BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY Mineralogy - As a branch of geology, it deals with “the
study of minerals”. A mineral may be defined as naturally
INTRODUCTION TO GEOLOGY
• In greek, Geo means Earth, Logos means Science.
• Is a branch of science dealing with the study of the
earth. It is also known as Earth Science.
• The study of the earth comprises of the whole earth,
its origin, structure, composition and history
(including the development of life) and the nature of
processes.
• Geology literally means "study of the Earth.“ Geology
seeks to understand the origin of our planet and our
place in the Universe - answers to these questions
are also posed outside of the realm of science
HISTORY OF EARLY GEOLOGY
Catastrophism (James Ussher, mid 1600s) - He
interpreted the Bible to determine that the Earth was
created at 4004 B.C. This was generally accepted by both
the scientific and religious communities. Subsequent
workers then developed the notion of catastrophism,
which held that the Earth’s landforms were formed over
very short periods of time.
• Catastrophism held that geological epochs had
ended with violent and sudden natural
catastrophes such as great floods and the rapid
formation of major mountain chains
• Uniformitarianism (James Hutton, late 1700s) –
He proposed that the same processes that are at
work today were at work in the past.
Summarized by “The present is the key to the
past.” Hutton, not constrained by the notion of a
very young planet, recognized that time is the
critical element to the formation of common
geologic structures. Uniformitarianism is a basic
foundation of modern geology.
DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
Physical Geology - As a branch of geology, it deals with
the “various process of physical agents such as wind,
water, glacier and sea waves”, run on these agents go on
modifying the surface of the earth continuously. Physical
geology includes the study of Erosion, Transportation
and Deposition (ETD).
The study of Physical Geology plays a vital role in civil
engineering thus:
a) It reveals constructive and destructive processes
of physical agents at a particular site.
b) It helps in selecting a suitable site for different
types of project to be under taken after studying
the effects of physical agents which go on
modifying the surface of the earth physically,
chemically and mechanically.
Crystallography - As a branch of geology, it deals with the
study of crystals. A crystal is a regular polyhedral form
bounded by smooth surfaces. The study of
crystallography is not much important to civil
engineering, but to recognize the minerals the study of
crystallography is necessary.
occurring, homogeneous solid, inorganically formed,
having a definite chemical composition and ordered
atomic arrangement.
The study of mineralogy is most important:
1) For a civil engineering student to identify the
rocks
2) in industries such as cement, iron and steel,
fertilizers, glass industry and so on.
3) in production of atomic energy
Petrology - As a branch of geology it deals with the
“study of rocks”. A rock is defined as “the aggregation of
minerals found in the earth’s crust”.
The study of petrology is most important for a
civil engineer, in the selection of suitable rocks for
building stones, road metals, etc.
Structural Geology - As a branch of geology, it deals with
“the study of structures found in rocks”. It is also known
as tectonic geology or simply tectonics.
Structural geology is an arrangement of rocks and plays
an important role in civil engineering in the selection of
suitable sites for all types of projects such as dams,
tunnels, multistoried buildings, etc.
Stratigraphy - As a branch of geology it deals with “the
study of stratified rocks and their correlation”.
Paleontology - As a branch of geology, it deals with “the
study of fossils” and the ancient remains of plants and
animals are referred to as fossils. Fossils are useful in the
study of evolution and migration of animals and plants
through ages, ancient geography and climate of an area.
Economic Geology - As a branch of geology, it deals with
“the study of minerals, rocks and materials of economic
importance like coal and petroleum”.
Historical Geology - As a branch of geology, it includes
“the study of both stratigraphy and paleontology”. Its
use in civil engineering is to know about the land and
seas, the climate and the life of early times upon the
earth.
Hydrology - As a branch of geology, it deals with “the
studies of both quality and quantity of water that are
present in the rocks in different states”. Moreover, it
includes:
1) Atmospheric Water
2) Surface Water
3) Underground water
Mining Geology - As a branch of geology, it deals with
“the study of application of geology to mining
engineering in such a way that the selection of suitable
sites for quarrying and mines can be determined”.
EARTH’S LAYER MANTLE (1800 miles thicc)
• The semi-solid (jello-like) material underlying the
The Earth is composed of several integrated parts crust
(spheres) that interact with one another: • Divided into two parts:
o Upper mantle
• Atmosphere
o Lower mantle.
• hydrosphere
• Most of the mantle is solid rock.
• solid earth (lithosphere)
• The lower mantle rock is softer.
• biosphere
• It makes up 85% of the Earth’s mass.
• (cryosphere)
• Temperatures can reach up to 870° C.
THE EARTH SYSTEM ASTHENOSPHERE
• Zone in the Upper Mantle.
Hydrosphere: the global ocean is the most prominent • Lithosphere floats on top of it.
feature of our (blue) planet. The oceans cover ~71% of • Consists of hot, plastic rock.
our planet and represent 97% of all the water on our • “Asthens” means “weak” in Greek.
planet.

Atmosphere: the swirling clouds of the atmosphere
represent the very thin blanket of air that covers our
planet. It is not only the air we breathe, but protects us
from harmful radiation from the sun.
Biosphere: includes all life on Earth - concentrated at the
surface. Plants and animals don't only respond to their
environment but also exercise a very strong control over
the other parts of the planet.
Solid Earth: represents the majority of the Earth system.
Most of the Earth lies at inaccessible depths. However,
the solid Earth exerts a strong influence on all other parts
(ex. magnetic field).
CRUST (5 – 25 miles thick)
• The surface of Earth.
• The thinnest layer.
• Made of solid rock.
• Contains all the mountains, rocks, water, soil and
land features.
• Contains the lithosphere, oceanic crust and
continental crust.
LITHOSPHERE
• Made from the Crust and Upper Mantle.
• “Litho” means “stone” in Greek.
• This is the layer in which we live because it
contains the oceanic and continental crust.
• Oceanic Crust:
o Below the ocean
o Consists of basalt
o Very dense
• Continental Crust:
• Forms and contains the large
landmasses
• Consists of granite
• Less dense
• The boundary zone between the crust and the
mantle is called the Mohorovicic Discontinuity or
the “Moho”
• a zone of low velocity transmission of seismic
waves
• It is defined by the distinct change in velocity of
seismological waves as they pass through
changing densities of rock
• The mantle is heated closer to the core
• Heated mantle material rises upward very slowly
millions of years to move upward
• As it near the earth’s surface, the mantle
material liquefies (due to pressure and
temperature relationships)
• It also begins to cool, and slowly starts to sink
back into the core
• This creates a Convection current
TRANSFER OF HEAT
• Radiation – The transfer of energy through
space, such as the transfer of heat from the Sun.
• Conduction – The transfer of heat within a
material or between two materials that are
touching.
• Convection – The transfer of heat by the
movement of currents within a fluid.
CONVECTION CURRENTS
• Density = Mass
Volume
• What are Convection Currents???
The process of liquid heating and cooling in
between the mantle and outer core of the Earth.
• When a liquid is heated, the particles spread
apart. This is due to the fact that their energy is
being converted into kinetic energy (the energy
of movement). Once these molecules spread
out, their volume increases causing their density
to decrease. Therefore, the hot liquid floats to
the top and the cooler water, which has
decreased in volume and increased in density,
sinks to the bottom.
• This process occurs, repeatedly, in the mantle
due to the heat from the core and mantle.
• Takes place between the Mantle and the Outer
Core.
• Since the density of the liquid decreased, it
floated up, towards the surface.
OUTER CORE VS. INNER CORE
• Outer Core – only liquid layer!
o Made up of liquid iron and nickel.
o This layer creates the Earth’s magnetic
field.
o Temperatures can reach up to 2,200° C.
 • Inner Core
• The center of Earth.
• Made up of scorching-hot iron and
nickel.
• This layer stays solid though due to
intense pressure.
• This layer may also contain oxygen,
sulfur and silicon.
• Temperatures range between 9,000° C
and 13,000° C.

Earth’s magnetic field is created by the rotation of the

outer fluid core around the solid inner core.

This creates an electrical current Generates an

electromagnetic Field. Similar to a bar magnet with a
positive and negative end.

Earth’s magnetic field interacts with solar particles,

forcing them to the north or south pole, creating the
Aurora Borealis

Evidence

How do Scientists know about the interior of the Earth?

