
 Diagenesis includes:
 Recrystallization– development of more stable
minerals from less stable ones.
 Lithification from lithos = stone, fic = making
 sediments are transformed into solid rock by:
 Compaction and cementation
 Natural cements include calcite, silica, and iron
oxide
Turning sediment 10
into rock
 Compaction and
cementation
11
Types of sedimentary rocks
 Sedimentary rocks are formed from:

(1) eroded mineral grains,
(2) minerals precipitated from low-temperature solution, or
(3) consolidation of the organic remains of plants.
 Rock types are based on the source of the material:
 Detrital sedimentary rocks – transported sediment as solid
particles; fragments of preexisting rocks.
 Chemical sedimentary rocks – sediment that was once in solution.
 Organic sedimentary rocks - form from the carbon-rich remains
of organisms
12
The chief constituents of detrital

rocks include
Detrital • Clay minerals
sedimentary • Quartz
rocks • Feldspars
• Micas
Particle size is used to distinguish

among the various rock types.
13
14
1. Shale
 Mud-sized
particles in thin layers that
Common are commonly referred to as laminea
Detrital  Ability to split into layers (called fissility)
Sedimentary  Most common sedimentary rock
rocks
Common Detrital sedimentary rocks 15
Is it Shale, Mudstone, or Siltstone?
Shale must exhibit the ability to split into

thin layers along well-developed, closely
spaced planes.
Mudstone is applied for rock that breaks

into chunks or blocks
Siltstone is composed largely of silt-size

particles and contains less clay-siz material
than shale and mudstone. It lacks fissility.
Common Detrital Sedimentary Rocks 16
17
2. Sandstone
 Composed of sand-sized particles
 Forms in a variety of environments
Common  Quartz is the predominant mineral
Detrital
Sedimentary
Rocks
Quartz sandstone
Conglomerate
Common Detrital 18
Sedimentary Rocks
3. Conglomerate and breccia
 Bothare composed of particles
greater than 2mm in diameter
 Conglomerate consists largely of
rounded gravels; often has a
Breccia
similar appearance to
“concrete”
 Breccia is composed mainly of
large angular particles and
fragments, which have not been
rounded
19
Consist of precipitated material

that was once in solution.
Chemical
Sedimentary
Rocks Precipitation of material occurs by:
Organic processes
Inorganic processes
(biochemical origin)
Common Chemical Sedimentary Rocks 20
 1. Limestone
 Composed chiefly of the mineral calcite
 Marine biochemical limestones form as coral
reefs, coquina (broken shells), and chalk
(microscopic organisms)
 Inorganic limestones include travertine and
oolitic limestone
21
Ancient Coral
Reef
 El Capitan Peak in the
Guadalupe Mountains of
Texas was part of a large
coral reef during the
Permian period, which
has become lithified into
limestone
22
Coquina
A variety of limestone
called coquina forms from
the cementation of shells
and shell fragments that
accumulated on the shallow
sea floor near shore
23
Chalk
 Chalk is a light-colored,
porous, very fine-grained
variety of bioclastic
limestone that forms from
the seafloor
accumulation of
microscopic marine
organisms that drift near
the sea surface
24
Fossiliferous
limestone
25
Travertine
- the type of
inorganic limestone
commonly seen in
caves
26
Oolithic
limestone
An oölitic limestone formed by
the cementation of oöids (small
spheres).
27
Common Chemical Sedimentary Rocks
 2. Dolostone
 Typically formed secondarily from limestone.
 forms from limestone as the calcium in calcite is partially
replaced by magnesium, usually as water solutions move
through the limestone.
 3. Chert
A hard, compact, fine-grained sedimentary rock formed
almost entirely of silica forms from the accumulation of
delicate, glass-like shells of microscopic marine organisms
on the sea floor
28
Dolostone
29
Colorful Chert
30
Agate is a form
of banded chert
31
Chemical Evaporites
Sedimentary Evaporation triggers

deposition of chemical
Rocks precipitates
Examples include rock salt;
gypsum (used for drywall,
aspirin, Vitamin C tablets; and
potash (used for fertilizer)
32
 Bonneville salt flats in western Utah is the remnant of the  30% of the world’s salt supply is extracted
enormous Pleistocene-age Lake Bonneville which once from the ocean. It takes 10,000 gallons of
sea water to produce 1 ton of salt
occupied the area, to a depth of about 1150 feet.
33
Organic Sedimentary rocks
 Coal
 it
is composed of organic material stages in
coal formation (in order)
 1. Plant material
 2. Peat
 3. Lignite
 4. Bituminous
Stages of coal formation 34
1. Accumulation of plant remains.
2. Formation of peat and lignite.

Stages of coal formation 35
3. Formation of bituminous coal.
4. Formation of anthracite coal.

36
Coal bed
Coal bed in the Black Warrior Coal

Basin, Alabama.
37
Classification of Sedimentary Rocks
 Two major textures are used in the classification of

sedimentary rocks
 Clastic
 Discrete fragments and particles

 All detrital rocks have a clastic texture
 Nonclastic
 Pattern of interlocking crystals

 May resemble an igneous rock
38
Identification
of Sedimentary
Rocks
39
Identification
of Sedimentary
Rocks
40
Valuable Sedimentary Rocks
Many sedimentary rocks have uses that make them valuable.

 Limestone is widely used as building stone and is also the main rock type
quarried for crushed rock for road construction. Pulverized limestone is the
main ingredient of cement for mortar and concrete and is also used to
neutralize acid soils in the humid regions of the United States.
 Coal is a major fuel, used widely for generating electrical power and for
heating.
 Plaster and plasterboard for home construction are manufactured from
gypsum, which is also used to stabilize the shrink-swell characteristics of clay-
rich soils in some areas.
41
 Huge quantities of rock salt are consumed by industry, primarily for the
manufacture of hydrochloric acid. More familiar uses of rock salt are for table
salt and melting ice on roads.
 Some chalk is used in the manufacture of blackboard chalk, although most
classroom chalk is now made from pulverized limestone.
 The filtering agent for beer brewing and for swimming pools is likely to be
made of diatomite, an accumulation of the siliceous remains of microscope
diatoms.
 Clay from shale and other deposits supplies the basic material for ceramics of
all sorts, from hand-thrown pottery and fine porcelain to sewer pipe.
42
 Sulfur is used for matches, fungicides, and sulfuric acid; and

phosphates and nitrates for fertilizers are extracted from natural
occurrences of special sedimentary rocks
 Potassium for soap manufacture comes largely from evaporites, as
does boron for heat-resistant cookware and fiberglass, and sodium
for baking soda, washing soda, and soap.
 Quartz sandstone is used in glass manufacturing and for building
stone.
Valuable Sedimentary Rocks 43
Module 5
Metamorphic Rocks
and Processes
PART 1
2
Outline of Presentation
 Rock Cycle
 Metamorphic Rock
 Metamorphism
 Factors Controlling the
Characteristics of Metamorphic
Rocks
3
Metamorphism-refers to changes to
rocks that take place in Earth’s interior.
•The changes may be new textures,
4
•Transformations occur in the solid state
(meaning the rock does not melt).
•The new rock is a metamorphic rock.
5
Metamorphic Rock
The new rock is a metamorphic rock.
The various elements of a parent rock react chemically and crystallize into
new minerals, thus making the metamorphic rock distinct both
mineralogically and texturally from the parent rock.
Igneous rocks
Metamorphic rocks are
Sedimentary rocks
produced from Other metamorphic rocks
Metamorphism
6
7
The transition of one rock into another

by temperatures and/or pressures
unlike those in which it formed.
Metamorphism The changes may be new textures,

Transformations occur in the solid

state (meaning the rock does not
melt).
8
During metamorphism the rock must

remain essentially solid.
Metamorphism progresses incrementally

Metamorphism from low-grade to high-grade.
Low-grade rocks formed under relatively

cool temperatures and high-grade rocks
at high temperatures, whereas medium-
grade rocks recrystallized at around the
middle of the range of metamorphic
temperatures.
9
1. The composition of the parent rock

Factors before metamorphism
Controlling the 2. Temperature and pressure during

metamorphism
Characteristics
of Metamorphic 3. Effects of tectonic forces, and
Rocks
4. The effects of fluids, such as water.
10
Factors 1. The composition of the parent rock

before metamorphism
Controlling the
Most metamorphic rocks have
Characteristics 
the same overall chemical
of composition as the parent rock
Metamorphic from which they formed.
Rocks  The mineral content of the

metamorphic rock is controlled
by the chemical composition of
the parent rock.
Factors Controlling the Characteristics 11
of Metamorphic Rocks
 2. Temperature and pressure during metamorphism

 Temperature
 Heat, necessary for metamorphic reactions, comes primarily from the
outward flow of geothermal energy from Earth’s deep interior.
 Usually, the deeper a rock is beneath the surface, the hotter it will be. (An
exception to this is the temperature distribution along convergent plate
boundaries due to subduction of cold crust)
 There is an increase in temperature with depth due to the geothermal
gradient (increase in temperature with increase in depth).

 Temperature
 A mineral is said to be stable if, given enough time, it does not
react with another substance or convert to a new mineral or
substance.
 Any mineral is stable only within a given temperature range.
 The stability temperature range of a mineral varies with factors
such as pressure and the presence or absence of other
substances.

 Temperature
 Minerals stable at higher temperatures tend to be less dense (or have
a lower specific gravity) than chemically identical minerals
(polymorphs) stable at lower temperatures.
 As temperature increases, the atoms vibrate more within their sites in
the crystal structure.
 A more open (less tightly packed) crystal structure, such as high-
temperature minerals tend to have, allows greater vibration of atoms.
(If the heat and resulting vibrations become too great, the bonds
between atoms in the crystal break and the substance becomes
liquid.)
14
 Role of the geothermal gradient in metamorphism. Note

the impact on gradient by a subducting oceanic plate,
which is much cooler.

 Pressure
 Confining pressure applied equally on all surfaces of a substance
as a result of burial or submergence
 Increases with depth
 Confining pressure applies forces equally in all directions
 An object buried deeply within Earth’s crust is compressed by
strong confining pressure, called lithostatic pressure, which forces
grains closer together and eliminates pore space.

 Pressure
 For metamorphism, pressure is usually given in kilobars.
A kilobar is 1,000 bars. A bar is very close (0.99 atmospheres) to
standard atmospheric pressure,
A kilobar is the pressure equivalent of a thousand times the pressure of
the atmosphere at sea level.
 The pressure gradient, the increase in lithostatic pressure with depth, is
approximately 1 kilobar per each 3.3 kilometers of burial in crustal rock.
Factors  What will happen to new mineral that
has crystallized under high pressure?
Controlling the
Characteristics  The new mineral is denser than its low-
of pressure counterparts because the
pressure forces atoms closer together
Metamorphic into a more closely packed crystal
Rocks structure.
17
 What if pressure and temperature both
increase, as is commonly the case with
increasing depth into the Earth?
Factors
Controlling the  If the effect of higher temperature is
Characteristics greater than the effect of higher
of pressure, the new mineral will likely be
less dense.
Metamorphic  A denser new mineral is likely to result if
Rocks increasing pressure effects are greater
than increasing temperature effects.
18
19
3. Effects of tectonic forces

Factors
Most metamorphic rocks show the
Controlling the

effects of tectonic forces. When forces
Characteristics are applied to an object, the object is
of under stress, force per unit area. If the
forces on a body are stronger or
Metamorphic weaker in different directions, a body
Rocks is subjected to differential stress .
 Dynamic metamorphism can occur

from the tectonic forces.
20
3. Effect of Tectonic Forces
Differential Stress
Factors
If the forces on a body are stronger
Controlling the 
or weaker in different directions, a
Characteristics body is subjected to differential
of stress.
Metamorphic  Rocks may also be subjected to
differential stress which is unequal in
Rocks different directions.
 Differential stress tends to deform
rocks into oblong or flattened
forms.
21
The putty will be

flattened into the
shape of a pancake
due to the differential
stress. In this case, the
putty is subjected to
compressive differential
stress or, more simply,
compressive stress
22
3. Effect of Tectonic Forces
Factors Differential stress is also caused by

Controlling the shearing, which causes parts of a
Characteristics body to move or slide relative to one
another across a plane.
of Some rocks can be attributed
Metamorphic exclusively to shearing
faulting in a process sometimes
during
Rocks called dynamic metamorphism.

Rocks in contact along the fault are
broken and crushed when
movement takes place.
23
If you put a ball of putty

between your hands and
slide your hands while
compressing the putty, as
shown in figure, the putty
flattens parallel to the
shearing (the moving
hands) as well as
perpendicular to the
compressive stress.
24
Example:
Mylonite – formed
from pulverized rock
in a faults zone by
shearing
25
4. The effects of fluids, such as water
Factors Hot water (as vapor) is the most important fluid

involved in metamorphic processes.
Controlling the Chemically active fluid : mainly water with other
Characteristics volatile components enhance the metamorphism
- it trigger metamorphic chemical reactions.
of
Metamorphic - It enhances migration of ions
Rocks - Aids in recrystallization of existing minerals

26
Factors
4. The effects of fluids, such as water.
Controlling the
Characteristics Sources of fluids:
of • Pore spaces of sedimentary rocks
Metamorphic • Fractures in igneous rocks
• Hydrated minerals such as clays and
Rocks micas
Metamorphic Textures 27
 Differentialstress has a very important

influence on the texture of a
metamorphic rock because it forces
the constituents of the rock to become
parallel to one another.
 For instance, the pebbles in the

metamorphosed conglomerate were
originally more spherical but have
been flattened by differential stress.
Metamorphic Textures 28
 When a rock has a planar texture,

 it is said to be foliated.
 Foliation is manifested in various ways.
• If a platy mineral (such as mica) is crystallizing within

a rock that is undergoing differential stress, the
mineral grows in such a way that it remains parallel
to the direction of shearing or perpendicular to the
direction of compressive stress.
• Any platy mineral attempting to grow against

shearing is either ground up or forced into alignment.
Foliation – a result of differential stress 29
When a rock has a planar texture, it is said
to be foliated.
 Texture refers to the size, shape, and
arrangement of mineral grains
Foliation – any planar arrangement of
Metamorphic 
mineral grains or structural features
textures within a rock
30
 The three different foliated textures
(from lowest to highest degree of
Metamorphic metamorphism) are all variations of
foliation and are important in classifying
textures metamorphic rocks:
31
32
 1. If the rock splits easily along

nearly flat and parallel planes,
indicating that preexisting,
microscopic, platy minerals were
realigned during metamorphism,
we say the rock is slaty, or that it
possesses slaty cleavage.
33
 Metamorphosed
shale depicting
slaty cleavage.
Note the grains of
mica, quartz, and
limonite aligned
with a preferred
orientation.
34
 2. If visible minerals that

are platy or needle-
shaped have grown
essentially parallel to a
plane due to
differential stress, the
rock is schistose in
texture.
35
3. If the rock became very

ductile and the new
minerals separated into
distinct (light and dark)
layers or lenses, the rock
has a layered or gneissic
texture.
36
Gneissic texture created by banding of dark biotite flakes

and lighter colored silicate minerals, giving the rock a
banded, or layered appearance.
37
Deformed and folded gneiss in outcrop. Gneiss can be a

very resistant rock, with highly undulatory structure.
38
 Other metamorphic textures:

 Those metamorphic rocks that
Metamorphic lack foliation are referred to as
textures nonfoliated
 Develop in environments
where deformation is
minimal.
 Typicallycomposed of
minerals that exhibit
equidimensional crystals.
Metamorphic 39
textures
 Nonfoliated
 Porphyroblastic
textures
Large grains, called
porphyroblasts,
surrounded by a fine-
grained matrix of
other minerals
Classification of 40
Metamorphic Rocks
 The kind of metamorphic rock that forms is determined by the metamorphic

environment (primarily the particular combination of pressure, stress, and
temperature) and by the chemical constituents of the parent rock. Many
kinds of metamorphic rocks exist because of the many possible
combinations of these factors.
 Most metamorphic rocks that we observe at Earth’s surface were derived
from the three most common sedimentary rocks—shale, limestone, and
quartz sandstone.
 These rocks are classified based primarily on their texture. These rocks are
classified as foliated or non-foliated.
41
Classification
of
Metamorphic
Rock
(Foliated)
Common metamorphic rocks 42
(Foliated)
Slate
 - very fine-grained (less than 0.5-millimeter) foliated rock
 - composed mainly of minute chlorite and mica flakes (too small
to be visible to the human eye)
 - may also contain tiny quartz and feldspar crystals.
 - generally appears dull and closely resembles shale. A
noteworthy characteristic of slate
 - It has excellent rock cleavage, or tendency to break into flat
slabs
 - Most often generated from low-grade metamorphism of shale,
mudstone, or siltstone
 Minerals: Clay and other sheet silicates
Slate 43
44
Slaty cleavage in quarry near Alta, Norway. Slate is used as

dimension stone for roofing and billiard (pool) tables, among
many other industrial and commercial applications.
Slate Roofing
45
(Foliated)
 Phyllite
 Gradation in the degree of metamorphism between slate and schist

 Platy minerals not large enough to be identified with the unaided
eye
 Glossy sheen and wavy surfaces
 Exhibits rock cleavage
 Composed mainly of fine crystals of muscovite and/or chlorite
 Minerals : Mica
47
Phyllite
Slate (left) and phyllite (right), 48
which is more wavy and shiny)
(Foliated)
 Schist
 Medium- to coarse-grained
 Platyminerals or elongated minerals that show
planar alignment
 The term schist describes the texture
 Minerals : Biotite and Muscovite
 To indicate composition, mineral names are used
(such as mica schist)
50
Garnet-mica schist
Schists composed primarily of muscovite and biotite are

called mica schist and exhibits foliation.
(Foliated)
 Gneiss
 Medium- to coarse-grained
 Banded appearance
 High-grade metamorphism
 Oftencomposed of white or light-colored feldspar-rich layers
with bands of dark ferromagnesian minerals
 Minerals: Feldspar, quartz
52
Gneiss
53
Classification
of
Metamorphic
Rock
(Non-Foliated)
(Non-foliated)
 Marble
 Coarse, crystalline
 Parent rock was limestone or dolostone
 Composed essentially of calcite or dolomite
crystals
 Used as a decorative and monument stone
 Exhibits a variety of colors
55
Marble is a
crystalline rock
formed by the
metamorphosis
of limestone
(Non-foliated)
 Quartzite
 Formed from a parent rock of quartz-rich sandstone

 Quartz grains are fused together
 Has sugary appearance and vitreous luster
57
Quartzite
58
Quartzite is a nonfoliated
metamorphic rock formed
from quartz sandstone. It is
very hard and resistant, and
can be taxing on
construction equipment.
(Non-foliated)
 Hornfels
 Formed from a parent rock shale and basalt

 Composed of fine-grained micas or
ferromagnesian minerals
 Fine-grained, dark rock that generally will
scratch glass.
60
Prograde Metamorphism
TYPICAL MINERALOGY TRANSITIONS OF SHALE THAT RESULT FROM PROGRESSIVE METAMORPHISM.
Module 5
Metamorphic Rocks
and Processes
PART 2
2
 Types of Metamorphism
 Classification of
Metamorphic Rocks
 Common Metamorphic
Rocks
Types of Metamorphism 3
CONTACT REGIONAL HYDROTHERMAL

METAMORPHISM METAMORPHISM METAMORPHISM
4
Contact Metamorphism
Also known as thermal metamorphism, is

Types of metamorphism in which high temperature
is the dominant factor.
Metamorphism:
Contact Occurs when a body of magma intrudes
relatively cool country rock.
Metamorphism
Confining pressure may influence which
new minerals crystallize; however, the
confining pressure is usually relatively low.
5
Contact Metamorphism
Types of
The zone of contact metamorphism (also
Metamorphism : called an aureole) is usually quite
Contact narrow—generally from 1 to 100 meters
wide.
Metamorphism
The most common rocks found in an aureole
are the non-foliated rocks: ex. marble when
igneous rock intrudes limestone; quartzite
when quartz sandstone is metamorphosed;
hornfels when shale is scorched
Contact 6
Metamorphism
 Rocks produced by
contact metamorphism :
Contact metamorphism
of shale yields hornfels,
while contact
metamorphism of quartz
sandstone and limestone
produces quartzite and
marble, respectively.
7
Regional Metamorphism
Types of  The great majority of the metamorphic rocks

Metamorphism: found on Earth’s surface are products of
regional metamorphism, which is
Regional metamorphism that takes place at
Metamorphism considerable depth underground (generally
greater than 5 kilometers)
 Regional metamorphism is commonly

associated with mountain building at
convergent plate boundaries.
8
Regional
Metamorphism
Regional metamorphism is
often associated with a
continental collision where
rocks are squeezed
between two converging
plates, resulting in mountain
building.
9
Types of  Regional metamorphic rocks are almost
Metamorphism: always foliated, indicating differential stress
during recrystallization (for this reason, regional
Regional metamorphism is sometimes referred to as
dynamothermal metamorphism).
Metamorphism  Metamorphic rocks are prevalent in the most
intensely deformed portions of mountain
ranges.
 They are visible where once deeply buried
cores of mountain ranges are exposed by
erosion.
10
Types of  Temperatures during regional metamorphism
Metamorphism: vary widely. Usually, the temperatures are in
the range of 300 to 800°C. Temperature at a
Regional particular place depends to a large extent on
depth of burial and the geothermal gradient
Metamorphism of the region.
 The high confining pressure is due to burial
under 5 or more kilometers of rock. The
differential stress is due to tectonism; that is,
the constant movement and squeezing of the
crust during mountain-building episodes.
HYDROTHERMAL
METAMORPHISM
WHEN HOT, ION-RICH WATER

CIRCULATES THROUGH PORE
SPACES OR FRACTURES IN ROCK, A
CHEMICAL ALTERATION CALLED
HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPHISM
MAY OCCUR
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
As magma solidifies,
gases bearing ions of
iron leave the magma,
dissolve some of the
marble, and deposit
iron as magnetite.
Hydrothermal Metamorphism
How veins form? Cold

water descends, is heated,
dissolves material, ascends,
and deposits material as
water cools and pressure
drops upon ascending.
14
Hydrothermal
veins
A wide vein that contains
masses of sphalerite (dark),
pyrite and chalcopyrite (both
shiny yellow), as well as white
quartz, in the Casapalca mine
in Peru. It was mined for zinc
and copper.
Module 6
Weathering and
Soil Erosion
2
 Earth’s External Processes
Weathering, Erosion, and Transportation
 Soil Erosion
Earth’s External Processes 3
Rocks exposed at Earth’s surface are constantly

being changed by water, air, varying temperature,
and other environmental factors.
The processes that affect rock are weathering,

erosion, and transportation.
Earth’s external processes 4
Weathering – the physical breakdown (disintegration)

and chemical alteration (decomposition) of rock at or
near the Earth’s surface.
Erosion – the physical removal of rock particles by

mobile agents such as water, wind, ice, or gravity.
Transportation –is the movement of eroded

particles by agents such as rivers, waves, glaciers,
or wind.
5
HOW WEATHERING CHANGES ROCKS?
 Rocks undergo both mechanical weathering and chemical

weathering.
1. Mechanical weathering – breaking of rocks into smaller pieces
(physical disintegration). Mechanical weathering breaks up rock
but does not change the composition.
2. Chemical weathering is the decomposition of rock from
exposure to water and atmospheric gases (principally carbon
dioxide, oxygen, and water vapor). As rock is decomposed by
these agents, new chemical compounds form.
6
1. 1. Pressure release - reduction

of pressure on a body of rock. It Mechanical
can cause rock to crack as it
expands.
Weathering
 The removal of the great weight Processes:
of rock, usually termed
unloading, allows the rock to
Pressure
expand upward release
7
Sheet joints
 Cracks called sheet joints develop
parallel to the outer surface of the
rock as the outer part of the rock
expands more than the inner part.
8
 A large mass of
rock, such as a
batholith, originally
forms under great
pressure from the
weight of several
kilometres of rock
above it.
9
On slopes, gravity may cause
the rock between such joints
to break loose in concentric
slabs from the underlying
Mechanical granite mass.
Weathering
Processes This process of spalling off of
rock layers is called exfoliation.
10
Exfoliation Domes are

large, rounded landforms
developed in massive
rock, such as granite, by
exfoliation.
Half Dome in Yosemite National

Park, California
11
 Exfoliation, or sheet joints, are common in massive

plutonic rocks, like this Sierra granite. These are likely
produced by a combination of mechanisms, not
simply load removal.
12
Exfoliation slabs in Little Shuteye Pass in Sierra National
Forest
13
Mechanical 2. Frost Action - the mechanical

effect of freezing water on rocks
Weathering  commonly occurs as frost
wedging or frost heaving.
Processes:  In frost wedging, the expansion of
Frost action freezing water pushes rock apart.
 Frost heaving lifts rock and soil
vertically
14
Frost
wedging
15
Frost wedging occurs when

water fills joints (cracks) in a
rock and then freezes. The
expanding ice wedges the rock
apart.
16
Frost heaving
 When moist soils freeze, they

expand, or frost heave, due to the
growth of ice lenses.
 These masses of ice grow larger
because they are supplied with
water migrating from unfrozen
areas as thin liquid films.
 As more water accumulates and Ice breaks bottle. The bottle broke
freezes, the soil is heaved upward. because water expands about 9 percent
when it freezes.
Mechanical 17
Weathering
Processes
 Other processes:
3. Plant growth,
particularly roots
growing in cracks can
break up rocks
Tree roots will pry this rock apart as they grow within the rock joints,
Sierra Nevada
Mountains, California.
Mechanical 18
Weathering
Processes
4. Extreme changes in
temperature can
cause a rock to
expand until it cracks.
This rock is being broken by the

extreme temperature variation in a
desert, Mojave Desert, California
19
Whatever processes of mechanical

weathering are at work, as rocks disintegrate
into smaller fragments, the total surface area
increases allowing more extensive chemical
weathering by water and air.
Mechanical
Weathering Mechanical weathering can increase
Processes the surface area of a rock, accelerating
the rate of chemical weathering.
20
Increase in surface area

21
Chemical Weathering
 Itis the decomposition of rock from exposure to

water and atmospheric gases (principally carbon
dioxide, oxygen, and water vapor).
 Rock decomposition transform rocks and minerals
exposed to water and air into new chemical
products.
22
Chemical Weathering
 Chemical weathering changes the composition of rocks, often

transforming them when water interacts with minerals to create
various chemical reactions.
 Chemical weathering is a gradual and ongoing process as the

mineralogy of the rock adjusts to the near surface environment.
 Enhanced by such geological agents as the presence of water and

oxygen
23
Chemical Weathering:
Major Processes
 - Dissolution
 - Oxidation
 - Hydrolysis
24
Dissolution
Aided by small amounts of acid in the
water.
• The most important natural source of acid for rock

weathering at Earth’s surface is dissolved carbon
dioxide (CO2) in water. Water and carbon dioxide
form carbonic acid (H2CO3).
• Though carbonic acid is a weak acid, it is so
abundant at Earth’s surface that it is the single most
effective agent of chemical weathering.
25
Dissolution
 The hydrogen ions given off
by natural acids disrupt the
orderly arrangement of
atoms within most minerals.
A mudpot of boiling mud is created by

intense chemical weathering of the
surrounding rock by the acid gases
dissolved in a hot spring, Yellowstone
National Park, Wyoming.
26
Dissolution
Strong acids also drain from

some mines as sulfur-
containing minerals such as
pyrite oxidize and form acids
at the surface
27
Oxidation
 Any reaction when electrons
are lost from one element.
• Oxygen from the atmosphere
combines with the iron to form
iron oxide.
• Iron oxide formed in this way is a
weathering product of numerous
minerals containing iron, such as
the ferromagnesian group
(pyroxenes, amphiboles, biotite,
and olivine).
Oxidation 28
Sandstone has been colored red by

hematite, released by the chemical
weathering of ferromagnesian
minerals, Thermopolis, Wyoming.
29
Hydrolysis
 The reaction of any substance with water.
 Hydrogen ion attacks and replaces other ions.
• Water and carbon dioxide from the

atmosphere form carbonic acid,
which reacts with the existing rock
minerals to form new minerals and
soluble salts.
30
Under the influence of CO2 and H2O)

31
Availability of liquid water.
Climate: rock chemically weathers much

Factors faster in humid climates than in arid
climates.
Affecting Temperature: The most intense chemical
Weathering weathering occurs in the tropics, which are
both wet and hot.
Combination of steep slopes, precipitation,

freezing and thawing, and flowing glacial
ice
32
Soil Erosion
 Soil erosion is a natural process; it is part of the constant recycling of Earth materials
that we call the rock cycle.
Splash Erosion Sheet Erosion

33
Rates of Erosion
 The rate of soil erosion is influenced

by several factors:
1. soil characteristics
2. climate
3. slope
4. vegetation.
34
Rates of Erosion
 Soil characteristics
Coarse-grained soils with organic content tend to have larger pore
spaces and can absorb more water than soils dominated by clay-sized
particles. Less runoff occurs on the coarser soils, and less of the soil is eroded
away.
 Climate
The type of rainfall also influences the amount of erosion. A gentle rain
over a long period of time produces less splash erosion than a short, heavy
rain storm. More water can infiltrate the soil during the gentle rainfall and
there is less likelihood of sheet erosion occurring.
35
Rates of Erosion
 Slope
Slope also plays an important role in soil erosion. Water moves more slowly on
gentle slopes and is more likely to percolate down into the soil. The faster-moving
water on steeper slopes does not infiltrate and has a greater ability to dislodge
and transport soil particles down from the slope.
 Vegetation
Very significant control on soil erosion rate is the amount and type of vegetation
present. Plant roots form networks and serve as anchors that bind soil particles.
The leaf canopy protects the soil from the impact of raindrops, lowering the risk of
splash erosion. Thick vegetation can reduce the wind velocity near the ground
surface, preventing the loss of soil due to wind erosion.
Geologic Hazards:
Earthquakes
What are Earthquakes?
 The shaking or trembling of the ground

caused by the sudden release of energy
stored in the rocks beneath the Earth’s
surface
Causes of Earthquakes
 Occur when rocks break and move along a fault to
release strain that has gradually built up in the rock.
 Volcanic activity can also cause earthquakes.
 Deep quakes may be caused by mineral

transformation.
What is the Elastic Rebound Theory?
 Explains how energy is stored in rocks and cause
earthquakes.
1. Deep-seated internal forces

(tectonic forces) act on a mass of
rock over many decades.
2. Rock bends but does not break.