Two forms of evidence:
• Direct evidence from rock samples
• Indirect evidence from seismic waves
THE THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS -
BOUNDARIES, STRESSES, AND FAULTS
What are Plates?
The Earth’s crust and upper mantle (Lithosphere) are
broken into sections called plates. Plates move around
on top of the mantle like rafts.
A section of the lithosphere that slowly moves over the
asthenosphere, carrying pieces of continental and
oceanic crust.
What is the Theory of Plate Tectonics?
The theory that pieces of Earth’s lithosphere are in
constant motion, driven by convection currents in the
mantle.
• Plates move slowly in different directions
• Cause different geologic events (like earthquake,
volcano, etc.)
What makes the plates move?
Convection Currents in the mantle move the plates as the
core heats the slowly-flowing asthenosphere (the
elastic/plastic-like part of the mantle).
Plate Boundaries - The edges of Earth’s plates meet at
plate boundaries.
Extended deep into the lithosphere
Fault – Breaks in Earth’s crust where rocks have slipped
past each other.
THREE TYPES OF BOUNDARIES
DIVERGENT BOUNDARIES (TENSION)
• A plate boundary where two plates move away
from each other.
• RIFTING causes SEAFLOOR SPREADING
• TENSION - Rock gets THIN in the middle as it is
pulled apart. This stress is called tension
• NORMAL FAULT - happens when the rock SNAPS
from the Stress of Tension. Fault is a break in
Earth’s crust Rock drops down as it breaks.
• What happens next at Divergent Boundaries?
• A geologic feature or event may form rift
valleys on continents
• Sea-floor spreading in the ocean
• Features of Divergent Boundaries
• Mid-ocean ridges
• rift valleys
• fissure volcanoes
CONVERGENT BOUNDARIES (COMPRESSION)
• plate boundary where two plates move towards
each other
• Places where plates crash (or crunch) together or
subduct (one sinks under)
• Three types of convergent boundaries:
• Oceanic- oceanic convergence- Ocean
plate colliding with another ocean plate.
The less dense plate slides under the
denser plate creating a subduction zone
called a TRENCH
• Continental- continental convergence -
A continental plate colliding with
another continental plate. A place where
folded and thrust faulted mountains
form.
• Oceanic – continental convergence -
Ocean plate colliding with a less dense
continental plate.
▪ Subduction Zone: The process
by which oceanic crust sinks
beneath a deep-ocean trench
and back into the mantle at a
convergent plate boundary.
REVERSE FAULT - happens when the rock is squeezed
from the Stress of Compression. Rock is forced upward
as it is squeezed.
• Convergent = “Connecting” boundaries
• May work like a trash compactor smashing rock.
o Rock goes crunches up to make folded
mountains.
o Rock goes down “under” at subduction
zone.
TRANSFORM BOUNDARIES
A plate boundary where two plates move past each other
in opposite direction.
How is the rock broken at Transform Boundaries?
• Rock is pushed in two opposite directions (or
sideways, but no rock is lost)
• This stress is called SHEARING
What happens next at Transform Boundaries?
• May cause Earthquakes when the rock snaps
from the pressure.
• A famous fault at a Transform Boundary is the
San Andreas Fault in California.
• STRIKE-SLIP FAULT - happens when the rock is
sheared (or “cut”) from the Stress of Shearing
Helpful Hints…
• Shearing means cutting (“Shears” are like
scissors)
• Transform boundaries run like trains going past
each other in different directions & they shake
the ground!
EARTH PROCESSES PROCESSES OF RIVER TRANSPORTATION

The Earth is in constant change because of the processes
that takes place on it. These processes include the
movement of water, wind, tectonic plates, and erosion,
transportation and deposition.
Among the Earth processes, the erosion, transportation,
and deposition are responsible for the movement of
weathered rocks
WEATHERING - The breakdown of rocks at the Earth's
surface, by the action of rainwater, extremes of
temperature, and biological activity.
EROSION - A geological process in which earthen
materials are worn away and transported by natural
forces such as wind or water.
Water, air, and even ice are fluids because they tend to
flow from one place to another due to the force of
gravity. Of the three, liquid water is the most common
agent of erosion because there's so much of it on the
surface of the Earth.
The type of movement or the transportation of the
eroded materials is dependent on the size of it.
• TRACTION - The geologic process whereby a
current transports larger, heavier rocks by rolling
or sliding them along the bottom.
• SALTATION - The bouncing of medium sized
material along the river bed
• SUSPENSION - The current carries the small
materials along with it
• SOLUTION - Minerals, such as limestone and
chalk, are dissolved in the water and carried
along in the flow, it often cannot be seen.
DEPOSITION
The setting down of the eroded material. Deposition
begins when erosion stops; deposition is when the
moving particles fall out of the water or wind and
settle on a new surface.
CAUSE OF DEPOSITION

PHYSICAL EROSION - The physical properties of rocks are
considered such as the smoothness and the size of rock.
CHEMICAL EROSION - The chemical properties of rocks
are changing as they erode. Carbonation is an example of
chemical erosion because it changes the chemical
composition of limestone.
Erosion is the major cause of deposition because
erosion causes the movement of materials and
deposition is defined as the stopping of materials.
The cause of transport is the agent of transport such
as water, wind, and ice.
EFFECTS OF DEPOSITION

WIND EROSION - Wind erosion is a natural process that It is responsible for the creation of new landscapes
moves soil from one location to another by wind power. including hills, valleys and coastlines.

WATER EROSION - Water erosion is the removal of soil
by water and transportation of the eroded materials
away from the point of removal.
GLACIAL EROSION - Glacial erosion includes the
loosening of rock, sediment, or soil by glacial processes,
and the entrainment and subsequent transportation of
this material by ice or meltwater.
Though deposition means the end of erosion, it does
not necessarily mean that the newly settled particles
are now safe. Erosion and deposition are continuous
processes. Though the particles have resettled, they
are likely to be picked up another day and moved
somewhere else. This give-and-take process helps
the environment maintain equilibrium.

PROCESSES OF EROSION

• CORRASION - Materials are transported across

the Earth’s surface caused by running water, or
waves, glaciers, wind or gravitational movement
downslope.
• ATTRITION - The crashing of the eroded
materials also to eroded materials making it
smaller. It is also the act of rubbing things
together and thus wearing them down.
• SOLUTION - Weak acids within the water
dissolve the river bed such as acidic rainwater or
soluble particles are dissolved into the river
• HYDRAULIC ACTION - It refers to the physical
weathering and mechanical response of earth
materials to flowing water in rivers and streams
or breaking waves and storm surge along
shorelines.

TRANSPORTATION

• It refers to the processes by which the sediment

is moved along a river-bed or sea shore, sand
grains whipped up by the wind, salts carried in
solution.
GROUNDWATER
• Groundwater is the water found underground in
the cracks and spaces in soil, sand and rock.
• It is the largest reservoir of liquid fresh water on
Earth which is readily available to all the living
organisms.
• Groundwater is that part of precipitation that
infiltrates through the soil to the water table.
• It is recharged by rain water and snowmelt or
from water that leaks through the bottom of
lakes and rivers.
• Groundwater is contained in what are called
“aquifers”.
• It has a suitable composition in most cases and is
free from turbidity, objectionable colors and
pathogenic organisms.
SOURCES OF GROUNDWATER:
a. Meteoric Water
• It is the water derived from precipitation (rain or
snow). The bulk of rainwater or meltwater from
snow and ice reaches the sea through surface
flow, a considerable portion of meteoric water
gradually infiltrates into the ground.
• This infiltrating water continues its downward
journey to the zone of saturation to become a
part of the groundwater in aquifers.
b. Connote Water
• Water trapped in the pores of a rock during
formation of the rock. The chemistry of connate
water can change in composition throughout the
history of the rock. Connate water can be dense
and saline compared with seawater. Connate
water is also described as fossil water.
c. Juvenile Water
• Magmatic water or juvenile water is water that
exists within, and in equilibrium with, magma or
water-rich volatile fluids that are derived from a
magma. This magmatic water is released to the
atmosphere during a volcanic eruption.
Magmatic water may also be released as
hydrothermal fluids during the late stages of
magmatic crystallization or solidification within
the Earth's crust.
DISTRIBUTION OF GROUNDWATER
• The water that goes below the surface of the
land may be found to exist in two main zones or
environments classified as: Vadose Water and
phreatic water of groundwater.
o Three different types of environment in
the Vadose Water:
1. Soil Water - forms a thin layer
confined to the near surface. It may
occur a depth between 1.0 to 9m. It
is lost in the atmosphere by
transpiration and evaporation.
2. Intermediate Vadose Zone - occurs
immediately below the zone of soil
water. The water in this zone is
moving downward under the
influence of gravity.
3. Zone of Capillary Water - also called
as capillary fringe. It is only present
in soil and rocks of fine particles size
underlying in the unsaturated zone.
In this zone, the groundwater is
drawn upward with a height of 2-3m
above the saturated zone.
WHAT IS AN AQUIFER?
• An aquifer is an underground layer of rock that
holds groundwater.
• In an aquifer, there is enough groundwater that
it can be pumped to the surface and used for
drinking water, irrigation, industry, or other
uses.
• Aquifers are typically saturated regions of the
subsurface that produce an economically
feasible quantity of water to a well or spring.
• Features of an Aquifer
To be a good aquifer, the rock in the aquifer must
have good:
• Porosity: small spaces between grains
• Permeability: connections between pores
HOW DOES WATER FILL AN AQUIFER?
• Aquifers get water from precipitation (rain and
snow) that filters through the unsaturated zone.
When the aquifer is full, and the water table
meets the surface of the ground, water stored in
the aquifer can appear at the land surface as a
spring or seep.
• Recharge areas are where aquifers take in water.
• Discharge areas are where groundwater flows
to the land surface.
• Water moves from higher-elevation areas of
recharge to lower-elevation areas of discharge
through the saturated zone.
• A confined aquifer is an aquifer below the land
surface that is saturated with water. Layers of
impermeable material are both above and below
the aquifer, causing it to be under pressure so
that when the aquifer is penetrated by a well, the
water will rise above the top of the aquifer.
• A unconfined aquifer or water table is an aquifer
whose upper water surface (water table) is at
atmospheric pressure, and thus is able to rise
and fall. Water-table aquifers are usually closer
to the Earth's surface than confined aquifers are,
and as such are impacted by drought conditions
sooner than confined aquifers.
AQUITARD – a zone within the Earth that
restricts the flow of groundwater from one aquifer to
another. It is any geological formation of a rather
semipervious nature that transmits water at slower rates
than an aquifer.
A completely impermeable aquitard is called
an aquiclude or aquifuge. Aquitards comprise layers of
either clay or non-porous rock with low hydraulic
conductivity.
HOW DOES GROUNDWATER MOVE?
 • Groundwater flow is driven by gravity as is
surface water flow. Movement through the zone IMPORTANCE OF GROUNDWATER
of saturation is from areas of high pressure
(beneath hills) to areas of low pressure (rivers • Geological role of groundwater
and swamps).
• As an erosional agent
DISCHARGE
• Groundwater serves as an equalizer of
• Discharge refers to the removal of water and streamflow
takes place where groundwater flows into
• Groundwater represents about 30% of world’s
streams, lakes, swamps, and springs, or is
fresh water.
withdrawn at water wells.
• It is the main source of water for irrigation
RECHARGE
(estimation of circa 43% of water used) and in
• Recharge is the addition of water by infiltration the food industry.
of precipitation, snow melt, stream water, or
• In terms of environment, it plays an important
water from artificial recharge ponds or water
role in keeping the water level and flow into
treatment systems.
rivers, lakes and wetlands.
• The water table rises or falls based on the ratio
of recharge to discharge. • Also, groundwater sustain navigation through
inland waters in the drier seasons by discharging
SPRINGS
groundwaters in rivers to keep the water levels
• Springs are formed when groundwater flows higher.
laterally to intersect the land surface and is
discharged.
• Springs form where solution cavities, fractures,
or perched water tables intersect the ground • WHY IS CLEANING UP GROUNDWATER SO
surface. HARD?

WATER WELLS Cleaning up contaminated groundwater often

takes longer than expected because groundwater
• Water wells are openings, either dug or drilled, systems are complicated and the contaminants are
that connect the zone of saturation with Earth’s invisible to the naked eye.
surface.
• Water flows into the well cavity, filling it to the This makes it more difficult to find contaminants
level of the water table. In the vicinity of a well, and to design a treatment system that either destroys
the water table is lowered, forming a cone of the contaminants in the ground or takes them to the
depression if water withdrawal exceeds the rate surface for cleanup.
of inflow.
• Many factors determine whether or not a water
well will be successful. Among these factors are:
distribution & type of rocks present, their
porosity & permeability, fracture patterns, well
depth, etc

ARTESIAN SYSTEM

• Artesian systems form where groundwater in

sloping aquifers is confined by an overlying
aquiclude. If recharge is sufficient to keep the
aquifer filled, hydrostatic pressure builds up and
allows groundwater to rise above the top of the
aquifer in wells

HOW DO LIQUIDS CONTAMINATE GROUNDWATER?

Some hazardous substances dissolve very slowly

in water. When these substances seep into groundwater
faster than they can dissolve, some of the contaminants
will stay in liquid form. If the liquid is less dense than
water, it will float on top of the water table, like oil on
water. Pollutants in this form are called light non-
aqueous phase liquids. If the liquid is denser than water,
the pollutants are called dense non-aqueous phase
liquids. These pools continue to contaminate the aquifer
as they slowly dissolve and are carried away by moving
groundwater. This form of groundwater contamination is
called residual contamination.
EARTHQUAKE
• It is known as one of the worst natural hazards
which turns into disaster that causes widespread
destruction and loss to human life
• any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the
passage of seismic waves through Earth’s rocks.
• It is estimated that only 10 percent or less of an
earthquake's total energy is radiated as seismic
energy. Seismic waves are produced when some
form of energy stored in Earth’s crust is suddenly
released, usually when masses of rock straining
against one another suddenly fracture and “slip.”
• occur most often along geologic faults, narrow
zones where rock masses move in relation to one
another.
NATURE OF EARTHQUAKES
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
• Circum-Pacific Belt
o most important earthquake belt which
affects many populated coastal regions
around the Pacific Ocean.
o It is estimated that 80 percent of the
energy presently released in
earthquakes comes from those
whose epicentres are in this belt. It has
452 volcanoes and is home to over 75%
of the world’s active and dormant
volcanoes.
o Is associated with volcanic activity, it has
been popularly dubbed the “Pacific Ring
of Fire.”
• Alpide Belt
o second belt that passes through the
Mediterranean region eastward through
Asia and joins the Circum-Pacific Belt in
the East Indies.
o The energy released in earthquakes
from this belt is about 15 percent of the
world total.
o There also are striking connected belts
of seismic activity, mainly along oceanic
ARTIFICIAL INDUCTION
ridges and along the rift valleys of East
Africa. This global seismicity distribution
is best understood in terms of its plate
tectonic setting.
• Natural forces
o Earthquakes are caused by the sudden
release of energy within some limited
region of the rocks of the Earth. The
energy can be released by elastic strain,
gravity, chemical reactions, or even the
motion of massive bodies. Earthquakes
associated with this type of energy
release are called tectonic earthquakes
• TECTONICS
o An earthquake is caused by tectonic
plates getting stuck and putting a strain
on the ground. The strain becomes so
great that rocks give way by breaking
and sliding along fault planes.
o Most of the disastrous earthquakes
belong to this category and occur in
areas of great faults and fractures.
o Strike - the direction from north taken
by a horizontal line in the fault plane
o Dip - the angle from the horizontal
shown by the steepest slope in the fault
o Footwall - the lower wall of an inclined
fault
o Hanging Wall - lying over the footwall
o Fault – break or fracture between two
blocks of rocks in response to stress
o Fault Plane – cracks or sudden slips of
land
• Strike-slip Faulting
o when rock masses slip past each other
parallel to the strike
o are right lateral or left lateral, depending
on whether the block on the opposite
side of the fault from an observer has
moved to the right or left
• Dip-slip Faulting
o movement parallel to the dip
o Normal Fault - if the hanging-wall block
moves downward relative to the
footwall block
o Reverse or Thrust Fault - the opposite
motion, with the hanging wall moving
upward relative to the footwall,
produces reverse or thrust faulting.
• VOLCANISM
o Volcanic eruptions produce
earthquakes. A separate type of
earthquake is associated with volcanic
activity and is called a volcanic
earthquake.
o Earthquakes may precede, accompany
and frequently follow volcanic eruptions
o They are caused by sudden
displacements of lava within or beneath
the earth’s crust.
• RESERVOIR INDUCTION
o incidence of earthquake triggered due to
impoundment of water behind a dam
o Water in the reservoir adds a pressure
perturbation that triggers the fault
rupture.
• SEISMOLOGY AND NUCLEAR EXPLOSIONS
o Underground nuclear explosions,
compared with natural earthquakes,
usually generate seismic waves through
the body of the Earth that are of much
larger amplitude than the surface waves.
o Earthquakes have varied effects,
including changes in geologic features,
damage to man-made structures, and
impact on human and animal life. Most
of these effects occur on solid ground,
but, since most earthquake foci are
 actually located under the ocean devised in 1878 by Michele Stefano de
bottom, severe effects are often Rossi and Franƈois-Alphonse Forel. The
observed along the margins of oceans. scale now generally employed in North
• SURFACE PHENOMENA America is the Mercalli scale, as
o Earthquakes often cause dramatic modified by Harry O. Wood and Frank
geomorphological changes, including Neumann in 1931, in which intensity is
ground movements along geologic fault considered to be more suitably graded.
traces. rising, dropping, and tilting of the • EARTHQUAKE MAGNITUDE
ground surface; changes in the flow of o the amount of energy released at the
groundwater; liquefaction of sandy earthquake source
ground; landslides; and mudflows. o Earthquake magnitude is a measure of
o In the most intensely damaged region, the “size,” or amplitude, of the seismic
called the meizoseismal area, the effects waves generated by an earthquake
of a severe earthquake are usually source and recorded by seismographs
complicated and depend on the o In 1935 the American seismologist
topography and the nature of the Charles F. Richter set up a magnitude
surface materials. scale which categorizes earthquake on
• TSUNAMIS the basis of energy released
o very long-wavelength water waves in o As defined, an earthquake magnitude
oceans or seas sweep inshore. More scale has no lower or upper limit.
properly called seismic sea waves and Sensitive seismographs can record
are commonly referred to as tidal waves. earthquakes with magnitudes of
They sometimes come ashore to great negative value and have recorded
heights and may be extremely magnitudes up to about 9.0.
destructive.
o The usual immediate cause of a tsunami
Richter scale of earthquake magnitude
is sudden displacement in a seabed
sufficient to cause the sudden raising or magnitud earthquake
category effects
lowering of a large body of water. This e level s per year
deformation may be the fault source of generally
an earthquake, or it may be a submarine not felt by
landslide arising from an earthquake. people,
• SEICHES less than though more than
micro
1.0 to 2.9 recorded 100,000
o Seiches are rhythmic motions of water in
on local
nearly landlocked bays or lakes that are instrument
sometimes induced by earthquakes and s
tsunamis. A seiche is a standing wave
oscillating in a body of water. felt by
many 12,000–
Oscillations of this sort may last for 3.0–3.9 minor
people; no 100,000
hours or even for a day or two. damage
o A related effect is the result of seismic
waves from an earthquake passing felt by all;
minor 2,000–
through the seawater following their 4.0–4.9 light
breakage 12,000
refraction through the seafloor of objects
INTENSITY AND MAGNITUDE OF EARTHQUAKES some
moderat damage to
• INTENSITY SCALES 5.0–5.9
e weak
200–2,000