3. Rupture occurs and the rock

breaks suddenly and release
energy, causing earthquakes.
Energy is released in waves that

radiate outward from the fault
4. Rocks quickly rebound to an

undeformed shape
 When a rock breaks, waves of energy are released and sent

out through the Earth.
 These are seismic waves, the waves of energy produced by an
earthquake.
 The longer that energy is stored up and is maintained without

release, the more likely that a strong earthquake will occur.
The Focus and Epicenter of an
Earthquake
 The point within Earth
where seismic waves
originate is the focus, or
hypocenter of the
earthquake.
 The point on the Earth’s

surface directly above the
focus is the epicenter.
Types of Seismic Waves
 Body waves are seismic waves that travel through
the Earth’s interior, spreading outward from the focus
in all directions.
 Surface waves are seismic waves that travel on

Earth’s surface away from the epicenter.
Two Types of Body Waves
1. P wave (primary wave) - a compressional (or
longitudinal) wave in which rock vibrates back and
forth parallel to the direction of wave propagation.
 It is a fast wave traveling through near-surface rocks at

speeds of 4 to 7 kilometers per second (9,000 to more
than 15,000 miles per hour),
 P wave
2. S wave (secondary wave) and is a slower,
transverse wave that travels through near-surface
rocks at 2 to 5 kilometers per second.
 An S wave is propagated by a shearing motion much

like that in a stretched, shaken rope.
 The rock vibrates perpendicular to the direction of

wave propagation, that is, crosswise to the direction
the waves are moving.
 S wave
 Both P waves and S waves pass easily

through solid rock.
 A P wave can also pass through a fluid (gas

or liquid), but an S wave cannot.
Two Types of Surface Waves
1. Love waves are most like S waves that have no vertical
displacement.
 The ground moves side to side in a horizontal plane that

is perpendicular to the direction the wave is traveling or
propagating
1. Love waves
 Love waves do not travel through liquids and would not
be felt on a body of water.
 Because of the horizontal movement, Love waves tend

to knock buildings off their foundations and destroy
highway bridge supports.
2. Rayleigh waves behave like rolling ocean waves.
 Unlike ocean waves, Rayleigh waves cause the ground to

move in an elliptical path opposite to the direction the
wave passes.
2. Rayleigh waves
 Rayleigh waves tend to be incredibly destructive to

buildings because they produce more ground movement
and take longer to pass.
 Surface waves cause more property damage than

body waves because surface waves produce more
ground movement and travel more slowly, so they
take longer to pass.
Instrumentation: Seismometer,
Seismograph
 The instrument used to measure seismic waves is a
seismometer.
 Seismometers are usually placed in clusters of three to
record the motion along the x, y, and z axes of three
dimensional space.
 A seismograph is a recording device that produces a

permanent record of Earth motion detected by a seismometer.
Seismograph
 The paper record of Earth vibration is called a seismogram.
 The seismogram can be used to measure the strength of the
earthquake
Seismograph
Determining the Location of
Earthquake
 Distance to earthquake is determined.
 Seismographs record seismic waves
 From seismograph record called the seismogram, measure time

delay between P and S wave arrival.
 Use travel time curve to determine distance to earthquake as

function of P-S time delay
Seismic Wave Behavior
A travel-time curve is used to determine the distance to an
earthquake.
Earthquake
 A single station can determine only the distance to a quake,
not the direction.
 We must repeat the activity for each of at least three (3)

stations to triangulate a point (epicenter of quake).
Earthquake: Epicenter
1. Plot a circle around seismograph location; radius of circle is
the distance to the quake.
 Quake occurred somewhere along that circle.
2. Do the same thing for at least 3 seismograph stations; circles

intersect at epicenter. Thus, point is triangulated and epicenter
is located.
Locating the
epicenter of an
earthquake
Where Do Earthquakes Occur and
How Often?
 ~80% of all earthquakes occur in the circum-Pacific belt
 most of these result from convergent margin activity
 ~15% occur in the Mediterranean-Asiatic belt
Where Do Earthquakes Occur and
How Often?
 remaining 5% occur in the interiors of plates and on spreading
ridge centers
 more than 150,000 quakes strong enough to be felt are
recorded each year
How are the Size and Strength of
an Earthquake Measured?
 Intensity – measure of an earthquake’s effect on people and
buildings
 Intensities are expressed as Roman numerals ranging from I to

XII on the modified Mercalli scale ; higher numbers indicate
greater damage.
 It is subjective : measures the kind of damage done and

people’s reactions to it
 Advantage : no instruments are required, which allows
seismologists to estimate the size of earthquakes that
occurred before seismographs were available.
Modified Mercalli Intensity Map
• 1994 Northridge, CA earthquake, magnitude 6.7
 Magnitude
 Richter scale measures
total amount of energy
released by an
earthquake;
independent of intensity.
 Amplitude of the largest

wave produced by an
event is corrected for
distance and assigned a
value on an open-
ended logarithmic scale.
What are the Destructive Effects
of Earthquakes?
 Ground motion is the trembling and shaking of the land that
can cause buildings to vibrate.
 Frequency of shaking differs for different seismic waves.
 High frequency body waves shake low buildings more.
 Low frequency surface waves shake high buildings more.

of Earthquakes?
 Buildings respond differently to shaking depending on
construction styles, materials.
 Intensity of shaking also depends on type of subsurface

material.
of Earthquakes?
Unconsolidated materials amplify shaking more than rocks do/
of Earthquakes?
Most of the buildings in Beichuan, China

were destroyed by shaking and
landslides caused by the magnitude 7.9
earthquake that struck Sichuan
province on May 12, 2008. More than
70,000 people were killed and 374,643
injured when intense shaking collapsed
buildings and schools, triggered
numerous landslides, and left more than
5 million people homeless.
of Earthquakes?
Elevated highway knocked

over by a strong horizontal
jolt during the 1995 Kobe,
Japan. Columns failed due
to insufficient shear strength.
Damage exceeded $400
billion and destroyed or
severely damaged more
than 88,000 buildings.
of Earthquakes?
The damage on the building is concentrated at a

particular story due to building’s vertical irregularities
after the 1995 Kobe, Japan earthquake
of Earthquakes?
Roads in Wakami town in Akita

prefecture was totally destroyed
after the 1983 Nihon-kai Chubu
earthquake
of Earthquakes?
One of the deadliest
and costliest natural
disasters in the
Philippines was the Luzon
earthquake which
occurred on 16 July
1990. Baguio City was
one of the hardest hit
with number of deaths
estimated at around
1000. Several private
and public buildings
were damage or
destroyed, many of
which were hotels.
What are the
Destructive
Effects of
Earthquakes?
Loboc Church in Bohol
A powerful 7.2 killer earthquake has struck Bohol and

other parts of the Visayan region in Central Philippines
last October 15, 2013.
of Earthquakes?
 Fires - usually occurs from shifting of subsurface utilities
(gas lines), water lines and fallen electrical wires.
Northridge earthquake, southern California, 1994

of Earthquakes?
 Landslides can be triggered by

the shaking of the ground
Landslide in Pacific Palisades, Los

Angeles California triggered by the
Northridge earthquake, 1994.
of Earthquakes?
 The sudden movement of the sea floor upward or downward
during a submarine earthquake can generate very large sea
waves, popularly called “tidal waves” or “tsunami”.
 They usually are caused by great earthquakes (magnitude +8)

that disturb the sea floor, but they also result from submarine
landslides or volcanic explosions.
Formation of Tsunami
 A tsunami may have a wavelength of 400 meters and may be
moving more than 90 kilometers per hour (55 miles per hour).
 In deep water, the wave height may be only 0.6 to 3 meters,
but near shore, the tsunami may peak at heights of 15 to 30
meters. The water keeps on rising for 5 to 10 mins. causing great
flooding.
Tsunami travel time and wave height (feet) map from
December 26, 2004 Sumatra earthquake. The arrival time
(hours) of the first wave of the tsunami are shown by the
white contour lines.
Many people are surprised while others run for safety as the
tsunami caused by the December 26, 2004, 9.3 magnitude
Sumatra (Indian Ocean) earthquake comes crashing onshore in
Koh Raya, Thailand.
The aftermath of tsunami disaster in Thailand caused by 2004
Indian Ocean earthquake
of Earthquakes?
 A special type of ground failure caused by earthquakes is
liquefaction.
 This occurs when a water-saturated soil or sediment turns from a
solid to a liquid as a result of earthquake shaking.
What are the Destructive Effects 52
of Earthquakes?
Earthquake occurrence can produce destructive
effects such as liquefaction (Pathak & Patki, 53
2013).
In Japan, an earthquake In the Philippines, liquefaction

occurred on June 16, 1964. was also experienced at
This caused buildings to tilt Dagupan City, Pangasinan
and sank while some when an earthquake with
structures, such as manhole, magnitude 7.8 happened last
embedded under the July 16, 1990. A building tilted in
ground were lifted out Dagupan City due to
(Towhata, 2008). liquefaction (Orallo, 2011).
Liquefaction of soil by a 1964 quake in Niigata, Japan, caused
earthquake-resistant apartment buildings to topple over intact.
Sand boiling due to soil liquefaction
Ground displacement as an effect of soil liquefaction
Lifted manhole as a result
of soil liquefaction
Can Earthquakes be Predicted?
 Earthquake Precursors – to monitor slight changes that occur in
rock next to a faults before the rock breaks and moves.
 changes in elevation or tilting of land surface, fluctuations in
groundwater levels, magnetic field, electrical resistance of
the ground
 The recurrence interval and likelihood of future earthquakes are also

determined by measuring the slip rate along plate boundaries.
 Paleoseismology investigations - determine the recurrence interval of

quakes along individual faults.
Chinese scientists claim successful, short-range predictions by watching animal

behavior—horses become skittish and snakes leave their holes shortly before a
quake
Can Earthquakes be Predicted?
 Create stronger structures that resist catastrophic damage
during a major earthquake.
 Some have suggested that pumping fluids into seismic gaps will
cause small earthquakes while preventing large ones.
 Short, inactive segments along some long-active faults are
called seismic gaps where earthquakes have not occurred
for a long time.
 Develop an early warning system.

Geologic Hazards:
Volcanic Eruption
What is a Volcano?
 A volcano is a mountain that forms when molten rock (magma)

reaches the surface of the Earth.
 They are formed when

molten, sticky rock
called magma,
forces its way through a
crack in the Earth’s crust.
What is a Volcano?
 A volcano is classified as “active” if it erupts lava, rock, gas or

ash, or if it shows seismic (earthquake) activity.
 A volcano is dormant if it hasn't erupted for a long time (less

than 1 million years) but could erupt again one day.
 An extinct volcano will never erupt again.

Parts of Volcanoes
crater
vent
cone
conduit
magma
chamber
Parts of Volcanoes
crater
vent
VENT- is the opening
from which lava flows.
Dust, ash, and rock
cone particles can also be
thrown out of the vent
conduit
magma
chamber
Parts of Volcanoes
crater
vent
Volcanic cone- is the
pile of lava, dust,
ashes, and rock
cone around the vent. It
can be found in
different shapes
conduit
magma
chamber
Parts of Volcanoes
crater
vent Crater- the top of the
volcano. It is a funnel
shaped pit. It is formed
when the material explodes
cone
out of the vent
Some volcanoes have very
large circular
conduit depressions, called calderas,
that have diameters greater
than 1 kilometer.
magma
chamber
Parts of Volcanoes
crater
vent
Conduit:
A passageway
cone followed by magma in
a volcano.
conduit
magma
chamber
Parts of Volcanoes
crater
vent
Magma chamber: The
subterranean cavity
containing the gas-rich
cone
liquid magma which feeds
a volcano.
conduit
magma
chamber
Types of Volcanoes
 Volcanoes are classified by how they are formed.
1. Shield Volcano
- Is wide and somewhat flat, between 2o to 10o
- It forms from a quiet eruption.
- Lava flows out quietly and for great distances
Types of Volcanoes
2. Cinder Cone Volcano

- Has tall, very steep slope.
- Has explosive eruptions.
- This eruption produces a lot of cinder and ash.
Types of Volcanoes
3. Composite Volcano
- Form from explosive eruptions.
- Produce a lot of lava and ash.
- Slope is less that 33o
Why does a volcano erupt?
 A volcano erupts when magma and gases find a way to

escape, so they burst to the surface through a vent.
 Hot, molten rock (magma) is buoyant (has a lower density than

the surrounding rocks) and will rise up through the crust to erupt
on the surface.
 High temperature of the Earth’s interior

Eruption patterns
 Two factors that determined the eruption patterns:
(1) the amount of gas in the lava or magma
(2) the ease or difficulty with which the gas can escape to
the atmosphere (“viscosity”)
 The more viscous the lava and the greater the volume of
gas trying to escape, the more violent the eruption
The melted rock that spills out of the crater on the top of the
volcano is called lava.
Eruption patterns
 The three factors that influence viscosity of lava or magma are :
(1) the silica (SiO2) content :
- ranges from 45% to 75% by weight
- Felsic rocks are silica-rich (65% or more SiO2) rocks
- Mafic rocks are silica-deficient rocks (silica content is close
to 50%)
 Mafic lava is around 10,000 times as viscous as water,

whereas felsic lava is around 100 million times the viscosity of
water.
 Mafic lavas, which are relatively low in SiO2, tend to flow

easily. Conversely, felsic lavas are much more viscous and
flow sluggishly.
Eruption patterns
 The three factors that influence viscosity of lava or magma are :
(2) the temperature
- If the lava being extruded is considerably hotter than its
solidification temperature, the lava is less viscous (more fluid) than
when its temperature is near its solidification point.
- Temperatures at which lavas solidify range from about 700°C for
felsic rocks to 1,200°C for mafic rocks.
(3) gas dissolved in magma

- Water vapor dissolved in magma tends to increase fluidity
because it reduces formation of long silicate chains by breaking
silicon–oxygen bonds.
- the loss of gases renders magma (lava) more viscous
Eruption patterns
1. Explosive eruption – caused by large amounts of gas and a
high viscosity (sticky) magma.
- This is the most violent eruption of all because the gases
and magma become trapped inside the volcano.
- This causes a huge explosion, which can be big enough to
remove the top of the whole mountain.
Eruption patterns
2. Effusive eruption - is characterized by outpourings of lava on
to the ground.
- It is described as quiet and gentle eruption.
- Small amounts of gas and (or) low viscosity magma
- However, the lava is very runny and can move very fast.
Gases from Volcanic Eruption
 Most of the gas released during eruptions is water vapor, which

condenses as steam.
 Other gases, such as carbon dioxide, sulfur dioxide, hydrogen

sulfide (which smells like rotten eggs), and hydrochloric acid,
are given off in lesser amounts with the steam.
 Surface water introduced into a volcanic system can greatly

increase the explosivity of an eruption.
Catastrophic Effects of Volcanic
Eruptions
When magma solidified quickly as it was blasted explosively by
gases into the air, it produce rock fragments known as
pyroclasts (from the Greek pyro, “fire,” and clast, “broken”).
Pyroclastic debris is also known as tephra.
 Pyroclastic debris and rock formed by solidification of lava

are collectively regarded as extrusive rock, surface rock
resulting from volcanic activity.
Volcanic Hazards
1. Pyroclastic fall - The fallout of rock, debris and ash from an
explosive eruption column.
ex. Ash fall, rock fall
 Most of the deaths due to pyroclastic fall are caused by
collapse of ash-covered roof or by being hit by falling rock
fragments.
Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in 1991

Volcanic Hazards
2. Pyroclastic flow - is a mixture of hot gas and pyroclastic
debris that rapidly flows down
a volcano’s flanks.
 Pyroclastic flows
 can reach > 100 km distance
from a volcano.
 can travel 100 km/h
 temperature is >400°C.
Before and after the eruption of` Mt. Pinatubo:

a river valley filled in by pyroclastic flow deposits.
Volcanic Hazards
Direct measurements
of pyroclastic flows
are extremely
dangerous!!!
24
(A) Pyroclastic flow descending Mayon volcano, Philippines (elevation 2,460

meters), in 1984. Ways in which pyroclastic flows can form: (B) Blasting out from
under a plug capping a volcano. (C) Collapse of part of a steep-sided dome.
(D) Gravitational collapse of an eruptive column.
Volcanic Hazards
3. Volcanic mudflows (also called lahars) – a flowing mixture of

soil, fine pyroclastic debris and water from heavy rains.
 can result to large number of deaths and widespread

destruction of crops and animals.
Volcanic Hazards
4. Volcanic Lightning – is generated by tiny particles of rocks
thrown out by the volcano.
 The ash is believed to cause friction that generates an
electrical charge.
Volcanic lightning
generated during the
eruption of Chaiten
volcano in Chile,
May 2008
Beneficial Effects of Volcanic
Eruptions
1. Lava flowing into the sea and solidifying results to the
growth of an island.
ex. Island of Hawaii.
 When lava flows into the sea and solidifies, more land is
added to the islands. Hawaii is, quite literally, growing.
Eruptions
2. Weathered volcanic ash and lava produce excellent
fertile soils.
3. Erupting volcanoes (which are relatively safe to watch)
are great spectacles that attract both tourists and
scientists, benefiting the island’s economy.
Lava flow
in
Hawaii,
1969.
Eruptions
4. In areas of recent volcanic activity, underground heat
generated by igneous activity produced geothermal
energy.
 The United States is the biggest producer of geothermal

power, followed by the Philippines, Italy, and Mexico.
Effects on Climate
 Volcanic eruption will spew large amounts of fine, volcanic
dust and gas into the high atmosphere. Winds can keep fine
particles suspended over the Earth for years.
BENEFICIAL EFFECT: The 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the

Philippines produced noticeably more colorful sunsets
worldwide. More significantly, it reduced solar radiation that
penetrates the atmosphere.
Effects on Climate
NEGATIVE EFFECTS: The 1815 eruption of Tambora in Indonesia
was the largest, single eruption in a millennium—40 cubic
kilometers of material were blasted out of a volcanic island,
leaving a 6-kilometer-wide depression. The following year, 1816,
became known as “the year without summer.” In New England,
snow in June was widespread and frosts throughout the summer
ruined crops. Parts of Europe suffered famine because of the cold
weather effects on agriculture.
Volcanic Explosivity Index
 To indicate how powerful volcanic eruptions are,
scientists use the Volcanic Explosivity Index or VEI.
 The index is on a scale of 0 to 8 and is based on a

number of factors :
- the volume of erupted pyroclastic material
- the height of the eruption column
- how long the eruption lasts.
Geologic Hazards:
Mass Wasting
2
Landslides in Punta, San Franscisco, Panaon Island, Southern Leyte

Photo by the Philippine Star (2003)
Mass Wasting 3
 Mass wasting is movement in which bedrock, rock debris, or soil

moves downslope in bulk, or as a mass, because of the pull of
gravity.
Landslides is a general term for the slow to very rapid descent of

rock or soil.
4
Mass Wasting
 Why is it important to understand the processes of mass

wasting?
1. Processes represent a significant hazard to property and
people
2. Need to identify where and under what conditions these
processes will occur
3. Avoid construction in areas prone to mass wasting
Cause of Mass Wasting 5
 The driving force for mass wasting is gravity
 The effect of gravity is resolve into two component forces:

 Normal force is perpendicular to the slope and is the
component of gravity that tends to hold the block in place.
 Shear force is parallel to the slope and indicates the block’s
ability to move.
 Friction counteracts the shear force.
 Shear resistance is the force that would be needed to move

the block.
 If shear resistance is larger than the shear force, the block will
not move.
 The magnitude of the shear resistance is a function of friction

and the size of the normal force.
 The resistance to movement or deformation of that soil is its
shear strength.
 The larger the normal force, the greater the shear strength is.
 If the shear strength is greater than the shear force, the soil will
not move or deformed.
 On the other hand, if shear strength is less than shear force, the
soil will flow or slide.
 Mass wasting occurs when gravitational forces exceed

frictional or shear forces (strength) of material.
 Shear strength of soil is controlled by the factors:

- the cohesiveness of the material,
- friction between particles
- pore pressure of water, and
- the anchoring effect of plant roots.
Role of Water in Mass Wasting 9
 Water is a critical factor in mass wasting
- Small amount of water can increase strength.
- Surface tension of water helps hold material together.
- Saturation with water weakens material.
- Hydrostatic pressure can act to push grains apart.
 As the amount of water in soil increases, the rate of movement

tends to increase.
 Slow types of mass wasting, such as creep, are generally
characterized by a relatively low ratio of water to earth.
 Mudflows always have high ratios of water to earth.
 A mudflow that continues to gain water eventually
becomes a muddy stream.
Triggering Factors 10
 A sudden event may trigger mass wasting of a hillside that is
unstable.
1. Earthquakes commonly trigger landslides.
2. Heavy rainfall
3. Construction work
Other Contributing Factors in 11
Mass Wasting
1. Steep or vertical slopes
2. Presence of relief (vertical distance between valley
floor and mountain summit) was great, allowing the
mass to pick up speed and momentum
3. The orientation of planes of weakness in bedrock.
4. Abundant loose rock and debris in the course of
moving mass
5. Sparsely vegetated - no plant roots to anchor loose
material on the slope
12
Classification of Mass Wasting 13
 The classification of mass wasting is based on the following:
1. Rate of movement - slow or fast
2. Type of material
debris - coarse-grained fragments predominant in the soil
earth – predominantly fine-grained (sand, silt, clay)
mud – clay or silt with high content of water
3. Type of Movement
Flow - implies that the Fall occurs when

descending mass is moving material free-falls or
downslope as a viscous fluid. bounces down a cliff.
Slide means the descending mass remains relatively intact,

moving along one or more well-defined surfaces.
Translational slide, the descending mass moves along a plane

approximately parallel to the slope of the surface.
Rotational slide (also called a slump) involves movement along a
curved surface, the upper part moving downward while the lower
part moves outward.
16
Types of Mass Wasting 17
1. Creep (or soil creep) is very slow, downslope movement of soil.
 Shear forces, over time, are only slightly greater than shear
strengths.
 The rate of movement is usually less than a centimeter per year

and can be detected only by observations taken over months
or years.
1. Creep (or soil creep) is very slow, downslope movement of soil.
 Rates tend to be higher on steep slopes than on gentle slopes.
 Rates tend to increase as soil moisture increases.

 However, in wet climates vegetation density also increases
and the roots of plants tend to inhibit creep.
 Some indicators of creep

- Tilted posts
- Tilted fence
- Curved tree trunk
- Bent and broken walls
- Partially weathered
bedrock bending
downslope
Several processes contribute to soil creep. Particles are
displaced in cycles of wetting and drying. The soil tends to
swell when wet and contract when dry.
Indicators of creep 20
As a young tree grew, it grew vertically but was tilted by creeping

soil. As it continued to grow, its new, upper part would grow
vertically but in turn would be tilted.
Tilted fence due to soil creep

Bedrock bending downslope due to creep

2. Flow occurs when motion is taking place within a moving mass

of unconsolidated or weakly consolidated material.
 Grains move relative to adjacent grains, or motion takes place

along closely spaced, discrete fractures.
 The common varieties of flow:
a) Earthflow
b) Debris flow
c) Mudflow
d) Debris avalanche
The Common Varieties of 24
Flow
a) Earthflow - earth moves downslope as a viscous fluid; the
process can be slow or rapid.
 Earthflows usually occur on hillsides that have a thick cover of
soil in which finer grains are predominant, often after heavy
rains have saturated the soil.
Flow
The flowing mass

remains covered by a
blanket of vegetation,
with a scarp (steep cut)
developing where the
moving debris has
pulled away from the
stationary upper slope.
Flow
Slump earthflow - rotational sliding (slumping) that takes place
above the earthflow.
 Soil remains in a relatively coherent block or blocks that rotate
downward and outward, forcing the soil below to flow.
Flow
Example of slump-earthflow
Flow
 A landslide may be entirely an
earthflow.
 A hummocky (characterized by
mounds and depressions) lobe
usually forms at the toe or front of
the earthflow where soil has
accumulated.
 Triggers of an earthflow:
1. Presence of too much water
2. Undercutting at the base of a
slope
Flow
b) Debris flow is a flow involving soil in which coarse material
(gravel, boulders) is predominant.
 A debris flow can be like an earthflow and travel relatively

short distances to the base of a slope or,
 If there is a lot of water, a debris flow can behave like a

mudflow and flow rapidly, traveling considerable distance in a
channel.
Flow
c) Mudflow is a flowing mixture of soil and water, usually moving down
a channel.
 It is a slurry of soil and water that forms after a heavy rainfall or other
influx of water and begins moving down a slope.
 It differs from a debris flow in that fine-grained (sand, silt, clay)

material is predominant.
 Mudflows are most likely to occur in places where soil is not protected
by a vegetative cover.
Flow
A dried mudflow
Flow
d) Debris avalanche is the
fastest variety of debris flow.
It is a very rapidly moving,
turbulent mass of debris, air,
and water.
The 1970 debris avalanche in

Peru, which buried Yungay.
3. Rockfall occurs when a block of bedrock breaks off and falls

freely or bounces down a cliff.
Rockfall at Yosemite, California

Small dust clouds linger

high above Yosemite
Valley where rock slabs
broke loose and fell to the
valley floor, creating upon
impact, the debris-laden
blast of air climbing up the
other side of the valley.
 Commonly, an apron of
fallen rock fragments,
called talus,
accumulates at the
base of the cliff.
4. Rockslide is the rapid sliding of a mass of bedrock along an

inclined surface of weakness, such as a bedding plane, a
major fracture in the rock, or a foliation plane.
 Like rockfalls, rockslides can be caused by undercutting at the

base of the slope from erosion or construction.
Types of Mass Wasting
37
Exceptionally heavy rains can also triggered the rockslide after

water seeped into a layer of rocks/sandstone
5. Rock avalanche is a very rapidly moving, turbulent mass of broken-

up bedrock.
 The only difference between a rock avalanche and a debris

avalanche is that a rock avalanche begins its journey as bedrock.
A rockslide becomes a rock

avalanche which creates a giant
wave that destroys towns in Italy
Preventing Mass Wasting 41
 The following are some engineering practices for stabilizing
and/or protecting precarious slopes:
1. Unloading is the procedure of reducing the driving forces

within a slide mass. This is undertaken by removing materials
from the upper part of the slope, removing loose and unstable
materials, flattening of the slope or benching.
2. Benching is the practice of transforming one high slope into a series
of lower slopes with horizontal surfaces in between slopes referred to
as benches.
Benching of slopes in Tongonan, Leyte

3. Installing proper drainage minimizes the destabilizing effects of
hydrostatic and seepage forces on a slope, as well as reduces
the risk of erosion and piping.
In the Philippines, the most widely used drainage technique is the

installation of surface drains to carry away surface runoff and
prevent it from seeping into the slope.
4. In cases of nearly vertical slopes, slope faces are protected
using grouted riprap.
 Grouted riprap involves the placement of rounded, cobble,
and boulder sized rocks against the slope face. Rocks are held
together using cement mortar placed in between rocks.
5. Gabion walls are gravity retaining structures consisting of
competent, cobble sized rocks placed inside wire mesh
baskets, stacked and tied together in an interlocking
pattern.
 A geosynthetic filter cloth is normally place behind the wall
during construction prior to backfilling to prevent erosion of
backfill soils
6. Soil nailing is a method of reinforcement that utilizes passive
inclusions that will be mobilized if and when movement
occurs.
 It is usually done to retain excavations and stabilize slopes by
creating an in-situ, reinforced soil mass.
7. Rockfall barriers and shelters have been used to protect major
roads and pipelines in mountainous areas.
 Barriers are designed to withstand the impact, as well as stop or
divert falling boulders.
8. Vetiver grass is widely used for steep slope stabilization and
rehabilitation of degraded and disturbed lands.
 When planted in single lines along the contour, hedges of
vetiver grass are found to be very effective in soil and moisture
conservation.
49
The Vetiver grass and its excavated roots

Module 8
Introduction to
Engineering Geology,
Geologic Structures, and
Geologic Maps
2
Geology is the science of rocks,
minerals, soils, and subsurface water,
including the study of their formation,
structure, and behavior.
Engineering
Engineering geology is the branch that
Geologist deals with the application of geologic
principles to engineering works.
• Unlike geotechnical engineers, whose training is

in civil engineering, engineering geologists
have a background in geology.
3
Their work includes mapping, describing
and characterizing the rock at a
construction site; assessing stability issues,
such as landslides; and appraising local
seismicity and earthquake potentials.
Geotechnical engineering is closely

Engineering related to engineering geology
These two professions are complementary
Geology and work together as a team.
Nevertheless, it is important for the

geologist to have some understanding of
engineering, and the engineer to have
some understanding of geology.
4
Geotechnical engineering is the
branch of civil engineering that deals
with soil, rock, and underground
water, and their relation to the design,
construction, and operation of
engineering projects.
Geotechnical
Engineering This discipline is also called soils
engineering or ground engineering.
Nearly all civil engineering projects
must be supported by the ground,
and thus require at least some
geotechnical engineering.
5
Geotechnical
engineers
Engineering
geologists
Typical issues addressed by 6
geotechnical engineers include:
 Can the soils and rocks beneath a construction site safely support the proposed
project?
 What groundwater conditions currently exist, how might they change in the future,
and what impact do they have on the project?
 What will be the impact of any planned excavation, grading, or filling?
 Are the natural or proposed earth slopes stable? If not, what must we do to
stabilize them?
 What kinds of foundations are necessary to support planned structures, and how
should we design them?
 If the project requires retaining walls, what kind would be best and how should we
design them?
 How will the site respond to potential earthquakes?
7
What do geotechnical engineers do?
Design Phase:
 Geotechnical engineers usually begin by assessing the
underground conditions and the engineering properties of the
various strata.
 We call this process site exploration and characterization.
 It usually involves drilling vertical holes called exploratory
borings into the ground, obtaining soil and rock samples, and
testing these samples in a laboratory.
 It may also involve conducting tests in-situ (in-place).
8
What do geotechnical engineers do?
 The next step is to perform engineering analyses based on

the information gained from the site exploration and
characterization program.
 The analytical tools we use to perform these analyses are
collectively known as soil mechanics and rock mechanics.
 Thus, soil mechanics and rock mechanics are to
geotechnical engineering as structural mechanics is to
structural engineering.
 Based on the analysis results, provide geotechnical input for
design purposes.
Geotechnical services during 9
construction typically include:
Construction Phase:
 Examining the soil and rock conditions actually encountered

and comparing them with those anticipated in the design.
 Comparing the actual performance with that anticipated in
the design.
 Providing quality control testing, especially in compacted fills
and structural foundations.
Geotechnical services during 10
construction typically include:
Beyond the end of construction:

 Investigation and monitoring of sites prone to long-term
settlements.
 Development of remedial measures to address
geotechnical problems.
Engineering Geology 11
Structural
Geology:
Rock and Soil
Geologic
Structures
12
Rock and Soil
 Both geologists and engineers frequently divide earth materials into

two broad categories: rock and soil.
 To a geologist, rock is "any naturally formed aggregate or mass of
mineral matter, whether or not coherent, constituting an essential
and appreciable part of the earth' s crust" (American Geological
Institute, 1976).
 This definition focuses on the modes of origin and structure of the
material.
 Engineers (and contractors) sometimes consider rock to be a "hard,
durable material that cannot be excavated without blasting,“
 a definition based on strength and durability.
13
Another aspect of dividing earth materials into

rock and soil is that this distinction often
determines the kinds of subsurface data we need
to acquire, the tests we will perform, and the
analyses we will conduct.
Rock and Soil
Important differences between these two

materials, including the following (Goodman,
1990):
Rocks are generally Rocks usually have
cemented; soils are much lower porosity
rarely cemented. than soils.
Important difference between 14
Rock and Soil
 Rocks can be found in states of decay with greatly altered

properties and attributes; effects of weathering on soils are more
subtle and generally less variable.
 Rock masses are often discontinuous; soil masses usually can be

represented as continuous.
 Rocks have more complex, and generally unknowable stress

histories. In many rock masses, the least principal stress is vertical;
in most soils the greatest principal stress is vertical.
Structural Geology 15
 Structural geology is the study of the configuration and

orientation of rock formations.
 This is an important part of engineering geology because it

gives us important insights on how a rock mass will behave.
 Therefore, engineering geologists routinely develop detailed

geologic maps that describe these structures.
Geologic Structures 16
• Geologic structures are dynamically-produced
patterns or arrangements of rock or sediment that
result from, and give information about, forces within
the Earth
Stress and Strain in the 17
Earth’s Lithosphere
Stress is force per • The three basic types of stress are

unit area compressive, tensional and shear
Strain is a • Geologic structures are indicative of

change in size or the type of stress and its rate of
shape, or both in application, as well the physical
response to stress properties of the rocks or sediments
Stress and Strain 18
 Compressive stress results in

rocks being shortened or
flattened.
 Rocks that have been shortened

or flattened are typically found
along convergent plate
boundaries where rocks have
been pushed or shoved
together.
 Tensional stress results in a

stretching or extension and
breaking of material.
 At divergent plate boundaries,
the lithosphere is undergoing
extension as the plates move
away from one another.
 Because rocks are very weak
when pulled apart, fractures
and faults are common
structures.
 When stresses act parallel to a plane, shear stress
is produced.
 A shear stress results in a shear strain parallel to
the direction of the stresses.
 Shear stresses occur along actively moving faults.
How Rocks Respond to Stress 21
 Rocks behave as elastic, ductile or brittle materials

depending on:
 amount and rate of stress application
 type of rock
 temperature and pressure
 If deformed materials return to original shape after stress
removal, they are behaving elastically.
 Most rocks behave in an elastic way at very low stresses.
 However, once the stress

exceeds the elastic limit of a
rock, it deforms permanently
 - ductile deformation
involves bending plastically
 - brittle deformation involves
fracturing
 Rocks exposed to elevated pressure and temperature

behave in a ductile manner and develop a planar
texture, or foliation, due to the alignment of minerals.
 Ductile behavior results in rocks that are permanently

deformed mainly by folding or bending of rock layers.
 Rocks typically exhibit brittle behavior at or near

Earth’s surface, where temperatures and pressure are
low.
 Faults and joints are examples of structures that form

by brittle behavior of the crust.
25
Deformed sedimentary beds exposed in a road cut near Palmdale,

California. Squeezing due to movement along the San Andreas fault
caused the sedimentary layers to be contorted into folds and broken by
smaller faults.
26
Folded sedimentary rock

layers exposed at Lulworth
Cove, Dorset, England
Types of Geologic Structures 27
 Folds are bends or

wavelike features in
layered rock.
• The axial plane divides a
fold into its two limbs
– The surface trace of
an axial plane is called
the hinge line (or axis)
of the fold.
28
Basic Fold Geometry
 Anticlines are upward-

arching folds with the
oldest rocks in the center
of the fold.
 Synclines are
downward-arching folds
with the youngest rocks in
the center of the fold.
Types of Folds 29
1. Plunging folds are

folds in which the
hinge line is not
horizontal
 Where surfaces
have been levelled
by erosion, plunging
folds form V- or
horseshoe-shaped
patterns of exposed
rock layers (beds).
30
Types of Folds
1. Plunging folds

Types of Folds 31
2. Open folds have limbs that

dip gently and the angle
between the limbs is large.
- The more open the fold,
the less it has been strained
by shortening.
Types of Folds 32
3. Isoclinal folds have parallel

limbs.
- Implies even larger
shortening strain or shear strain
Types of Folds 33
4. Overturned fold – the

axial plane is inclined to
such a degree that fold
limbs dip in the same
direction.
34
Types of Folds
5. Recumbent folds - are
overturned to an extent that
the limbs are essentially
horizontal.
Types of Folds 35
6. Structural Domes are structures in which the beds dip away
from a central point, and the oldest rocks are found in the
center or core of the structure.
- Sometimes called doubly plunging anticlines.
Domes near Casper, Wyoming

Types of Folds 36
7. Structural Basins are

structures in which the beds
dip toward a central point,
and the youngest rock are
exposed in the center of the
structure.
- Sometimes called doubly
plunging synclines
Fractures in Rock 37
 Joint : a fracture or crack in
bedrock where essentially no
displacement occurs
- joint set : where joints are
oriented approximately parallel to
one another
Vertical joints in sedimentary rock

at Moab, Utah, formed in
response to tectonic uplift of the
region.
Fractures in Rock 38
 Faults - fractures in bedrock
along which movement has
occurred
- Considered “active” if
movement has occurred along
them within the last 11,000
years
Types of Faults 39
Categorized by type of movement

in terms of direction of slippage :
1. Dip-slip Faults - the movement is
up or down parallel to the dip of
the inclined fault surface.
The side of the fault above the
inclined fault surface is called the
hanging wall, whereas the side
below the fault is called the
footwall.
Types of Faults 40
Common Type of Dip-slip Faults
 Normal faults - the hanging-wall block moved down relative
to the footwall block.
 Reverse faults - the hanging-wall block moved up relative to
the footwall block
Types of Faults 41
 A normal fault results in extension or lengthening of the crust.
 Graben - Fault blocks, bounded by normal faults, that drop down.