o measure of how much the ground structures
shakes at a specific location
o - an entire range of observed effects is moderate
damage in
not capable of simple quantitative 6.0–6.9 strong 20–200
populated
definition, the strength of the shaking is areas
commonly estimated by reference to
intensity scales that describe the effects serious
damage
in qualitative terms.
7.0–7.9 major over large 3–20
o Intensity depends, however, in a areas; loss
complicated way not only on ground of life
accelerations but also on the periods
severe
and other features of seismic waves, the
destruction
distance of the measuring point from 8.0 and
great and loss of fewer than 3
the source, and the local geologic higher
life over
structure. large areas
o For many years the most widely used
intensity scale was a 10-point scale
 • EARTHQUAKE ENERGY
o earthquake energy travels in the form of
waves
o the amount of energy radiated by an
earthquake is a measure of the potential
for damage to man-made structures.
o Energy in an earthquake passing a
particular surface site can be calculated
directly from the recordings of seismic
ground motion
• FREQUENCY
o The frequency is the number of times
something happens in a certain period of
time, such as the ground shaking up and
down or back and forth during an
earthquake.
o frequency range of seismic waves is
large, from as high as the audible range
(greater than 20 hertz) to as low as the
frequencies of the free oscillations of the
whole Earth
OCCURRENCE OF EARTHQUAKES
• TECTONIC ASSOCIATIONS
o Global seismicity patterns had no strong
theoretical explanation until the
dynamic model called plate tectonics
was developed during the late 1960s.
This theory holds that the Earth’s upper
shell, or lithosphere, consists of nearly a
dozen large, quasi-stable slabs called
plates.
o Seismological evidence is everywhere in
agreement with this tectonic model. In
agreement with the plate tectonics
theory is the high seismicity
encountered along the edges of plates
where they slide past each other.
• SHALLOW, INTERMEDIATE AND DEEP FOCI
o the great majority of earthquake foci are
shallow. It should be noted, however,
that the geographic distribution of
smaller earthquakes is less completely
determined than more severe quakes,
partly because the availability of
relevant data is dependent on the
distribution of observatories.
o Of the total energy released in
earthquakes, 12 percent comes from
intermediate earthquakes—that is,
quakes with a focal depth ranging from
about 60 to 300 km. About 3 percent of
total energy comes from deeper
earthquakes. The frequency of
occurrence falls off rapidly with
increasing focal depth in the
intermediate range.
o The deeper-focus earthquakes
commonly occur in patterns called
Benioff zones that dip into the Earth,
indicating the presence of a subducting
slab. Dip angles of these slabs average
about 45°, with some shallower and
others nearly vertical.
• AFTERSHOCKS, FORESHOCKS AND SWARMS
o Usually, a major or even moderate
earthquake of shallow focus is followed
by many lesser-size earthquakes close to
the original source region. This is to be
expected if the fault rupture producing a
major earthquake does not relieve all
the accumulated strain energy at once.
In fact, this dislocation is liable to cause
an increase in the stress and strain at a
number of places in the vicinity of the
focal region, bringing crustal rocks at
certain points close to the stress at
which fracture occurs.
o Sometimes a large earthquake is
followed by a similar one along the same
fault source within an hour or perhaps a
day. In most instances, however, the first
principal earthquake of a series is much
more severe than the aftershocks. In
general, the number of aftershocks per
day decreases with time. The aftershock
frequency is roughly inversely
proportional to the time since the
occurrence of the largest earthquake of
the series.
STUDY OF EARTHQUAKES
SEISMIC WAVES
• Seismology - involves the scientific study of
earthquakes and the propagation of elastic
waves through the earth
• Seismologist - is a scientist who studies
earthquakes and seismic waves.
• Seismic waves are waves that travel through or
over Earth. They are usually generated by
movements of the Earth's tectonic plates
(earthquakes)
• We have different types of seismic waves
o P wave
o S wave
o Love wave
o Rayleigh wave
• Body waves
o P waves & S waves
o Travelling through the interior of the
earth
• Surface waves
o Love waves & Rayleigh waves
o Travelling through the surface of the
earth (crust)
• P-WAVE OR PRIMARY WAVE
o It is known as the fastest kind of wave.
o They can move through solid rock and
fluids
o The particles of the medium vibrate in a
manner similar to sound waves
• S-WAVE OR SECONDARY WAVE
o An S wave is slower than a P wave.
o It can only travel through solid rock.
o
 • LOVE WAVE
o Named after Augustus Edward Hough
Love, a British mathematician who
worked out the mathematical model for
this kind of wave in 1911.
o It's the fastest surface wave and moves
the ground from side-to-side.
• RAYLEIGH WAVE
o Named after John William Strutt, Lord
Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted
the existence of this kind of wave in
1885.
o Rolls along the ground just like a wave
rolls across a lake or an ocean.
o It moves the ground up and down, and
side-to-side in the same direction that
the wave is moving.
MEASUREMENT OF WAVES
• Seismograph- is an instrument that records the
shaking of the earth's surface caused by seismic
waves. Typically this will comprise a recorder and
a seismometer, which is a sensor that detects the
velocity of the ground. Seismometers are usually
very sensitive and will easily detect a typical
quarry blast at a range of 100km.
• Technological developments in electronics have
given rise to higher-precision pendulum
seismometers and sensors of ground motion. In
these instruments the electric voltages produced
by motions of the pendulum or the equivalent
are passed through electronic circuitry to amplify
and digitize the ground motion for more exact
readings.
• Accelerograph detects the acceleration of the
ground. Accelerometers are much less sensitive
than seismometers, but have a much greater
range,
• Strong motion accelerographs, are usually all
that is required for monitoring the response of a
structure during an earthquake, whether this a
building, bridge, dam, power station, or any
other critical infrastructure that could be
affected by a large earthquake
EARTHQUAKE OBSERVATORIES
Worldwide during the late 1950s, there were only about
700 seismographic stations which were equipped with
seismographs of various types and frequency responses.
The World-Wide Standardized Seismographic Network
(WWSSN) was established. Each station of the WWSSN
had six seismographs—three short-period and three
long-period seismographs.
By 1967 the WWSSN consisted of about 120 stations
distributed over 60 countries.
By the 1980s a further upgrading of permanent
seismographic stations began with the installation of
digital equipment by a number of organizations.
LOCATING EARTHQUAKE EPICENTER
Many observatories make provisional estimates of the
epicentres of important earthquakes. These estimates
provide preliminary information locally about particular
earthquakes and serve as first approximations for the
calculations subsequently made by large coordinating
centres
If an earthquake’s epicentre is less than 105° away from
an observatory, the epicentre’s position can often be
estimated from the readings of three seismograms
recording perpendicular components of the ground
motion.
For a shallow earthquake the epicentral distance is
indicated by the interval between the arrival times of P
and S waves;
EARTHQUAKE PREDICTION
Search for periodic cycles in earthquake occurrence. This
is an old way to predict the occurrence of earthquake but
right now periodicities in time and space for major
earthquakes have not been widely detected or accepted.
Statistical occurrence of earthquakes involves the
postulation of trigger forces that initiate the rupture.
Such forces have been attributed to severe weather
conditions, volcanic activity, and tidal forces, for
example.
Elastic rebound theory allows rough prediction of the
occurrence of large shallow earthquakes, (this theory
was developed by Harry Fielding Reid in 1911 and still
accepted today for prediction of earthquake)
The theory predicted the San Francisco earthquake, Reid
examined the displacement of the ground surface along
the San Andreas Fault in the 50 years before the
earthquake. He found evidence for 3.2 m of bending
during that period. He concluded that the quake must
have been the result of the elastic rebound of the strain
energy stored in the rocks on either side of the fault.
REDUCTION OF EARTHQUAKES HAZARDS