 Horsts - Fault blocks, bounded by normal faults, that are uplifted.
Types of Faults 42
Types of Faults 43
 Horizontal compressive stresses cause reverse faults.
Reverse faults tend to shorten the crust.
 A thrust fault is a reverse fault in which the dip of the fault
plane is at a low angle ( 30°) or even horizontal
44
Types of Faults
2. Strike-slip faults have

movement that is
predominantly horizontal
and parallel to the strike
of the fault plane.
Types of Faults 45
Right-lateral San Andreas Fault

46
Types of Faults
3. Oblique-slip faults have

movement with both
vertical and horizontal
components
Geologic Map 47
A geologic map shows the distribution of

geologic features, including different kinds
of rocks and faults.
The geology is represented by colors,

lines, and special symbols unique to
geologic maps.
Geologic units are named and defined by the

geologists who made the geologic map, based on
their observations of the kinds of rocks and their
investigations of the age of the rocks.
48
Geologic Map
Geologic Map 49
Letter Symbols
The most common division of time used in letter symbols on
geologic maps is the Period.
A capital letter representing one of the four Periods:
 J (Jurassic - 195 to 141 million years ago)
 K (Cretaceous - 141 to 65 million years ago)
 T (Tertiary - 65 to 2 million years ago), or
 Q (Quaternary - 2 million years ago until today).
Geologic Map
50
1. Kjm would be the
symbol for the Joaquin
Miller sandstone formed
in the Cretaceous (K)
Period
2. Ks would be the
symbol for an unnamed
unit of shale formed in
the same the K Period
Geologic Map
51
3. gb would be the
symbol for gabbro (a
dark- colored igneous
rock of unknown age
Geologic Map
52
Contact Lines
 The place where two different

geologic units are found next to
each other is called a contact,
and that is represented by
different kinds of lines on the
geologic map.
 The two main types of contacts

shown on most geologic maps
are depositional contacts
and faults.
Geologic Map 53
Lava from a volcano flows

over the landscape, and
when the lava hardens into
rock, the place where the
lava-rock rests on the rocks
underneath is a depositional
contact.
It is shown on the geologic
map as a thin line
Geologic Map
54
When different geologic units

have been moved next to
one another after they were
formed, the contact is a fault
contact, which is shown on
the map by a thick line
Geologic Map
55
 Geologic units can also be bent

and warped by the same forces
into rounded wavelike shapes
called folds.
A line that follows the crest or trough

of the fold is called the fold axis. This
is marked on a geologic map with a
line a little thicker than a
depositional contact, but thinner
than a fault.
Geologic Map
56
Solid, dashed, or dotted lines
 All thicknesses of lines are also modified by being
solid, dashed, or dotted.
Those places where the line

is precisely located it is shown
as solid, but where it is
uncertain, it is dashed. The
shorter the dash, the more
uncertain the location.
Geologic Map
57
Strike and Dip
 Strike is the compass direction of
a line formed by the intersection
of an inclined plane with a
horizontal plane.
 The strike line shows that
horizontal direction in the beds.
 The short line is called the dip line,
and shows which way the bed is
tilted. The number is called the
dip, and shows how much the
bed is tilted, in degrees, from flat.
The higher the number, the steeper the tilting of the bed, all the
way up to 90 degrees if the bed is tilted all the way onto its side.
58
Beds strike north and dip 30o to the west

Geologic Map
59
Map Key
 All geologic maps come with a table called a
map key. In the map key, all the colors and
symbols are shown and explained.
60
Geologic Map
Philippines
 http://faultfinder.phivolcs.dost.gov.ph/ 62
63
Geologic Map
64
Module 9
SOIL FORMATION
PART 1
2
Soil is the name for the loose,

unconsolidated material that covers
most of Earth’s land surface.
SOIL Geologists call this material regolith,

and reserve the term soil for a layer
of weathered, unconsolidated
material that contains organic
matter and is capable of supporting
plant growth.
EESU
SOIL 3
To an engineer, soil is a material that can be:

 built on : foundation to buildings, bridges
 built in : tunnels, culverts, basements
 built with : roads, runways, embankments, dams
 supported : retaining walls, quays
SOIL consists of grains (mineral grains, rock fragments, etc.)

with water and air in the voids between grains
Soil Horizons 4
Soil layers are called soil horizons and can be distinguished from
one another by appearance and chemical composition.
zone of leaching
zone of accumulation
O horizon - the uppermost layer that consists 5
entirely of organic material.
A horizon - a dark-colored soil layer that is rich in

organic matter and high in biological activity,
both plant and animal.
E horizon or zone of leaching – organic acids
and carbon dioxide produced by decaying
Soil Horizons plants in the topsoil that percolate downward

from topsoil.
B horizon, or zone of accumulation – produced

from downward movement of water in the E
horizon and carries the dissolved minerals, and
fine-grained clay minerals as well, into the soil
layer below called the B horizon, or zone of
accumulation.
EESU
6
Type of rock that weathers to form soil
(parent material)
Factors Slope
Affecting Living organisms

Soil
Formation Climate (rainfall & temperature)
Time
EESU
Classification of Soils 7
According to transport and deposition:
1. Residual soils - soils that remain in-place when the rock

weathering process is faster than the transport processes
induced by water, wind, and gravity.
➢ Residual soils have general characteristics that depend
in part on the type of parent rock.
➢ The engineering properties of residual soils range from
poor to good, and generally improve with depth.
8
Examples of Residual Soils
Decomposed granite – sandy residual soil from granitic rock
Saprolite – general term for residual soils that are not extensively
weathered and still retain much of the structure of the parent rock.
Laterite – residual soil cemented with iron oxides, which gives it a

high dry strength
9
EESU
Classification of Soils: 10
According to transport and deposition
2. Transported soils are formed when rock weathers at one

site and the particles are moved to another location.
➢ Transporting agents:
1.) gravity
2.) running water
3.) glaciers
4.) wind
➢ Transported soils can be categorized with regards to
these transporting agents.
11
EESU
12
Transported Soils
➢ Colluvial soils - one that is transported downslope by gravity.
➢ 2 types of downslope movement: slow and rapid

➢ Slow movement is called creep.
➢ Rapid downslope movements include landslides or mudflows.
➢ Gravity deposits, which are not generally carried very far, tend
to be loosely compacted and otherwise exhibit little change in
the general character of soil material.
13
Colluvial
Soils
FORMED BY MOVEMENT OF
SOIL FROM ITS ORIGINAL
PLACE BY GRAVITY, SUCH AS
DURING LANDSLIDES.
14
Transported Soils
➢ Alluvial soils (also known as fluvial soils or alluvium)

➢ transported by moving water, these are found in the vicinity
of rivers.
➢ Often contains extensive groundwater aquifers, important in
the development of water supply wells and in geo-
environmental engineering.
➢ Most alluvial soils have moderately good engineering
properties, and typically provide fair to good support for
buildings and other structures.
Alluvial Soils 15
Formation of Alluvial Soils 16
 When river’s velocity decreases substantially, coarser soil
particles settle, forming submerged, flat, triangular deposits
known as alluvial fans.
Alluvial fan above Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada.

 Larger particles, such as sand and gravel, tend to settle more

quickly to form natural levees
 Lacustrine soils – are those deposited beneath lakes.
Primarily silt and clay. Their suitability as foundation support
ranges from poor to average.
 Marine soils – also deposited underwater, except they

formed in the ocean. Silt and clay and are very soft.
 Deltas are special type of marine deposit formed where

rivers meet larger bodies of water, and gradually build
up to the water surface.
 Marine soils are very uniform and consistent, their
engineering properties are often poor.
19
Lacustrine
Soils
FORMED BY DEPOSITION IN
QUIET LAKES.
20
Marine
Soils
FORMED BY
DEPOSITION IN THE
SEAS.
21
Delta –
special type
of marine
deposit
22
Transported Soils
➢ Glacial Soils – result from the action of glacier.
➢ Glaciers grind down the rock and soil, and transport these
materials over long distances, even hundreds of kilometers, so
the resulting deposits often contain a mixture of materials from
different sources.
Formation of Glacial Soils 23
Till – is soil deposited directly by glacier.
Contains a wide variety of particle sizes,

ranging from clay and gravel.
Soil that was bulldozed by the glacier, then

deposited in ridges or mounds is called ablation till.
These ridges and mounds are called moraines and are

loose and easy to excavate.
24
Glacially
formed
Moraines
25
Soil caught beneath the glacier is called
lodgement till. It is heavily consolidated
under the weight of the ice.
Lodgement till has a very high unit weight

and often is nearly as strong as concrete.
Formation of
Glacial Soils It is sometimes called hardpan.
It provides excellent support for structural

foundations, but is very difficult to
excavate.
26
When glacier melted, they
generated large quantities of
runoff that eroded till and
deposited it downstream as
glaciofluvial soil (or outwash).
Formation of
Glacial Soils These deposits are generally
more uniform than till and
excellent source of sand and
gravel for use in concrete
aggregates.
27
The fine-grained portion of the till often
remained suspended in the runoff water
until reaching a lake or the ocean,
where it finally settled to the bottom.
These are called glaciolacustrine soils
Formation of and glaciomarine soils.
Glacial Soils
These soils are soft and compressible,
and thus are prone to problems with
shear failure and excessive settlement.
28
Transported Soils
➢ Aeolian Soils – (also known as eolian soils) are those

transported by wind.
➢ These mode of transport generally produce very poorly
graded soils because of the strong sorting power of
wind.
➢ These soils are usually very loose, and thus have only fair
engineering properties.
➢ Aeolian sands can form horizontal strata, which are
interbedded with alluvial soils, or they form irregular hills
called sand dunes.
Formation of Aeolian Sand dunes
29
Loess - a loamy deposit formed by wind.
Because of its deposition mode, loess typically has a very high porosity.
It is fairly strong when dry, but becomes weak when wetted.
It can be stable when cut to steep slope where water infiltration is minimal, unstable
when the slope is flatter and water is able to enter the soil.
Formation of Aeolian Soils
30
31
Formation
of Aeolian
Soils
Loess
Soil Formation, Transport, and 32
Deposition
Soils are formed through several

different geologic processes.
Understanding these processes gives us
insight into the engineering behavior of
these soils.
Module 9
Engineering Behavior
and Properties of Soil
and Rocks
PART 2
Composition of Soils 2
Soil formation
 Soils are derived from the weathering of rocks and are
broadly described by terms such as gravels, sands, silts,
and clays.
 Physical weathering causes reduction in size of the
parent rock without change in its composition.
 Chemical weathering causes reduction in size and
chemical composition that differs from the parent rock.
2
Soil types
 Gravels, sands, silts, and clays are used to identify specific
textures in soils.
 We will refer to these soil textures as soil types; that is,
sand is one soil type, clay is another.
 Texture refers to the appearance or feel of a soil.
 Sands and gravels are grouped together as coarse-
grained soils.
 Clays and silts are fine-grained soils.
3
Soil types
 Coarse grained soils
 Coarse-grained soils feel gritty and hard.
 The coarseness of soils is determined from knowing the
distribution of particle sizes, which is the primary means
of classifying coarse-grained soils.
 Fine grained soils
 Fine grained soils feel smooth.
 To characterize fine-grained soils, we need further
information on the types of minerals present and their
contents.
4
Soil minerals
 Minerals are crystalline materials and make up the solid's
constituent of a soil.
 Minerals are classified according to chemical composition
and structure.
 Most minerals of interest to geotechnical engineers are
composed of oxygen and silicon, two of the most
abundant elements on earth.
5
Soil minerals
 Quartz (a common mineral in rocks) is the principal mineral of coarse-
grained soils.
 Quartz is hard and composed of silicon dioxide (SiO2) in colored,
colorless, and transparent hexagonal crystals. The particles of coarse-
grained soil are thus naturally angular.
 Weathering, especially by water, can alter the angular shape to a
rounded one.
 The mineral particles of fine-grained soils are platy.
 The main groups of crystalline materials that make up fine-grained
soils, principally clays, are the minerals kaolinite, illite, and
montmorillonite. These minerals are the products from weathering of
feldspar and muscovite mica, families of rock-forming silicate minerals
that are abundant on the Earth’s surface.
6
Composition of Soils
Soil fabric
 Soil (minerals) particles are assumed to be rigid.
 During deposition, the mineral particles are arranged into
structural frameworks that we call soil fabric.
 The environment under which deposition occurs
influences the structural framework that is formed.
 In particular, the electrochemical environment has the
greatest influence on the kind of soil fabric that is formed
during deposition of fine-grained soils.
 Soil fabric
 Two common types of soil fabric are formed
during soil deposition of fine-grained soils.
 flocculated
 dispersed
 A flocculated structure, formed in a saltwater
environment, results when many particles tend
to orient parallel to one another.
 A flocculated structure, formed in a freshwater
environment, results when many particles tend
to orient perpendicular to one another.
Soil fabric
 A dispersed structure occurs when a majority

of the particles orient parallel to one another.
 The spaces between the mineral particles are
called voids, which may be filled with liquids
(essentially water), gases (essentially air), and
cementitious materials (e.g., calcium
carbonate).
Voids occupy a large proportion of the soil volume.
VOIDS
Characterization of Soils
Based on Soil Particle Sizes
 Various classification systems have evolved over the years to describe
soils based on their particle size distribution.
 In the United States, the popular systems are the Unified Soil Classification
System (USCS), the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM)
system (a modification of the USCS system), and the American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
system. Other countries such as those in Europe use the Euro-Standards
Characterization of Soils 11
Based on Soil Particle Sizes
EESU
2
Comparison of Coarse-grained and
Fine-grained Soils for Engineering Use
 Coarse-grained soils have good load-bearing capacities
and good drainage qualities, and their strength.
 They are practically incompressible when dense, but
significant volume changes can occur when they are
loose.
 Vibrations accentuate volume changes in loose, coarse-
grained soils by rearranging the soil fabric into a dense
configuration.
 Coarse-grained soils with angular particles have higher strengths,
higher compressibility, and lower densities than coarse-grained soils
with rounded particles.
 The engineering properties of coarse-grained soils are controlled
mainly by the grain size of the particles and their structural
arrangement.
 Changes in moisture conditions do not significantly affect the volume
change under static loading.
 Coarse-grained soils are generally described as free
draining.
 However, the term free draining means that the soil
allows free passage of water in a relatively short time
(a few minutes).
 Fines content (silts and clays)can significantly alter
the flow conditions in these soils.
 Gravel, boulders, and coarse sands with fines content less
than 5% are free draining.
 Fine sand, especially if it exists as a thick layer, is not
free draining.
 Fine-grained soils have poor load-bearing capacities
compared with coarse-grained soils.
 Fine-grained soils are practically impermeable (not free

draining), change volume and strength with variations in
moisture conditions, and are susceptible to frost.
 Mineralogical factors rather than grain size control the

engineering properties of fine-grained soils.
 Thin layers of fine-grained soils, even within thick deposits
of coarse- grained soils, have been responsible for many
geotechnical failures, and therefore, you need to pay
special attention to fine-grained soils.
17
Intact Rock and Rock Mass
➢ The rock mass can have any

number of joints.
➢ When there are no joints,
ideally, the rock mass and the
intact rock should have the
same properties, provided the
rock is homogeneous.
➢ Joints within a joint set are

approximately parallel.
18
Intact Rock and Rock Mass
➢ Discontinuity is a collective term used for all structural

breaks (bedding planes, fractures and joints) in solid
geologic materials that usually have zero to low tensile
strength.
➢ The discontinuities make the rock mass anisotropic.