• Constructing seismic hazard maps
Seismic hazard is the hazard associated
with potential earthquakes in a particular area,
and a seismic hazard map shows the relative
hazards in different areas.
• Developing earthquake resistant structure
most casualties resulted from collapse of
manmade structure
VOLCANOES
A volcano is a vent, or opening, in the Earth's
crust from which hot rock has been ejected sometime in
its history. It is fueled by magma or the molten rock
found deep in the Earth that flows upwards in fissures in
the Earth's crust.
Origin of the word:
Volcano is derived from Vulcano, a volcanic island which
name comes from Vulcan, the Roman God of fire.
VOLCANOLOGY - It is a branch of geology that deals with
volcanism.
VOLCANISM - It is the eruption of molten rock (magma)
onto the surface of a planet.
VOLCANOLOGIST - Scientists that study volcanology.
Instruments Used to monitor Volcanoes:
• Seismometer and Seismograph
• EDM, Leveling, GPS, Tilt
• Correlation Spectrometer (COSPEC)
• Very Low Frequency (VLF), EM-31
• Video and still cameras, infrared cameras,
satellite imagers, webcams
The Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS)
They provide information on the activities of
volcanoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis, as well as other
specialized information and services primarily for the
protection of life and property and in support of
economic, productivity, and sustainable development.
The Pacific Ring of Fire
The Ring of Fire, also referred to as the Circum-Pacific
Belt is a composition of active volcanoes and frequent
earthquakes that encircles the Pacific Ocean, is one of
the examples of Oceanic and Continental convergence.
The abundance of volcanoes and earthquakes along the
Ring of Fire is caused by the amount of movement of
tectonic plates in the area.
75% of Earth’s volcanoes or more than 450 volcanoes are
located along the Ring of Fire.
VOLCANIC ROCKS
Volcanic rock (Extrusive Rock) is one type of magmatic
rock (igneous rocks). It is the condensated product of
extrusive magma after the physical and chemical
changes in sediments and compaction, which differ
greatly from sedimentary rocks in forming conditions,
environments, and distribution.
Examples: Rhyolite, Obsidian, Pitchstone, Pumice, Basalt
or Trap, Andesite
STRUCTURE OF A VOLCANO
• Magma Chamber - this is where the magma
(molten rock) is stored beneath the ground.
• Bedrock - Bedrock is made up of igneous,
sedimentary, or metamorphic rock, and it often
serves as the parent material for regolith and
soil.
• Base – The ground where the volcano is located.
• Flank - The side of a volcano.
• Crater – It is a depression at the top of the
volcano. A volcanic crater is typically a basin,
circular in form, which can be large in radius and
sometimes great in depth.
• Main Vent - This is the channel through
which magma travels to reach the Earth's
surface. It is the weak point in the Earth’s crust
where hot magma has been able to rise from the
magma chamber and reach the surface.
• Parasitic Cone (Secondary Cone) – It builds up
around secondary vents that reach the surface
on larger volcanoes. As they deposit lava and ash
on the exterior, they form a smaller cone, one
that resembles a horn on the main cone.
• Conduit (Pipe) - A volcanic pipe is a vertical
conduit beneath a volcano through which
magma once passed on its journey from the
magma chamber to the eruption site. Over time,
volcanic pipes usually become clogged by
solidified magma and other volcanic rocks,
leaving a hard, cylindrical-shaped formation
behind.
• Throat – It is the uppermost section of the main
vent. As the entrance to the volcano, it is from
here that lava and volcanic ash are ejected.
• Dike - A tabular igneous intrusion that crosses
through other (layered or non-layered) rocks at
a steep angle. It is a discordant intrusive sheet,
which does cut across older rocks.
• Sill - A sill is a flat, sheet-like igneous rock mass
that forms when magma intrudes into and
crystallizes between preexisting rock layers. It is
a concordant intrusive sheet, meaning that a sill
does not cut across preexisting rock beds.
• Layers of emitted lava and ash – These layers
build up the volcano through the process of
eruption.
• Ash Cloud - A cloud of ash formed by volcanic
explosions. Volcanic ash consists of small pieces
of pulverized rock, minerals and volcanic glass
created during a volcanic eruption.
FORMATION OF A VOLCANO
• At divergent boundaries like the mid-
Atlantic ridge, there is a gap in the lithosphere so
magma molten rock from the mantle is
constantly pushing up along the boundaries and
filling the gap between the crusts with magma .
• Volcanoes are also common in the
boundaries called subduction zone plates. When
a continental and oceanic crusts collide with
each other, they form a subduction zone. Since
the oceanic crust is denser and thinner that the
continental crust, when they collide the oceanic
crust gets bend and pushed down or subducted
beneath the continental crust.
• As it goes deeper into the earth, it
encounters high temperature and pressure and
then later on forms the magma. Then volcanoes
are now created along the edge of the
convergent boundary.
• HOT SPOTS - It is a plume of molten rock that
rises through the mantle, the mostly solid layer
between the crust and core. The magma plume
causes melting and thinning of the rocky crust
and widespread volcanic activity. By contrast,
Hawaii's volcanoes emanate from a “hotspot”
under the Pacific plate.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
FREQUENCY OF ERUPTIONS
• Active Volcanoes - Are ones that have erupted in
the past 10,000 years, and that are likely to erupt
again.
• Dormant Volcanoes - Are ones that have not
erupted in the past 10,000 years, but still have
the possibility, though likely.
• Extinct Volcanoes - Are ones which no eruption
has occurred within historic times and future
occurrences are highly improbable.
STRUCTURE OF THE VOLCANO
Composite Volcanoes
• Height of 8,000ft - 10,000ft or more.
• 1km-10km in diameter.
• Conical shape.
• Multiple pipe branches of lava.
• Formed due to compilation of heavy quiet tephra
and pyroclastic eruptions.
Cinder Volcanoes
• Height is frequently 300ft but not rising over
1,200ft.
• 800ft in diameter.
• Oval cone shape.
• One vent.
• Built from particles and blobs of congealed lava
ejected from a single vent.
Shield Volcanoes
• Height of 1,500ft to 2,000ft.
• Diameter of 3 to 4 miles.
• Broad and almost flat in shape.
• One vent.
• Formed gently by low viscous lava flow that cool
slowly resulting to broad and tall shape.
Lava Dome Volcanoes
• Height of several hundred meters.
• Diameter of more than 1,000 meters.
• Circular mound in shape.
• One vent.
• Formed gently by high viscous lava flow that cool
fast resulting to tall and circular shape.
TYPES OF ERUPTION
INTENSITY OF ERUPTION
Hawaiian Eruptions (weak)
Hawaiian eruptions are the calmest of the
eruption types. The relative volume of ejected
pyroclastic material is less than that of all other eruption
types. The hallmark of Hawaiian eruptions is steady lava
fountaining and the production of thin lava flows that
eventually build up into large, broad shield volcanoes.
Example: Eruption of Kiluea Iki (1959)
Strombolian Eruptions (moderate)
Involves moderate bursts of expanding gases
that eject clots of incandescent lava in cyclical or nearly
continuous small eruptions. It is characterized by short-
lived, explosive outbursts of pasty lava ejected a few tens
or hundreds of meters into the air.
Example: Eruption of Irazu Volcano (1965)
Vulcanian Eruptions (intermediate)
Is an intermediately violent type of explosive
eruption. During vulcanian eruptions, a relatively large
solid plug is ejected when magmatic gas pressure that
had build up beneath it overcomes the strength of the
plug.
Example: Eruption of Paricutin Volcano (1947)
Plinian Eruptions (violent)
Plinian eruptions produce huge clouds of
volcanic ash rising up from a giant cinder cone. They
typically erupt from stratovolcanoes. Plinian eruptions
can also generate pyroclastic flows reaching speeds of
700 km/h. Pyroclastic flows have been known to travel
hundreds of kilometers from an eruption site. Can turn
composite volcanoes into caldera form.
Example: Eruption of Mt. Pinatubo (1991)
PRODUCTS OF ERUPTION
• Lava Flow - are streams of molten rock that pour
or ooze from an eruption vent.
• Pyroclastic Flow - is a dense, fast-moving flow of
solidified lava pieces, volcanic ash, and hot gases.
pyroclastic flow is extremely hot, burning
anything in its path.
• Tephra - is a generic term for any airborne
pyroclastic accumulation.
• Lahar - Lahars are "mudflows", mixtures of
volcanic ash, blocks and water, formed on
volcanoes.
SAFETY MEASURE

Before the eruption:

• Always updated on the news regarding the

possible volcanic eruption.

• Prepare all the necessary items. (Flashlight with

extra batteries, First Aid kit, Emergency food,
medicine, and water, Respiratory and Eye
protection, and Battery-powered radio)

• Stay close with your family.

• Be attentive for immediate evacuation advisory

provided by the local government.

During the eruption:

• Keep updated on the current situation.

• Stay on designated evacuation center.
• Stay outside the perimeter of the eruption.
• If indoor (inside the perimeter) close all the
doors and windows with contact outside to avoid
ashes and other volcanic materials to enter.
• Wear protective gears at all time.
• Give protection to your pets.

After the eruption:

• Register yourself as safe.

• Return from the evacuation center with the
permission of the authorities.
• Keep updated on the news regarding the
eruption.
• Look out for the people injured or inside the
perimeter during the volcanic eruption.
• Volunteer in cleaning the environment
devastated.
STREAMS AND FLOODINGS STREAM EROSION

RUNNING WATER - Running water is the most important
geologic agent modifying Earth’s land surface.
Waterways erode, transport, and deposit rock and
sediment to produce landforms such as canyons, valleys,
deltas, alluvial fans, and floodplains.
Stream erosion occurs with continued water flow along
a linear feature. Flowing streams pick up and transport
weathered materials by eroding sediments from their
bank.
3 MAIN WAYS OF STREAM EROSION

STREAMS - A body of running water, confined to a HYDRAULIC

channel, that runs downhill under the influence of
gravity.
A streams headwater is where the streams originate. The
streams flows downhill and across lower elevations to its
terminus.
CHANNEL - a long, narrow depression eroded by a
stream into rock or sediment
The ability of flowing water to dislodge and transport
rock particles or sediment.
ABRASION
Process by which a stream’s irregular bed is smoothed by
the constant friction and scouring impact of fragments.
SOLUTION

FLOODPLAIN - flat valley floor composed of sediments Rocks susceptible to the chemical weathering process of
deposited by streams solution can be dissolved by acidic water of a stream.

DRAINAGE BASIN SEDIMENT LOAD TRANSPORTATION

• also called catchment area

• the total land area that contributes water to a DEFINITION
stream and its tributaries. TYPES
• the size of the drainage basin depends on the
size of the streams. The heavier, coarser-grained
• Drainage Divide - The line of highest elevation earth material that travels along
that separates one drainage to another. the bottom of the stream.
Bed Load
• Continental Divide - separates the streams that
Traction – rolling and sliding
flow into the Pacific from those that flow into the
Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico Saltation – bouncing

DRAINAGE PATTERN
Suspended The fine-grained sediment that
• A pattern created by stream erosion over time
remains in water during
that reveals characteristic of the kind of rocks Load transportation.
and geologic structures in a landscape’s region
drained by streams

• Dendritic Earth’s materials that has been

o Looks like tree branches
o Most common type of drainage pattern
o Form in V-shaped valley
• Radial
o Originates from a hill and flow in all
directions
o Develops when streams flow in different
direction from a certain peak or dome
like structure.
• Rectangular
o Developed where rock joints form
rectangular pattern
o Tributaries have frequented 90° bends
and join other streams at right angles.
• Trellis
o Originates from a hill and flow in all
directions
o Develops when primary tributaries of
main rivers flows parallel to each other
and secondary tributaries join them at
right angles.
Dissolved
dissolved into ions and carried
Load in solution.
SEDIMENT DEPOSITION
A stream’s sediment load is typically deposited,
eroded and redeposited many times in the stream
channel, especially during climatic variations such as
flooding.
Sediments are temporarily deposited along
stream course as bars and floodplain deposits, and
at/near its end as deltas or alluvial fans.
BARS
• Forms in the middle of the channel or along the
banks of streams at point where the velocity
decreases.
• Made up of gravel or sand-sized particles.
 • Braided streams - one in which the water has
lost its main channel and flows through
wandering network of rivulets around sandbars.
FLOODPLAINS
• Level strips of land on the sides of a channel that
consists of fine-grained silt and clay deposited
during episodes of flooding.
• Natural – levees that are deposited near the
edge of the channel.
• Backswamps –poorly drained and marshy areas
behind the levees.
ALLUVIAL FANS
• Large fanlike accumulations of sediment that
form where streams emerge from rugged
terrain onto a broad , flatter surface.
• Larger fans show grading from large sediments
nearest the mountains to finer sediments farther
away
DELTAS
• Sediment deposited at the mouth of a stream
usually forms a thick , roughly wedge – shaped
accumulation.
• Widest part of which is farthest from the stream
mouth.
• Distributaries – dendritic shifting channels that
spreads out across the delta from the main river
channel
MEANDER
• Gentle – curved hairpin like.
• Continuously change location as they swing back
and forth across a valley or migrate downstream
overtime.
OXBOW LAKE
• Formed when meander begins to close on itself
and the stream breaks through and bypass the
meander.
• Roughly U – shaped like.
FLOODINGS
Flooding is a temporary overflow of water onto land that
is normally dry.
Floods are the most common natural disaster in the
world. Failing to evacuate flooded areas or entering flood
waters can lead to injury or death.
CAUSES OF FLOODING
Physical
• Climatological (Heavy rainfall )
• Coastal Influences (Ocean waves coming on
shore, such as a storm surge)
• Drainage Basin (Dams or levees breaking.)
Human
• Deforestation
• Urbanization
PHYSICAL FACTOR
Climatological
It is one of the factor that affecting floods. Some
example of this are the heavy rainfall and snow melting
that naturally occurs. In Philippines, rainy days occurs
typically on June to November. Throughout the year,
there are 185 rainfall days, and 830mm (32.68") of
precipitation is accumulated.
Coastal Influences
Coastal process such as waves, tides is some of
the factors that affects flooding. An increase in
infrastructure located in coastal zones, sea level rise, and
in some cases subsidence, caused by pumping of
groundwater in deltas, which can lead to ground levels
falling by 1–4 cm/year.
Drainage basin
The permeability of the soil and rock in a
drainage basin is a big factor in flooding. If the basin’s soil
is impermeable, maybe because it has been saturated by
previous rainfall or has been baked by prolonged
heating, then any precipitation that falls won’t infiltrate
and will instead run straight into the river, increasing the
river’s discharge and triggering floods. A large drainage
basin means that the river’s catchment area is large so it
will collect a lot of water, increasing discharge. If the
basin is circular in shape, the precipitation will enter the
river at roughly the same time because all points in the
basin are equidistant from one another. This will produce
a high peak discharge and can lead to flash floods.
HUMAN FACTOR
Deforestation
Deforestation plays several roles in the flooding
equation because trees prevent sediment runoff and
forests hold and use more water than farms or
grasslands. Some rainwater stays on the leaves, and it
may evaporate directly to the air
Urbanization
Urbanisation are responsible for
• the loss of vegetation and soils. When the soils
disappear, rainwater simply rushes to the lowest
point in the topography, where it accumulates
and causes flooding.
• making drainage system, digging ditches,
ploughing of slope. Failure to do so may cause to
flooding
TYPES OF FLOOD
• Flash floods - usually characterized by raging
torrents after heavy rains that rip through river
beds, urban streets, or mountain canyons
sweeping everything before them.
• Coastal floods- When a coastal process such as
waves, tides, storm surge, or heavy rainfall from
coastal storms produces that flood, it is called a
coastal flood.
 • Urban floods -Urban flooding is the
accumulation of floodwaters that result when
the inflow of storm water exceeds the capacity
of a drainage system to infiltrate water into the
soil or to carry it away.

• River (or fluvial) floods - occurs when the water

level in a river, lake or stream rises and overflows
onto the surrounding banks, shores and
neighboring land. The water level rise could be
due to excessive rain or snowmelt.

• Ponding (or pluvial flooding) - Ponding is a type

of flooding that can happen in relatively flat
areas. Rain water falling in an area is normally
stored in the ground, in canals or lakes, or is
drained away, or pumped out. When more
rainwater enters a water system than can be
stored, or can leave the system, flooding occurs.