Factors Affecting Discontinuities 19
1. Orientation
2. Spacing
3. Persistence
4. Roughness
5. Wall strength
6. Aperture
7. Filling
8. Seepage
9. Number of joint sets
10.Block size and shape
Factors Affecting 20
Discontinuities
1. Orientation
Orientation of the
discontinuity:
• Measured by the dip and
dip direction
• It is very critical to stability
• In the right direction, the
stability can be improved
significantly.
Discontinuities
2. Spacing
• Spacing is the perpendicular
distance between two
adjacent discontinuities of the
same set.
• It affects the hydraulic
conductivity of the rock mass
and the failure mechanism.
• Closely spaced joints can imply
highly permeable rock.
Discontinuities
3. Persistence
 Persistence is a measure of the
extent to which the discontinuity
extends into the rock.
 What is the surface area of the
discontinuity?
 This is the area that takes part
in any possible sliding, and
hence is an important
parameter in determining
stability.
 it is quite difficult to determine.
Discontinuities
4. Roughness
 The roughness of a rock joint refers to the
large-scale surface undulations
(waviness) observed over several metres
and the small-scale unevenness of the
two sides relative to the mean plane,
observed over several centimetres.
 The large-scale undulations can be

called stepped, undulating or planar; the
small-scale unevenness can be called
rough, smooth or slickensided.
Discontinuities
4. Roughness
 linear profiling method
 uses a contact Profile Gauge Tool
measurement tool provides Measuring the Roughness
a useful basis for examining
some of the issues
associated with estimation
of roughness.
Profile Gauge Tool

Profile Gauge Tool Results
Discontinuities
5. Wall strength
 Wall strength refers to the compressive
strength of the rock that makes up the
walls of the discontinuity.
 Barton (1973) introduced the term joint
wall compressive strength (JCS) to
describe wall strength, which was later
refined by Barton and Choubey (1977).
 This is an important factor that governs
the shear strength and deformability.
6. Aperture
 A discontinuity can be closed, open or filled.
 Aperture is the perpendicular distance between the two adjacent rock
walls of an open discontinuity where the space is filled by air or water.
 The joint is called tight or open, depending on whether the aperture is
small or large.
Discontinuities
7. Filling
 Filling is the term used to describe the
material (e.g. calcite, chlorite, clay and
silt) that occupies the space between
the adjacent rock walls of a
discontinuity.
 Its properties can differ significantly from
those of the rocks on either side.
 It affects the permeability and the
deformability of the rock mass.
8. Seepage
 In a rock mass, seepage occurs mainly
through discontinuities (secondary
permeability), as the permeability of
the intact rock (primary permeability)
is generally very low.
 The observation is generally visual and
hence subjective.
 An excavation can range from being
literally dry to one that has heavy
inflow of water. ISRM (1978) has
separate ratings from I (no seepage)
to VI (heavy flow) for unfilled and filled
discontinuities.
Discontinuities
9. Number of joint sets
 The number of joint sets in the system of discontinuities is one of the
factors used in classifying the rock mass.
 It determines the ability of the rock mass to deform without actually

undergoing any failure within the intact rock.
 As the number of joint sets increases, the individual block size

decreases and their degrees of freedom to move increase.
10. Block size and shape

 The rock mass consists of blocks
formed by intersections of several
joints.
 Block size in a rock mass depends on
the number of discontinuity sets,
spacing and persistence that
separates the blocks. It is similar to
grain size is soils.
 The blocks can be in the form of
cubes, tetrahedrons, sheets and so on.
31
Module 10
Site Exploration and
Characterization
PART1
Site Exploration and 2
Characterization
Site characterization efforts typically

represent a very large share of the
geotechnical engineering budget.
We often spend more time and money

exploring the subsurface conditions and
defining their engineering characteristics
than we do performing our analyses and
developing our designs.
 The objectives of a site exploration and
characterization program include:
 Determining the location and thickness of
soil and rock strata.
 Determining the location of the
Site Exploration groundwater table, along with other
and important groundwater-related issues.
Characterization  Recovering samples for testing and

evaluation.
 Conducting tests, either in the field or in the
laboratory, to measure relevant engineering
properties.
 Defining special problems and concerns.
3
Site Exploration and Characterization 4
 Unfortunately, most of what we want to know is

hidden underground and thus very difficult to
discern.
 We can explore the subsurface conditions using
borings and other techniques, and recover samples
for testing and evaluation, but even the most
thorough exploration program encounters only a
small fraction of the soil and rock below the site.
 We do not know what soil conditions exist between
borings, and must rely on interpolation combined
with a knowledge of soil deposition processes.
 In addition, we never can be completely sure if

our samples are truly representative, or if we
have missed some important underground
feature.
 These uncertainties represent the single largest
source of problems for geotechnical engineers.
 We overcome them using a combination of techniques, including:

 Recognizing the uncertainties and applying appropriate
conservatism and factors of safety to our analyses and designs.
 Using a knowledge of the local geology to interpret the
available subsurface information.
 Observing and monitoring conditions during construction and
being prepared to modify the design based on newly acquired
information.
 Acknowledgingthat 100 percent reliability is not attainable,
and accepting some risk of failure due to unforeseen
conditions.
Site Exploration: Soil data required 7
 Soil profile - layer thickness and soil identification

 Index properties of soil - water content, Atterberg limits, etc.
 Strength & compressibility characteristics
Stages of Site Exploration 8
1. Desk Study
 Project Assessment
 Literature Search
 Remote Sensing
2. Site Reconnaissance
 Field Reconnaissance and Surface Exploration
3. Detailed investigations or subsurface exploration
 Subsurface Exploration
 Soil and Rock Sampling
4. Laboratory Testing
5. Write a Report (Geotechnical Investigation Report)
Stage 1-1 Desk Study: 9
Project Assessment
 Before planning a site exploration and characterization program, the
geotechnical engineer must gather certain information on the proposed
development.
 This information would include such matters as:
 The types, locations, and approximate dimensions of the proposed
improvements (i.e., a 9-story building is to be built here, a parking lot
there, and an access road to connect the project with the main
highway over there).
 The type of construction, structural loads, and allowable settlements.
 The existing topography and any proposed grading.
 The presence of previous development on the site, if any.
Literature Search
 The first step in gathering information on a site often
consists of reviewing published sources.
 Sometimes these efforts reveal the results of extensive
work already performed on the site, and very little
additional exploration may be necessary.
 More often, literature searches provide only a general
understanding of the local soils and rocks.
Literature Search
 Sources of relevant literature include:
 Geologic maps
 Soil survey reports
 Geotechnical investigation reports
 Historic groundwater data
12
Geologic map
Literature Search
 Soil Survey Report
 Determining main soil-type boundaries, relative
permeabilities and cohesiveness, periglacial studies.
14
Geotechnical
investigation
report
15
16
17
Geotechnical
investigation
report
Stage 1-2 Desk Study:
18
Literature Search:
Historic groundwater data
Sea-level rise recorded at Manila’s South Harbour from 1902–2000 and

groundwater use in Metro Manila over the same period (Rodolfo & Siringan, 2006)
Remote Sensing
 Remote sensing is the process of detecting features on
the earth's surface from some remote location, such as an
aircraft or spacecraft.
 This can be done using aerial photographs, radar, and
other types of sensors.
 For geotechnical engineers, aerial photographs are the
most useful remote sensing tool.
Remote Sensing
 Conventional Aerial
Photographs
 Aerial photographs or
simply airphotos are
taken from airplanes
using special cameras.
 Some of these are
oblique, which means
they view the landscape
at some angle, while
others are vertical, or
looking straight down.
Stage 1-3 Desk Study:
21
Remote Sensing
 lnfrared Aerial Photographs
 lt also is possible to take aerial
photographs using a special film that
is sensitive to both the visible and
infrared spectra.
 The colors are shifted from that of
normal color photographs (yellow
objects appear green, etc.) and
reflected infrared light is shown as
red. This is valuable because
vegetation reflects infrared, and thus Bare soils will appear as shades of white,
is easily discernible. blue, or green in most agricultural regions.
The red tone of color infrared aerial
photographs is almost always associated
with live vegetation.
Stage 2 Site Reconnaissance:
22
Field Reconnaissance and Surface
Exploration
 The field reconnaissance consists of "walking the site" and visually
assessing the local conditions.
 It includes obtaining answers to such questions as:
 Is there any evidence of previous development on the site?
 Is there any evidence of previous grading on the site?
 Is there evidence of landslides or other stability problems?
 Are nearby structures performing satisfactorily?
 What are the surface drainage conditions?
23
Field Reconnaissance and
Surface Exploration
 What types of soil and/or rock are exposed at the ground
surface?
 Will access problems limit the types of subsurface exploration
techniques that can be used?
 Might the proposed construction affect existing improvements?
For example, a fragile old building adjacent to the site might be
damaged by vibrations from pile driving.
 Do any offsite conditions affect the proposed development? For
example, potential flooding, mudflows, or rockfalls from offsite
might affect the property.
24
Field Reconnaissance and
Surface Exploration
 This work also includes marking the locations of proposed exploratory
borings and trenches.
 When rock is exposed, the field reconnaissance often will include
geologic mapping.
 Depending on the site conditions, a field reconnaissance also might
include detailed mapping of the surface conditions.
 For example, if peat bogs (depressions filled with highly organic soils) are
present, their lateral extent must be carefully recorded.
1
Module 10
Site Exploration and
Characterization
PART2
Stage 3-1: Subsurface Exploration 2
A subsurface or soils exploration program usually involves test pits
and/or soil borings (boreholes). A detailed soils exploration consists
of:
1. Determining the need for and extent of geophysical exploration.
2. Preliminary location of each borehole and/or test pit.
3. Numbering of the boreholes or test pits.
4. Planned depth of each borehole or test pit.
5. Methods and procedures for advancing the boreholes.
6. Sampling instructions for at least the first borehole
7. Determining the need for and types of in situ tests.
8. Requirements for groundwater observations.
Stage 3-1: 3
 Exploratory Borings
 The most common method
of exploring the subsurface
conditions is to drill a series
of vertical holes in the
ground.
 These are known as borings

or exploratory borings and
are typically 75 to 600 mm
(3-24 in) diameter and 2 to
30m (7-100 ft) deep.
Stage 3-1 4
 Geotechnical engineers usually use
much heavier equipment powered
by larger engines.
 Sometimes it is mounted on skids or
small roll-in units, but most often it is
truck-mounted.
 These truck-mounted drill rigs
perform at least 90 percent of
geotechnical drilling, and can drill to
depths of 30 m (100 ft) with little
difficulty.
 Some truck mounted rigs can drill to
60 m (200 ft) or even more, but such
capabilities are rarely needed.
truck-mounted drill rigs

Stage 3-1 5
 Drilling Methods
 Different methods are available to advance the boring,
depending on the anticipated soil and rock conditions.
 Drilling in Firm and Dense

Soils
 The simplest drilling methods
use a flight auger or a bucket
auger, to produce an open
hole.
Stage 3-1 6
 Drilling in Firm and Dense Soils
 With either type, the auger is lowered into the hole and
rotated to dig into the soil.
• Then, it is removed, the soil is

discharged onto the ground,
and the process is repeated.
• The hole is free of equipment

between these cycles, which
allows the driller to insert
sampling equipment at desired
depths and obtain undisturbed
samples.
Stage 3-1 7
 Drilling in Firm and Dense Soils
 These methods are comparatively inexpensive, so long as they are

used in suitable conditions, such as firm and dense soils or soft rock.
 However, they can meet refusal (the inability to progress further) when
they encounter hard boulders or hard bedrock.
 This is especially likely when the boring diameter is small, since even
large cobbles might block the drilling.
 Sometimes this problem can be overcome by using a larger
diameter auger (i.e., one that is larger than the cobbles and
boulders).
Stage 3-1 8
 Drilling in Soils Prone to Caving or Squeezing
 Open hole methods encounter problems in soils prone to caving (i.e.,

the sides of the boring fall in) or squeezing (the soil moves inwards,
reducing the boring diameter).
 Caving is most likely in loose sands and gravels, especially below the
groundwater table, while squeezing is likely in soft saturated silts and
clays.
 One method of supporting the hole is to install casing, which is a
temporary lining made of steel pipe.
 This method is especially useful if only the upper soils are prone to
caving, because the casing does not need to extend for the entire
depth of the boring.
Casing method
Air or Mud Rotary Drilling

initiating drilling drilling with slurry introducing casing casing is sealed
bentonite slurry and slurry is
is poured to being removed
prevent soil from interior of
failure casing
10
drilling below casing under-reaming removing casing completed shaft

Stage 3-1 11
 Drilling in Soils Prone to Caving or

Squeezing
 Another, more common method is to use a
hollow stem auger.
 Each auger section has a pipe core
known as a stem, with a temporary
plug on the bottom of the first
section.
 The driller screws these augers into

the ground, adding sections as
needed. Unlike conventional
augers, it is not necessary to
remove them to obtain samples.
Stage 3-1
12
 Drilling in Soils Prone to Caving or

Squeezing
 Instead, the driller removes
the temporary plug and
inserts the sampler through
the stem and into the soils
below the bottom auger
section.
 Then, the sample is

recovered, the plug is
replaced, and drilling
continues to the next
sample depth.
Stage 3-1 13
 Drilling in Soils Prone to Caving or Squeezing
 When the boring is

completed, the augers are
removed.
 Hollow stem drill rigs with 200

mm (8 in) diameter augers are
very common, and are often
used even when caving is not
a problem .
Stage 3-1
14
 The third method is to fill the
boring with drilling mud or slurry,
which is a mixture of bentonite or
attapulgite clay and water.
 This material provides a hydrostatic

pressure on the walls of the boring, thus
preventing caving or squeezing.
 These borings are usually advanced

using the rotary wash method, which
flushes the drill cuttings up to the
ground surface by circulating the mud
with a pump.
15
Stage 3-1
 When samples are needed,

the drilling tools are removed
from the hole and the sampling
tools are lowered through the
mud to the bottom.
 Special drilling tools may be

added if the boring reaches
hard soils or rock.
Stage 3-1 16
 Coring
 Drilling through rock,
especially hard rock, requires
different methods and
equipment.
 Engineers usually use coring,

which simultaneously
advances the hole and
obtains nearly continuous
undisturbed samples.
Single-tube core Double-tube

barrels core barrels
Stage 3-1 17
 Coring
 This is fundamentally a
different method that consists
of grinding away an annular
zone with a rotary diamond
drill bit, Ieaving a cylindrical
core which is captured by a
core barrel and removed
from the ground.
Single-tube core Double-tube

barrels core barrels
Stage 3-1 18
 Coring
 After each core run, the
sample is brought to the
ground surface and placed
in a wooden core box for
examination and storage.
Stage 3-1 19
 Boring Logs
 The conditions encountered in an
exploratory boring are recorded on
a boring log.
 The vertical position on these logs

represents depth, and the various
columns describe certain
characteristics of the soil and rock.
 These logs also indicate the sample

locations and might include some of
the laboratory and in-situ test results.
Standard Penetration Test 20
65 kg hammer
• Standard penetration test, fondly known 760 mm drop

as SPT, was developed in North America in
anvil
1927 and is still the most common in situ
test.
• Here, we drive a 51 mm diameter split-

spoon sampler into the ground using a 65
kg hammer dropped by 760 mm.
• The number of blows required to drive the drill rod

sampler by 300 mm is known as the blow
count or N-value.
51 mm diameter split-spoon sampler split spoon sampler

Standard Penetration Test 21
65 kg hammer
Count the number of blows required 760 mm drop
for 300 mm penetration anvil
Blow count
or
N-Value
drill rod

[In-Situ] Standard Penetration Test 22
Standard split-spoon sampler

Stage 3-1 23
 Downhole Logging
 Sometimes it is useful to drill large-diameter (500-900
mm) borings so the subsurface conditions can be
observed by downhole logging.
 A geologist descends into such holes on a specially
fabricated cradle and inspects the exposed walls.
 This allows thorough mapping of soil and rock types,
attitudes of various contacts and bedding planes,
etc., and thus is much more reliable and informative
than relying solely on samples.
 This method is suitable only above the groundwater
table in holes not prone to caving or squeezing.
Stage 3-1 24
 Number, Spacing, and Depth

 There are no absolute rules to determine the
required number, spacing, and depth of
exploratory borings.
 Such decisions are based on the findings from
the field reconnaissance, along with
engineering judgement and a knowledge of
customary standards of practice.
Stage 3-1 25
 This is a subjective process that involves many factors,
including:
 How large is the site?
 What kinds of soil and rock conditions are expected?
 Is the soil profile erratic, or is it consistent across the
site?
 What is to be built on the site (small building, large
building, highway, etc.)?
 How critical is the proposed project (i.e., what would
be the consequences of a failure)?
 How large and heavy are the proposed structures?
 Are all areas of the site accessible to drill rigs?
Stage 3-1
26
How deep to explore?
 National Structural Code of the Philippines (NSCP)
Requirements: SECTION 303 FOUNDATION INVESTIGATION
 Foundation investigation shall be conducted, and a
Professional Report shall be submitted at each building site.
For structures two storeys or higher, an exhaustive
geotechnical investigation shall be performed to evaluate in-
situ soil parameters for foundation design and analysis. The
minimum required numbers of boreholes per structure-based
footprint is summarized in Table 303-1.
FOOTPRINT AREA OF STRUCTURES (m2) MINIMUM REQUIRED
A = footprint area of the structure in sq. m. NUMBER OF BOREHOLES
A < 50 1
50 < A < 500 2
A > 500 2 + (A/1000)
Rounded up to the
nearest integer
Stage 3-1 27
 All of these boreholes should fall within the footprint of the
structure and should generally be uniformly distributed
throughout the building footprint.
 Unless specified by the consulting Geotechnical Engineer,
all boreholes should be drilled to a depth of at least five
meters into hard strata or until a suitable bearing layer is
reached.
 For buildings with basements, the depth of boring should
extend to twice the least dimension of the structure’s
footprint (2B) added to the depth of the basement.
Stage 3-1 28

 The depths of boring for a building with a width of 30 m
(100 ft) will be approximately the following, according to
Sowers (1970):
Stage 3-1 29

30
(from Budhu, 2007)
Stage 3-1
31
Spacing
 Spacing can be increased or decreased, depending on
the condition of the subsoil. If various soil strata are more
or less uniform and predictable, fewer boreholes are
needed than in nonhomogeneous soil strata.
Stage 3-1 32
It is important to recognize that there is no

single "correct" solution for the required
number and depth of borings, and these
guidelines must be tempered with
appropriate engineering judgement.
Stage 3-1 33
 Exploratory Trenches and Pits
 Sometimes it is only necessary to explore the upper 3m (10ft) of

soil.
 This might be the case for lightweight projects on sites where
the soil conditions are known to be good, or on sites with old
shallow fills of questionable quality.
 Additional shallow investigations also might be necessary to
supplement a program of exploratory borings.
 In such cases, geotechnical engineers often dig exploratory
trenches (also known as test pits) using a backhoe.
34
Stage 3-1 35
 Exploratory Trenches and Pits
 Two special precautions are in order when using

exploratory trenches:
 First, these trenches must be adequately shored or
laid back to a sufficiently flat slope before anyone
enters them.
 Second, these trenches must be properly backfilled
to avoid creating an artificial soft zone that might
affect future construction.
36
Stage 3-2: Soil and Rock Sampling
 The primary purpose of drilling exploratory borings and
digging exploratory trenches is to obtain representative
soil and rock samples.
 We use these samples to determine the subsurface profile

and to perform laboratory tests.
 There are two categories of samples:

 Disturbed and Undisturbed.
Stage 3-2 37
 Disturbed Samples
 A disturbed sample (also called a bulk sample) is one obtained with
no attempt to retain the in-place structure of the soil or rock.
 The driller might obtain such a sample by removing cuttings from the
bottom of a flight auger and placing them in a bag.
 Disturbed samples are suitable for many purposes, such as

classification and compaction tests.
Stage 3-2 38
 Undisturbed Samples
 The greater challenge in soil sampling is to obtain undisturbed samples,

which are necessary for many soil tests.
 Except for coring, which recovers undisturbed samples as the hole is
advanced, drilling operations must stop periodically to permit insertion
of special sampling tools into the hole.
 In a truly undisturbed soil sample, the soil is recovered completely intact

and its in-place structure and stresses are not modified in any way.
Stage 3-2 39
 Unfortunately, the following problems make it impossible to obtain

such samples:
 Shearing and compression that occurs during the process of

inserting the sampling tool.
 Release of in-situ stresses as the sample is removed from the
ground
 Possible drying and desiccation.
 Vibrations during recovery and transport.
Stage 3-2 40
 Additional disturbances can occur in the laboratory as

the sample is removed from its container.
 Thus, many engineers prefer to use the term "relatively

undisturbed" to describe their samples.
 Sands are especially prone to disturbance during
sampling.
 Nevertheless, geotechnical engineers have developed

various methods of obtaining high-quality samples of most
soils.
Stage 3-2
41
 Shelby Tube Samplers
 In the mid 1930s, Mr. H. A. Mohr developed the
Shelby tube sampler, which soon became the most
common soil sampling tool (Hvorslev, 1949).
 lt also is known as a thin-wall sampler ("Shelby
tubing" is a trade name for the seamless steel
tubing from which the sampler is manufactured).
 Most Shelby tube samplers have a 3.00 in (76.2 mm)
outside diameter and 1/16 in (1.6 mm) wall
thickness.
A Shelby tube attached to

a piston sampler.
Shelby Tube Samplers
Stage 3-2
42
 Heavy-Wall Samplers
 Although Shelby tube samplers generally provide very
good results in soft soils, they are difficult to use in hard
soils.
 The tube may bend or collapse due to the heavy loads
required to press or drive it into such soils, or it may
become jammed into the ground and impossible to
retrieve.
 The usual solution is to use a sampler with heavier walls.
 Although these heavy walls induce more disturbance, they
also provide sufficient strength and durability to survive hard
soil conditions.
Stage 3-2
43
 Heavy-Wall Samplers
 These heavy-wall samplers are almost always pounded

into the bottom of the boring.
 Heavy-wall samplers usually contain brass or stainless steel
liners and these liners contain the soil sample.
 After being extracted from the boring, the sampler is
opened and the soil and liners are removed and placed
in a protective cylinder for transport to the laboratory and
storage.
Plastic
The sampler can be opened to liners
retrieve the liners, and thus is often
called a split barrel sampler. The
liners are available in different
lengths.
Stage 3-2: 44
Groundwater Exploration and Monitoring
 The presence of water in soil pores or rock fissures has a
very significant impact on the engineering behavior of
the soil or rock, so site characterization programs also
need to assess groundwater conditions.
 When drilling a boring or excavating an trench, we may
observe small seeps, with moisture trickling into the hole.
These may be due to small non-uniformities in the soil
conditions that have trapped water at a certain level.
 Larger zones of trapped water are known as perched
groundwater.
Stage 3-2: 45
 If we continue drilling to a great enough depth, the
groundwater table is eventually encountered, which is the
level to which water fills an open boring.
 Soils below the groundwater table are said to be saturated,

which means all of their voids are filled with water.
Stage 3-2: 46
 Sometimes the water quickly flows into the hole, reaching
equilibrium in an hour or less.
 Inthese cases, the groundwater table can be located in
the open hole before it is backfilled.
 However, in silty and clayey soils many hours or even days

may be required to reach equilibrium, and leaving the hole
open that long may pose safety problems.
Stage 3-2: 47
 In addition, the groundwater table often changes with time, and we
may wish to monitor these changes.
 The solution to both problems is to install an observation well in the

boring.
 It consists of a slotted plastic pipe backfilled with pervious soils (or
even the drill cuttings) and sealed with an impervious cap.
 Groundwater is able to flow freely into or out of this pipe, so the water
level inside is the groundwater table.
 The depth to this water can be measured using the electronic
probe.
48
Stage 4: Laboratory Testing 49
(Ex-situ Testing)
The objectives of laboratory tests are:
1. To classify the soils.
2. To determine soil strength, failure stresses and strains,
stress–strain response, permeability, compactibility, and
settlement parameters.
Stage 5: Write a report 50
(Geotechnical Investigation Report)
The report must contain:
- A clear description of the soils at the site
- Methods of exploration,
- Soil stratigraphy
- In- situ and laboratory test methods and results
- Location of the groundwater.
- Synthesis and Interpretation
51
Geotechnical
investigation
report
52
53
54
Geotechnical
investigation
report
Stage 5 55
 Cross-Sections
 Site characterization programs often generate large
amounts of information that can be difficult to sort through
and synthesize.
 In addition, this data is spread throughout three dimensions,

so visualization can be difficult.
 One useful method of compiling subsurface data is to draw

vertical cross-sections across the site.
Stage 5 56
 Cross-Sections
Stage 5 57
 Cross-Sections
 These sections are most easily developed when they
intersect the borings, but additional borings slightly off the
section al so can be used.
 Some interpretation is always required when developing
cross-sections, since we do not know what conditions exist
between the borings.
 Two perpendicular sections can help geotechnical
engineers visualize the site in three dimensions.
 Sometimes cross-sections show only the subsurface
conditions actually encountered in the exploratory borings.
This method leaves the interpretation to the reader.
Stage 5
 One-Dimensional Design Profiles 58
 Although cross-sections are important tools for understanding
subsurface variations across a site, many geotechnical
analyses are based on one-dimensional profiles.
Stage 5
59
 One-Dimensional Design
Profiles
 A one-dimensional design profile is
similar to a boring log in that it
describes subsurface conditions as
a function of depth.
 However, the profile used for design
probably will be a compilation of
several borings and not exactly like
any one of them.
 If the subsurface conditions are
fairly uniform across the site (at
least by geotechnical engineering
standards!), then we often use a
single representative profile for
design.
Stage 5 60
 The final results of a site characterization program are usually

presented in a geotechnical investigation report that
includes copies of all boring logs, laboratory test results,
cross-sections, etc., along with the engineer's interpretations.
 These reports are virtually always prepared in the context of

a specific project, and thus include geotechnical
recommendations for design of foundations, slopes, retaining
walls, and other features.
 For example, a report for a proposed building might have an
outline similar to the following:
 Scope and Purpose 61
 Proposed Development
 Field Exploration
 Groundwater Monitoring
 Laboratory Testing
 Analysis of Subsurface Conditions
 Design Recommendations
 Grading
 Foundations
 Retaining walls
 Pavements
 Closure
 Appendix A - Boring Logs
 Appendix B - Laboratory Test Results
 Appendix C - Recommended Construction Specifications
Economics 62
 The site investigation and soil
testing phase of foundation
engineering is the single largest
source of uncertainties.
 No matter how extensive it is,
there is always some doubt
whether the borings accurately
portray the subsurface
conditions, whether the samples
are representative, and whether
the tests are correctly measuring
the soil properties.
 Engineers attempt to
compensate for these
uncertainties by applying factors
of safety in our analyses.
Economics 63
 Unfortunately, this solution also increases construction costs.
 In an effort to reduce the necessary level of conservatism in the
foundation design, the engineer may choose a more extensive
investigation and testing program to better define the soils.
 The additional costs of such efforts will, to a point, result in
decreased construction costs.
 However, at some point, this becomes a matter of
diminishing returns, and eventually the incremental cost of
additional investigation and testing does not produce an
equal or larger reduction in construction costs.
Economics 64
 We also must decide whether to conduct a large

number of moderately precise tests (such as the SPT)
or a smaller number of more precise but expensive
tests (such as the PMT).
 Handy (1980) suggested the most cost-effective test
is the one with a variability consistent with the
variability of the soil profile.
 Thus, a few precise tests might be appropriate in a
uniform soil deposit, but more data points, even if
they are less precise, are more valuable in an erratic
deposit.
Balancing Cost & Risk 65
“The [scope of a subsurface exploration] for any

particular site is a difficult problem which is closely
linked with the relative cost of the investigation
and the project for which it is undertaken.”
VNS Murthy: Geotechnical Engineering: Principles

and Practices of Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering
If only they had proper site investigation… 66
…Tower of Pisa will not be leaning today!

Module 11
In-Situ Testing and
Ex-Situ Testing
 In-situ vs. Ex-Situ
 [In-Situ] Standard Penetration Test
 Other Types of In-situ Tests
 Cone Penetration Test (CPT)
 Dynamic Cone Penetration Test
 Static Cone Penetration Test
 Piezocone (CPTU)
 Pressuremeter Test
 Dilatometer Test
 Cone Pressuremeter
 Vane Shear Test
 Plate Loading Test
 Pocket penetrometer
 Field Density Tests
 Ex-Situ Tests
In-situ vs. Ex-Situ 3
In-situ Ex-situ
(on-site) (laboratory)
In-situ Tests (on-site tests) 4
These consist of bringing special equipment to the field, inserting

The primary alternative to it into the ground, and testing the soil or rock while it is still
laboratory testing is to underground.
conduct in-situ (Latin for in-
place) tests. Such methods are especially useful in soils that are difficult to
sample, such as clean sands.
ln-situ tests are usually less

expensive than obtaining
This additional data gives us more insight into the soil
samples and performing ex-
situ tests, so we can afford to variability beneath a proposed construction site.
do more of them.
Ex-Situ Tests (laboratory tests) 5
The most common method of measuring soil and rock properties is to

conduct laboratory tests. Some of these tests may be performed on either
disturbed or undisturbed samples.
We call these ex-situ testing methods, which is Latin for "out of its original
place," and refers to the removal of soil samples from the ground and
testing them elsewhere.
65 kg hammer
• Standard penetration test, fondly known as
SPT, was developed in North America in 760 mm drop
1927 and is still the most common in situ test. anvil
• Here, we drive a 51 mm diameter split-

spoon sampler into the ground using a 65 kg
hammer dropped by 760 mm.
• The number of blows required to drive the

sampler by 300 mm is known as the blow
count or N-value. drill rod

65 kg hammer
Count the number of blows required 760 mm drop
for 300 mm penetration anvil
Blow count
or
N-Value
drill rod

Standard split-spoon sampler

still has some
value
mainly for granular soils; unreliable in clays
N-value correlated to strength parameters
done within bore holes at 1.5 m depth intervals
samples (disturbed) collected in split-spoon sampler
soil
I.D. = 35 mm
O.D.= 51 mm
SPT Hammer 11
Other Types of In-situ Tests
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) 13
Dynamic cone Static cone

penetration test penetration test
(DCPT) (SCPT)
similar to SPT; hammer driven pushed into the ground @ 2 cm/s
using cone instead of split spoon gives continuous measurements
closed end;
no samples
gives blow counts @ 1.5 m

depth intervals
Dynamic Cone Penetration Test 14
Simple and rugged.
Better than SPT or SCPT in hard

soils such as dense gravels
As crude as SPT; relies on
correlations based on blow counts
Hollow (split spoon)
SPT
DCPT
Solid (no samples)

Static Cone Penetration Test 15
10 cm2 cross section

fs
friction ratio, fR =  100 %
qc
sleeve friction (fs)
Typically 0 ———— 10%.
granular cohesive
cone resistance (qc)

or tip resistance (qT)
Piezocone (CPTU) 16
A modern static cone; measures pore water pressure also.
Pushed into the ground

Piezocone with leads
Porous stone for pore
pressure measurement
Pressuremeter Test 17
Expand a cylindrical probe inside a bore hole.
Most rational of all in situ tests
Gives strength
For all soils
cylindrical
probe guard cell
pressuremeter
Dilatometer Test 18
Advance @ 20 mm/s. Test every 200-300 mm.

Nitrogen tank for inflating the membrane.
Gives soil stiffness .
Can identify soil (from a chart).
Similar to
the cone
60 mm dia. flexible
steel membrane
Cone Pressuremeter 19
Combines piezocone and pressuremeter.