ADVANTAGE AND DISADVANTAGES

ADVANTAGE

• Beneficial in agricultural sector

• Bring changes to the topography

• Bring changes to physical features (such as

meanders, braided channels and oxbow lakes)

• Groundwater recharge

• Biological productivity

• Recreational opportunities

• Water quality maintenance

DISADVANTAGES

• Flood waters may carry chemicals

• Can knock down power lines
• Can destroy food supplies, homes and transport
infrastructures
• Can cause death
COASTAL ZONES and PROCESSES
Nature of the Coastline
The nature of a coastal region is determined by
a variety of factors, including tectonic setting, the
materials present at the shore, and the energy with
which water strikes the coast.
Waves are the dominant force driving the nature
of a beach. The energy carried through waves moves
beach sediment and transforms beach shape.
● The more energy, the greater the extent of
change. The amount of energy carried through a
wave can be determined by the wave structure.
Waves are characterized by their wavelength,
height, velocity, and period
Tides result from the gravitational attraction
exerted on ocean water by the Moon and the Sun.
Because the Moon is closer to Earth, it has more than
twice the gravitational effect of the distant Sun,
despite the immense size and mass of the Sun. The
motions of Earth, Moon, and Sun with respect to one
another produce semi-diurnal tides along most
coasts in which there are two lows and two highs
approximately every 24 hours.
● Tides higher than normal, known as spring tides,
occur every 14 - 17 days when the Sun and Moon
are aligned. In between these periods, lower
than normal—or neap tides—occur when the
Sun and Moon are positioned at an angle of 90°
with respect to Earth. Spring and neap tides
involve deviations of about 20% above and
below normal tidal range. When coupled with
rises in sea level, certain spring tides can cause
nuisance flooding events.
Land-derived sediment can be provided by mass
movement, especially where cliffs composed of
material susceptible to such processes are being
actively undercut. In periglacial environments, such
as the Arctic coast, gelifluction is a particularly
important means of transporting sediment into the
nearshore zone, while in other high-latitude
environments material can be supplied by glaciers.
● Nevertheless, by far the most significant source
of land derived sediment is from rivers. This
varies latitudinally, with fluvial sources being of
even greater relative importance throughout
most of the tropics where low wave energies
make marine and coastal erosion less effective.
Storms and Coastal Dynamics - Unconsolidated
materials, such as beach sand, are especially readily
moved and rapidly eroded during storms. The low air
pressure associated with a storm causes a bulge in
the water surface.
● The gently sloping expanse of beach (berm)
along the outer shore above the usual high-tide
line may suffer complete overwash, with storm
waves reaching and beginning to erode dunes or
cliffs beyond. The post-storm beach profile
typically shows landward recession of dune
crests, as well as removal of considerable
material from the zone between dunes and
water
Emergent and Submergent Coastlines
The position and height of the sea (or lake) relative
to land, that is relative sea level, determines the
location of shorelines. Though global fluctuations in
sea level may result from the growth and melting of
continental glaciers and large-scale changes in the
configuration of continental margins and ocean
floors, many regional processes result in rise or fall of
relative sea level that affect one coastline and not
another.
● These include: thermal expansion of ocean
waters, changes in meltwater load, crustal
rebound from glaciation, uplift or subsidence in
coastal areas related to various tectonic
processes (e.g., seismic disturbance and volcanic
action), fluid withdrawal, and sediment
deposition and compaction. Variations in
relative sea level also may result from geodetic
changes such as fluctuations in the angular
velocity of Earth or polar drift.
Signs of Changing Relative Sea Level - The elevation
at which water surface meets land depends on the
relative heights of land and water, either of which
can change. From a practical standpoint, it tends to
matter less to people whether global sea level is
rising or falling than whether the water is getting
higher relative to the local coast (submergent
coastline), or the reverse (emergent coastline).
Often, geologic evidence will reveal the local trend.
● A distinctive coastal feature that develops where
the land is rising and/or the water level is falling
is a set of wave-cut platforms (figure 7.10). Given
sufficient time, wave action tends to erode the
land down to the level of the water surface.
Present and Future Sea-Level Trends - Much of the
coastal erosion presently plaguing the United States
is the result of gradual but sustained global sea-level
rise, from the combination of melting of glacial ice
and expansion of the water itself as global
temperatures rise. The sea-level rise is currently
estimated at about 1̳3 meter (1 foot) per century.
While this does not sound particularly threatening,
two additional factors should be considered.
● First, many coastal areas slope very gently or are
nearly flat, so that a small rise in sea level results
in a far larger inland retreat of the shoreline (
figure 7.13 ). Rates of shoreline retreat from
rising sea level have, in fact, been measured at
several meters per year in some low-lying coastal
areas. A sea level rise of 1̳3 meter (about 1 foot)
would erode beaches by 15 to 30 meters in the
northeast, 65 to 160 meters in parts of California,
and up to 300 meters in Florida—and the
average commercial beach is only about 30
meters wide now.
Coastal Erosion and “Stabilization”
Coasts are dynamic, beaches especially so. Natural,
undeveloped beaches achieve equilibrium between
sediment addition and sediment removal.
Erosion is the process by which materials are
removed from the surface and transported to
another location, and coastal erosion is the wearing
away of land.
SHORELINE STABILIZATION APPROACHES
1. Hard Structural Stabilization - involves the
construction of solid structures
2. Soft Structural Stabilization - methods include
sand replenishment and dune rebuilding or
stabilization
3. Nonstructural Strategies
➢ Land-use Restriction - prohibiting development
or mandating minimum setback from the most
unstable or dynamic shorelines
BEACH EROSION, PROTECTION AND RESTORATION
Beachfront property owners, concerned that
their beaches will wash away, erect structures to try
to “stabilize” the beach, will generally end up further
altering the beach’s geometry.
Construction of one or more groins or jetties
- long, narrow obstacles set more or less
perpendicular to the shoreline.
Any interference with sediment-laden waters
can cause redistribution of sand along beachfronts.
A marina built out into such waters may cause some
deposition of sand around it and, perhaps, in the
protected harbor. Farther along the beach, the now
unburdened waters can more readily take on a new
sediment load of beach sand.
Breakwaters, too, though constructed primarily
to moderate wave action, may cause sediment
redistribution.
Even modifications far from the coast can affect
the beach. An example is the damming of large rivers
for flood control, power generation, or other
purposes. One consequence of the construction of
artificial reservoirs is that the sediment load carried
by the stream is trapped behind the dam.
The cutoff of sediment supply to coastal beaches
near the mouth of the stream can lead to erosion of
the sand-starved beaches.
Where beach erosion is rapid and development
is widespread, efforts have sometimes been made to
import replacement sand to maintain sizeable
beaches, or even to create them where none existed
before.
CLIFF EROSION
Cliffs are very common landscape features and
they can form near the ocean. Cliffs are usually formed
because of erosion and weathering. Erosion of sandy
cliffs may be especially rapid and removal of material at
or below the waterline undercuts the cliff, leading, in
turn, to slumping and sliding of sandy sediments and the
swift landward retreat of the shoreline.
Not all places along a shoreline are equally
vulnerable. Jutting points of land, or headlands, are more
actively under attack than recessed bays because wave
energy is concentrated on these headlands by wave
refraction.
Deflection of the waves around irregularities in
the coastline
Wave refraction occurs because waves “touch
bottom” first as they approach the projecting points,
which slows the waves down; wave motion continues
more rapidly elsewhere.
The long-term tendency is toward a rounding-
out of angular coastline features, as headlands are
eroded and sediment is deposited in the lower energy
environments of the bays.
Place some kind of barrier at the base of the cliff
to break the force of wave impact.
If the obstruction is placed only along a short
length of cliff directly below a threatened structure, the
water is likely to wash in beneath, around, and behind it,
rendering it largely ineffective.
Especially Difficult Coastal Environments
BARRIER ISLANDS - long, low, narrow islands paralleling
a coastline somewhat offshore from it
They provide important protection for the water
and shore inland from them because they constitute the
first line of defense against the fury of high surf from
storms at sea.
Barrier islands form in three ways:
From spits, From drowned dune ridges, From sand bars
Water several meters deep may wash right over
these low-lying islands during unusually high storm tides,
such as occur during hurricanes.
On barrier islands, shoreline-
stabilization efforts, building groins and breakwaters and
replenishing sand tend to be especially expensive and
frequently futile. At best, the benefits are temporary.

When coarse sands are replaced by finer

ones, softer and muddier than the original sand, the
finer material more readily stays suspended in the
water, clouding it. This is not only unsightly, but can
also be deadly to organisms.
ESTUARIES and movement along the coast, which should help in the
assessment of the likely impact of any shoreline
An estuary is a body of water along a coastline,
modifications.
open to the sea, in which the tide rises and falls and in
which fresh and saltwater meet and mix to create
brackish water.
Organic Activity
The salinity itself reflects the balance between
Organic activity such as organic weathering is a
freshwater input, usually river flow, and salt water. Any
process that break down rocks. It includes physical
modifications that alter this balance change the salinity
penetration and growth of roots and digging activities of
and can have a catastrophic impact on the organisms.
animals as well as the action of moss on minerals.
The problem with estuaries is not so much that
A variety of seashore organisms, including
natural changes in estuaries affect us but that we may be
mollusks, sponges, and sea urchins, can destroy rocks by
changing the estuaries for the worse.
physically boring into them.
For example, where land is at a premium,
Many organisms are either directly or indirectly
estuaries are frequently called on to supply more. They
responsible for the construction of some coastal
may be isolated from the sea by dikes and pumped dry
landforms. The most spectacular example of direct
or, where the land is lower, wholly or partially filled in.
construction is by corals and other carbonate-secreting
Naturally, this further restricts water flow and also
organisms that form coral reefs.
generally changes the water’s chemistry. In addition,
development may be accompanied by pollution. A range of plants are adapted to saltwater.
tropics mangroves are important element in coastal
One of the most ambitious projects involving
vegetation. Together, with other halophytic (salt-
land reclamation from the sea in an estuary is that of the
tolerant) plants, mangroves play a geomorphic role by
Zuider Zee in the Netherlands.
trapping sediment within their root systems and thereby
aid the process of deposition. Similarly, plants stabilize
coastal dune systems and contribute to sand
Recognition of Coastal Hazards
accumulation.
Observations of present conditions and on some
knowledge of the area’s history.