Uncommon; specialised.
pressuremeter
piezocone
Vane Shear Test 20
Failure surface
Test in Progress
Plate Loading Test 21
Load a square plate (300 mm x 300 mm) to failure.
Plot pressure vs. settlement. Extrapolate to prototype.
Loading arrangement makes it expensive.
Good on random fills; indicates an average behavior.
plate
pressure
settlement
Common In Situ Testing Devices
22
SPT
VST PMT DMT

CPT
In bore holes
Pocket penetrometer 23
A simple hand-held device for measuring unconfined compressive

strength (qu = 2 Su) of a clay.
very rough
Used in trial pits and samples.
Must for every practicing geotechnical engineer.
Push into the ..read the

clay, and.. strength
Field Density Tests 24
 To determine the in-place density and unit weight of soils.
Sand Cone Method

Rubber Balloon Method
Ex-Situ Tests 25
1. Moisture content test
2. Specific gravity test
3. Relative density test
4. Sieve analysis and Hydrometer analysis
5. Atterberg limits tests
6. Proctor compaction test
7. Hydraulic conductivity test
8. Consolidation test
9. Direct shear test
10. Triaxial compression test
11. Unconfined compression test
Ex-Situ Tests 26
Index Properties
4. Sieve analysis and Hydrometer analysis (Basic
5. Atterberg limits tests Characteristic)

8. Consolidation test Compressibility
9. Direct shear test
10. Triaxial compression test
11. Unconfined compression test Strength
Ex-Situ Tests 27
Index Properties
4. Sieve analysis and Hydrometer analysis (Basic
5. Atterberg limits tests Characteristic)

Ex-Situ Tests 28

 The moisture content of soil (also referred to as water
content) is an indicator of the amount of water present in
soil.
 The specific gravity of a soil is the ratio of the weight in air of
a given volume of soil particles to the weight in air of an
equal volume of distilled water at a temperature of 40C
 The parameter obtained in this experiment defines
the loosest and densest states of a material. This is
described as the maximum void ratio (emax) and the
minimum void ratio (emin).
Ex-Situ Tests 29
4. Sieve analysis and Hydrometer analysis

 Sieve analysis - The distribution of particle sizes or average
grain diameter of coarse-grained soils (gravels and sands)
is determined by using set of sieves.
Sieve is an apparatus having openings of equal size and
shape through which grains smaller than the size of the
opening will pass, while larger grains are retained.
 Hydrometer analysis - The distribution of particle sizes of

fine-grained soils (clay and silts). The hydrometer method is
based on Stoke’s law, which says that the larger the grain
size, the greater its settling velocity in a fluid.
Ex-Situ Tests 30
5. Atterberg limits tests describe the consistency of fine-grained

soils with varying moisture contents.
Ex-Situ Tests 31
 The general meaning of the verb “compact” is “to press closely
together.”
 Compaction increases soil unit weight, thereby producing three
important effects:
(1) an increase in shear strength
(2) a decrease in future settlement, and
(3) a decrease in permeability.

 Permeability of coarse and fine grained soils.
Module 12
Geological Materials
Used in Construction
 Building or Dimension Stone

 Roofing and Facing Materials
 Armourstone
 Crushed Rock: Concrete Aggregate
 Road Aggregate
 Gravels and Sands
 Lime, Cement and Plaster
 Clays and Clay Products
3
Stone has been used as a

construction material for thousands of
years.
Building or
Dimension One of the reasons for this was its
ready availability locally.
Stone
Furthermore, stone requires little
energy for extraction and processing.
4
Several factors determine

whether a rock will be worked as
a building stone. These include:
Building or • the volume of material that can be
Dimension quarried;
• the ease with which it can be quarried;
Stone • the wastage consequent upon
quarrying;
• the cost of transportation;
• appearance and physical properties
5
 The volume of material that can be
quarried;
 As far as volume is concerned, the life
Building or of the quarry should be at least 20
years.
Dimension  The amount of overburden that has
Stone to be removed also affects the
economics of quarrying.
 Weathered rock normally represents
waste therefore the ratio of fresh to
weathered rock is another factor of
economic importance.
6
 The ease with which it can be quarried;

Building or  depends to a large extent on geological
structures, notably the geometry of joints and
Dimension bedding planes, where present.
Ideally, rock for building stone should be
Stone

massive.
 The stone should be free of fractures and
other flaws (discontinuities).
 In the case of sedimentary rocks, where beds
dip steeply, quarrying has to take place
along the strike.
7
 The ease with which it can be quarried;
Building or  Steeply dipping rocks can also give rise

to problems of slope stability when
Dimension excavated.
 On the other hand, if beds of rock dip
Stone gently, it is advantageous to develop
the quarry floor along the bedding
planes.
 The massive nature of igneous rocks
such as granite means that a quarry
can be developed in any direction,
within the constraints of planning
permission.
8
9
 A uniform appearance is generally desirable in
building stone.
Building or  The appearance of a stone largely
Dimension
depends on its color, which is determined
by its mineral composition.
Stone  Texture also affects the appearance of a

stone, as does the way in which it weathers.
 For example, the weathering of some
minerals, such as pyrite, may produce
ghastly stains. Generally speaking, rocks of
light color are used as building stone.
10
 The durability of a stone is a measure of its ability
to resist weathering and so to retain its original
Building or size, shape, strength and appearance over an
extensive period of time.
Dimension  It is one of the most important factors that
determines whether or not a rock will be
Stone worked for building stone
 The amount of weathering undergone by a rock
in field exposures or quarries affords some
indication of its qualities of resistance.
 There is no guarantee that the durability is the

same throughout a rock mass and, if it changes,
it is far more difficult to detect, for example,
than a change in color.
11
12
 Damage can occur to stone by alternate wetting
and drying.
Building or  Frost damage is one of the major factors causing

deterioration in a building stone.
Dimension  Deleterious salts, when present in a building stone,

are generally derived from the ground or the
Stone atmosphere, although soluble salts may occur in

the pores of the parental rock.
 They may cause efflorescence by crystallizing
on the surface of a stone.
 In subflorescence, crystallization takes place
just below the surface and may be responsible
for surface scabbing.
 Deep cavities may be formed.
13
Effect of
Damage
Angkor Wat, Cambodia

Roofing and Facing Materials 14
 Rocks used for roofing purposes must possess a sufficient degree of

fissility to allow them to split into thin slabs, in addition to being
durable and impermeable.
 Fissility is a "structure in some rocks, by virtue of which they are

already separated into parallel laminae in a state of nature.
 The term fissility thus complements cleavage, and the two are included
under cleavage as ordinarily defined
15
Roofing and Facing Materials
Fissility
 Slate is one of the best roofing

materials available and has
been used extensively.
 However, more and more tiles
are being used for roofing, these
being cheaper than stone,
which has to be quarried and
cut to size.
 An increasingly frequent method of

using stone is as relatively thin slabs,
applied as a facing to a building to
enhance its appearance. Facing
stone also provides a protective
covering.
 Various thicknesses are used, from 20
mm in the case of granite, marble
and slate in certain positions at
ground-floor level, up to 40 mm at
first-floor level or above.
18
Roofing and Facing Materials
 Rocks used for facing stones should have a high tensile strength in
order to resist cracking.
 The high tensile strength also means that thermal expansion is not a
great problem when slabs are spread over large faces.
19
Armourstone refers to large blocks of rock

that are used to protect civil engineering
structures.
Armourstone Large blocks of rock, which may be single-

size or, more frequently, widely graded (rip-
rap), are used to protect the upstream face
of dams against wave action.
They are also used in the construction of river

training schemes, in riverbank and bed
protection and stabilization, as well as in the
prevention of scour around bridge piers.
20
Armourstone
 Armourstone is used in
coastal engineering for
the construction of
rubble mound
breakwaters, for
revetment covering
embankments, for the
protection of sea walls,
and for rubble rock
groins.
Retaining Structure
Breakwater
Armourstone
21
22
Crushed rock is produced for a number of

Crushed purposes, the chief of which are for
concrete and road aggregate.
Rock:
Concrete Aggregate is divided into coarse and fine
Aggregate types, the former usually consisting of rock
material that is less than 40 mm and larger
than 4 mm in size. The latter is obviously
less than 4 mm. Fine types less than 75 m
should not exceed 10% by weight of the
aggregate.
23
Quarrying
for
concrete
aggregate
Road Aggregate 24
The rock material used should

Aggregate constitutes the be fresh and have high
basic material for road strength.
construction and is quarried in • Because it forms the greater part of a
road surface, aggregate has to bear
the same way as aggregate the main stresses imposed by traffic,
for concrete. such as slow-crushing loads and rapid-
impact loads, and has to resist wear.
25
Road Aggregate
26
Road Aggregate
 TYPICAL ROAD CROSS-SECTION

27
Gravels and Sands
 Gravel deposits usually represent local accumulations, for example,

channel fillings.
 Fan-shaped deposits of gravels or aprons may accumulate at the

snouts of ice masses, or blanket deposits may develop on
transgressive beaches. The latter type of deposits are usually thin
and patchy, whereas the former are frequently wedge shaped.
 A gravel deposit consists of a framework of pebbles between which

are voids. The voids are rarely empty, being occupied by sand, silt or
clay material.
Gravels and Sands 28
 River and fluvio-glacial gravels are notably bimodal, the

principal mode being in the gravel grade, the
secondary in the sand grade.
 Marine gravels, however, are often unimodal and tend
to be more uniformly sorted than fluvial types of similar
grade size.
 Unimodal- there is one dominant current direction
 A high degree of sorting, coupled with a high degree of rounding,

characterizes mature sand.
 The shape of sand grains, however, is not greatly influenced by the
length of transport.
 Maturity is reflected in the particle composition of sand, and it has
been argued that the ultimate sand is a concentration of pure
quartz.
 This is because the less-stable minerals disappear due to
mechanical or chemical breakdown during erosion and
transportation or even after sand has been deposited.
 Sands are used for building purposes to give bulk to concrete,

mortars, plasters and renderings.
 For example, sand is used in concrete to lessen the void space
created by the coarse aggregate.
 Sand consisting of a range of grade sizes gives a lower proportion of
voids than one in which the grains are of uniform size.
 Indeed, grading is probably the most important property as far as
the suitability of sand for concrete is concerned.
Typical sizes of gravels and
sands in the Philippines
PRODUCTS DESCRIPTION SIZE SOURCE
The basic size for structural 32
concrete mixes, pre-stress or pre- 10mm to Rizal, Batangas,
Gravel 3/4"
cast concrete products and 20mm Quezon
asphalt concrete mixes.
Used in Concrete pavements,
massive foundations, granular
20mm to Rizal, Batangas,
Gravel G1 bedding/filler, and for asphalt
40mm Quezon
concrete mix with coarser
design specifications.
Used in high-strength concrete
mixes, usually for densely
reinforced structures, pre- 6mm to Rizal, Batangas,
Gravel 3/8"
stress/pre-cast products and for 10mm Quezon
asphalt wearing and surface
courses.
Fine aggregates from crushed
rocks used as structural bedding,
pavement seal coat, fairways Rizal, Batangas,
Sand S1 0 to 6mm
sand cap and a very vital Quezon
ingredient in all concrete and
asphalt mixes.
A type of dense sand taken 33
from the rivers of Porac
Pampanga, passing thru 3/8”
sieving screen. Comes in white
Whitesand 0 to 9mm Pampanga
color and the most commonly
used sand in construction
applications. Also called
“double screened sand”.
Processed whitesand passing
thru vibratory 4mm sieving 0 to 4
Vibrosand Pampanga
screen. Most commonly used in mm
plastering applications.
Mixed-crushed aggregates
Crushed used in backfills prior to
0 - 40mm Rizal, Batangas,
Aggregate Base pavements, roads, and building
(mix) Quezon
Course floorings. Also called “DPWH
item 202”.
Mixed crushed rock and silty soil
Aggregate Base 0 – 80mm
used as road base. Also called Rizal, Batangas
Course “DPWH item 201”.
(mix)
34
Mixed crushed rock and silty soil 0–
Rizal, Batangas,
Sub-base Course used for sub-base applications. 120mm
Quezon
Also called “DPWH item 200”. (mix)
Crushed rocks used in ripraps,

40mm to
Apple-size Boulders slope protection, and other backfill Batangas
100mm
requirements.
Gabion-size Crushed rocks used in ripraps 100mm to

Batangas, Rizal
Boulders bounded in gabion cages. 200mm
Crushed rocks commonly used in

ripraps, gabions, and other slope
protection applications. Adobe bulic 200mm -
Head-size Boulders Batangas, Rizal
can also be used as foundation 300mm
sub-base for heavy structures such
as swimming pools and dams.
 Lime is made by heating limestone, including
chalk, to a temperature between 1100∞C and
1200∞C in a current of air, at which point
carbon dioxide is driven off to produce
quicklime (CaO).
Lime,  Approximately 56 kg of lime can be obtained
from 100 kg of pure limestone.
Cement and  Carbonate rocks vary from place to place both
in chemical composition and physical
Plaster properties so that the lime produced in
different districts varies somewhat in its
behavior.
 Dolostones also produce lime; however, the

resultant product slakes more slowly than does
that derived from limestones.
35
 Portland cement is manufactured by burning
pure limestone or chalk with suitable
argillaceous material (clay, mud or shale) in
the proportion 3:1.
Lime,  The raw materials are crushed and ground to a

Cement and powder, and then blended.
Plaster  Lime is the principal constituent of Portland

cement, but too much lime produces a weak
cement.
 Silica constitutes approximately 20% and

alumina 5%, both are responsible for the
strength of the cement.
36
Lime, Cement and Plaster 37
Traditional lime plaster

38
 The principal clay minerals belong to

the kandites, illite, smectite, vermiculite
and palygorskite families.
 The kandites, of which kaolinite is the Clays and
chief member, are the most abundant
clay minerals.
Clay Products
 The soft china or deposits of kaolin clay
is excavated by strong jets of water
under high pressure, the material being
washed to the base of the pit.
39
Clays and
Clay Products
Kaolin Clay quarry

40
 If a clay or shale can be used to

manufacture refractory bricks, then
it is termed a fireclay.
 Such material should not fuse Clays and

below 1600∞C and should be
capable of taking a glaze. Clay Products
 Bricks, tiles and sanitary ware are
made from fireclay.
41
 Bentonite is formed by the alteration

of volcanic ash, the principal clay
mineral being either montmorillonite
or beidellite.
Clays and
 When water is added to bentonite,
it swells to many times its original Clay Products
volume to produce a soft gel.
 In the construction industry, it is used
as a material for clay grouting, drilling
mud, slurry trenches and diaphragm
walls.

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1

 Introduction to Physical Geology

 Geology is traditionally divided into two broad areas:

 Importance/benefits of studying geology:

 Geology helps protect the environment;

 Applying knowledge about geologic hazards (such as volcanoes,

 We have a greater appreciation of rocks and landforms through

 The subject deals with the physical forces and processes

 Physical Geology is broadly divided into two branches:

Exogenous Geology – FORMATION AND

 The Earth system has its components or “spheres” such

 The gases that envelop the Earth.

 The water on or near Earth’s surface.

 The Earth system has its components or “spheres” such

 All of the living or once-living material on Earth

 Also known as solid Earth system

Earth systems - Atmosphere

 90% of atmosphere within 10 miles of Earth surface (thin relative to

 Recent concern with atmosphere regarding Ozone holes and Global

 Ocean covers 71% of Earth

• Fresh water includes: surface water (lakes,

 Biosphere includes all life (including us!).

 Extends from ocean floor to several miles into atmosphere; however,

 Life responds to countless interaction with the environment.

 Surface and subsurface features reveal dynamic processes – Plate

 Parts of the Earth system are linked.

 Earth can be visualized as a giant machine driven by two engines,

 Internal Processes: (Powered by the Earth’s interior)

 External Processes (Surficial Processes): Powered by Sun - drives

 Significant difference between the continents and ocean basins is

Earth’s Internal Structure

Earth’s Internal Structure

 The mantle lies below the crust.

 The core is the central zone of

Mesosphere – lower mantle, middle

 Core – outer (liquid), generates Earth’s

 Tectonic forces cause deformation of rock as well as vertical and

 The existence of mountain ranges indicates that tectonic forces are

 Earth’s rigid outer shell composed of numerous slabs (plates)

 Plate tectonics – first comprehensive model of Earth’s surface

 Divergent – two plates move

 Convergent – two plates move

 Transform – located where plates move

 India relative to the Eurasian

Minerals and Rocks

 Minerals and Rocks

 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid

 Naturally occurring tells us that a mineral must form through

 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid

 Inorganic means that minerals are not composed of the

 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid

 Inorganic means that minerals are not composed of the

 A mineral is a naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solid

 Minerals have a specific chemical composition that can be

Minerals have two key characteristics.

The chemical elements that compose

 A few minerals are composed of a single element

 Most minerals are compounds,

 The formula for potassium feldspar is

The mineral quartz

 Rocks are composed of minerals and minerals are composed

 To geologists, minerals are important because they are the

 Limestone is composed of the mineral calcite.