Coastal hazards are physical phenomena that

expose a coastal area to risk of property damage, loss of
life and environmental degradation.

The best setting for building near a beach or on an

island :

➔ relatively high elevation (5 meters or more above

normal high tide)

➔ a spot with many high dunes between the

proposed building site and the water

INFORMATION TO KNOW IN A :

LAKE

➔ short-term range of storm tide heights

➔ long-term range in lake levels

SEACOAST

➔ particular stretch of coastline was emergent or

submergent over the long term

BEACH OR CLIFF SITES

➔ rate of coastline erosion

➔ landslide potential

Storms, of course, commonly accelerate change.

Aerial photographs and newer tools such as scanning
airborne laser altimetry allow monitoring of changes and
suggest the possible magnitude of future storm damage.
Sometimes, aerial or even satellite photographs make it
possible to examine the patterns of sediment distribution
ICE AND GLACIERS
ICE
It is a solid substance produced by the freezing of water
vapour or liquid water at temperatures below 0 °C (32
°F), water vapor develops into frost at ground level and
snowflakes in clouds.
Ice is abundant on Earth’s surface particularly in the polar
regions, it is a common form of precipitation and
deposition and plays a key role in Earth’s water cycle and
climate.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF ICE
While most substances decrease in volume when
changing from the liquid state to the solid state, the
property of water is that it is less dense in the solid state
than in the liquid state. This implies that ice is lighter than
an equivalent quantity of liquid water, therefore ice
floats on water.
When water freezes its volume increases, in nature, this
process is very important : the pressure of water freezing
inside small cracks in a rock can be so great that the rock
breaks into small fragments. This process, called
cryoclastic weathering (from Greek cryo, kryos : cold and
clast, klastos : broken). It is responsible for mechanical
weathering of rocks in the high mountains, and produces
large stretches of sharp debris, which are a characteristic
feature in mountain landscapes.
ICE, MINERAL OR NOT
(A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring,
homogeneous solid, inorganically formed, with a definite
chemical composition (or range of compositions), and an
ordered atomic arrangement)
Ice is a naturally occurring compound with a defined
chemical formula and crystal structure, thus making it a
legitimate mineral. Its only limitation, in comparison to
all other minerals, is that it is not stable at room
temperature.
(but not all ice is mineral, for example, the ice that you
find in ice cubes in your drink is technically not a mineral
since minerals must be naturally occurring.)
GLACIERS
Glaciers are made up of fallen snow that, over many
years, compresses into large, thickened ice masses.
Glaciers form when snow remains in one location long
enough to transform into ice.
(Snow and glacial ice have a fair amount of void space
(porosity) that traps air. As the snow settles, compacts,
and bonds with underlying snow, the amount of void
space diminishes. When the snow gets buried by more
snow, it compacts into granular firn (or névé) with less
air and it begins to resemble ice more than snow.
Continual burial, compression, and recrystallization
make the firn more dense and ice like. Eventually, the
accumulated snow turns fully to ice.)
What makes glaciers unique is their ability to move. As
the ice accumulates, it begins to flow downward under
its own weight. Since ice melts under pressure, the ice at
the base of typical glacier is actually melting causing it to
slide down. This whole process is taking place at what we
called the plastic zone where ice no longer breaks but
rather bends or flows.
(On the other hand, Since the upper zone of the glacier is
solid and brittle, ice breaks as it moves forming large
cracks along the top of glaciers called crevasses)
CREVASSES
A crevasse is a deep crack, or fracture, found in an ice
sheet or glacier, as opposed to a crevice that forms in
rock. It lies on the brittle zone of the glaciers.
STRUCTURE OF GLACIERS
Glacial budget - describes how ice accumulates and
melts on a glacier which ultimately determines whether
a glacier advances or retreats.
The balance of accumulating ice (zone of accumulation)
is weighed against melting ice (zone of melting or zone of
ablation), and whichever is greater determines whether
the glacier will advance or retreat.
Zone of accumulation – The region near the head of the
glacier where snow is converted to firn and then ice. Here
the rate of annual snowfall is greater than the rate of
melting.
In other words, not all of the snow that falls each winter
melts during the following summer, and the ice surface
is always covered with snow.
Zone of ablation – this is where ice is lost by melting,
evaporation or calving. More ice melts than accumulates
as snow during the year
Equilibrium line
The equilibrium line (or snowline, also called the firnline)
marks the boundary between the zones of accumulation
and ablation.
TYPES OF GLACIERS
There are two general types of glaciers – alpine glaciers
and ice sheets.
Alpine glaciers form in mountainous areas either at high
elevations or near cool and wet coastal areas
1. Cirque - Cirque glaciers are named for the
bowl-like hollows they occupy, which are called
cirques. Typically, they are found high on
mountainsides and tend to be wide rather than
long.
2. Valley - Commonly originating from mountain
glaciers or icefields, these glaciers spill down
valleys, looking much like giant tongues. Valley
glaciers may be very long, often flowing down
beyond the snow line, sometimes reaching sea
level.
3. Ice Caps – an ice mass that covers less than
50,000 km2 of land. They are domes that spread
in all directions. Ice caps form primarily in polar
and sub-polar regions that are relatively flat and
high in elevation.
4. Piedmont - occur when steep valley glaciers
spill into relatively flat plains and merge at the
base of mountains, where they spread out into
bulb-like lobes.
5. Tidewater - Tidewater glaciers are valley
glaciers that flow all the way down to the ocean.
Continental glaciers are thick accumulations of ice that
occupy a large geographical area. The main ice sheets on
the earth today are located on Greenland and Antarctica.
Antartica holds the largest chunk of ice on Earth, its
western portion alone contains enough ice to raise the
sea level by more than 3 meters
GLACIAL LANDFORMS
Glaciers are moving bodies of ice that can change
entire landscapes. They sculpt mountains, carve valleys,
and move vast quantities of rock and sediment.
Landforms created by the action of glaciers are called
Glacial Landforms
Aretes
a thin, crest of rock left after two adjacent
glaciers have worn a steep ridge into the rock
Horn
results when glaciers erode three or more
arêtes, usually forming a sharp-edged peak
Cirques
concave, circular basins carved by the base of a
glacier as it erodes the landscape.
Glacial Erratic
Glaciers can pick up chunks of rocks and
transport them over long distances.
GLACIAL EROSION
Plucking - Glacial Erosion Meltwater at the base
of a glacier may work its way into cracks and
freeze. Pieces of bedrock may be worked loose
and picked up by the moving glacier in a process
is called plucking.
Abrasion - Rocks carried along at the base of the
glacier may grind and polish the bedrock
Glacial Flour – Silty powder that develops as
glaciers ground down rocks and pebbles under
them
Glacial Striation – grooves and striations caused
by rock fragments along with the moving glacier.
End moraine- A type of recessional moraine that
forms at the terminus of a glacier during glacial
recession as debris piles up long the front of the
ice. They tend to be crescent shaped.
Terminal moraine- Special type of end moraine
that marks the farthest extent of the glacier.
Recessional moraine- Deposits produced as
glaciers recede during melting
Outwash plain – region in front of a melting
glacier; typically, has braided streams
ICE AGE GLACIATION
A glaciation (or ice age) occurs when the Earth’s climate
is cold enough that large ice sheets grow on continents.
There have been four major, well documented
glaciations in Earth’s history: one during the Archean-
early Proterozoic (~2.5 billion years ago), another in late
Proterozoic (~700 million years ago), another in the
Pennsylvanian (323 to 300 million years ago), and the
most recent Pliocene-Quaternary glaciation
CAUSES OF GLACIATIONS
Cycles in the rotational axis of the Earth and in
Earth-Sun relations due to variations in the
earth’s orbit called Milankovitch Cycles.
Milankovitch Cycles are three orbital changes
that affects the angle at which sun’s energy
strikes the surface of the earth
Precession - Wobbling of Earth’s axis (with a
span of 21,000 years)
Obliquity – angle of Earth’s axis (with a span of
41,000 years)
Eccentricity – variations of the distance from the
sun in Earth’s orbit around the sun

GLACIAL DEPOSITS
Glaciers pick up rock fragments from the underlying
bedrock and from the valley walls. Glaciers carry the
debris without tumbling or sorting. The deposited debris
is called glacial till (angular, poorly sorted, and
unlayered). When till becomes lithified, it is called tillite.

Large boulders transported large distances by glaciers

are called erratics.

Moraine
-An elongate deposit of glacial hill. material left behind
by a moving glacier. This material is usually soil and rock.
Just as rivers carry along all sorts of debris and silt that
eventually builds up to form deltas, glaciers transport all
sorts of dirt and boulders that build up to form moraines.

Lateral moraine – Forms along the sides of a

valley glacier as rocks fall from the steep cliffs of
glacial valleys.
Medial moraine- Form where two tributary
glaciers come together and adjacent lateral
moraines join.