MODULE IN

GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

CE 2131

CIVIL ENGINEERING Department

SCHOOL of ENGINEERING and ARCHITECTURE
Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

   1|P a g e

 CE 2131
COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES
1. Describe and explain the role of
geology in the design and
construction process of
underground openings in rock

2. Identify the properties of

minerals using basic geologic
concepts

3. Identify and classify rock using

basic geologic classification
systems.

4. Use the geologic literature to

establish the geologic
framework needed to properly
design and construct heavy
civil work rock projects.
GEOLOGY
5. Utilize backgrounds in
FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS engineering and earth science
to provide solutions to
engineering problems within
the context of the natural world

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
   2|P a g e
 “Geology gave us the immensity of time and taught
us how little of it our own species has occupied.”
Stephen Jay Gould

COURSE OVERVIEW

Dear Future Civil Engineers,

In this course, you will learn about geology as a core component of engineering
analysis and computations. This course will enable you to understand and appreciate civil
engineering by applying

Your academic experience as Civil Engineering student will be utilized in this course.
To ensure that you will demonstrate the above cited course learning outcomes at the end
of the semester, this module is divided into the following:

MODULE 1: GEOLOGY – This aims to give you an overview of the concepts of General
Geology and its importance in civil engineering. It will enable you to describe the general
concepts on geology and understand its importance in Civil Engineering. This module
includes branches of Geology, Earth structure, Elementary knowledge in continental drift
and plate tectonics, Earth Processes, Weathering, earthquake and groundwater.

MODULE 2: MINERALOGY – This aims to give you an overview on Mineralogy. It will enable
you to Identify properties, occurrence, and formation of minerals. This module also includes
crystallography, mineral families and concepts of coals and petroleum.

MODULE 3: PETROLOGY – This aims to give you an overview on petrology. It will enable you
to Describe the properties and occurrence of the different classification of rocks.

MODULE 4: STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS – This aims to give you an
overview on physical and mechanical properties of rocks. It will enable you to Use the
geologic literature to design properly heavy civil work rock projects. This module also includes
wave theory and grouting.

MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING – This

aims to give you an overview of geological and geophysical investigation. It will enable you
to Use the different geologic techniques and methods necessary for civil engineering works.

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
   3|P a g e
 Course Facilitators

Engr Joana Marie Casandra – Obfan

Engr Sharon Lazo

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.

   4|P a g e

 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
COURSE OVERVIEW .........................................................................................................................................3
TABLE OF CONTENTS .......................................................................................................................................5
MODULE 1: GEOLOGY ....................................................................................................................................7
ENGAGE ........................................................................................................................................................7
EXPLORE.........................................................................................................................................................7
EXPLAIN ..........................................................................................................................................................7
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 23
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 36
MODULE 2: MINERALOGY ........................................................................................................................... 37
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 37
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 37
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 37
Imports: ................................................................................................................................................... 50
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 50
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 59
MODULE 3: PETROLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 60
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 60
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 60
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 60
ELABORATE................................................................................................................................................. 84
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................... 85
MODULE 4: STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS .......................................................... 86
ENGAGE ..................................................................................................................................................... 86
EXPLORE...................................................................................................................................................... 86
EXPLAIN ....................................................................................................................................................... 86
ELABORATE............................................................................................................................................... 105
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................. 106
MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL ENGINEERING......... 107
ENGAGE ................................................................................................................................................... 107
EXPLORE.................................................................................................................................................... 107

Property of and for the exclusive use of SLU. Reproduction, storing in a retrieval system, distributing, uploading or posting online, or transmitting in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise of any part of this document, without the prior written permission of SLU, is strictly prohibited.
   5|P a g e
 EXPLAIN ..................................................................................................................................................... 107
ELABORATE............................................................................................................................................... 120
EVALUATE ................................................................................................................................................. 128
CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR .................................................................................. 129

   6|P a g e

 MODULE 1: GEOLOGY

ENGAGE
What is the importance of learning Geology in the CE profession?

Differentiate the theory of continental drift and plate tectonics.

How do you think land formations are created?

Why is weathering an important factor to consider in the CE profession?

Where is water stored?

What is the importance of learning basic concepts of earthquake in CE profession?

EXPLORE
Read Module 1 (pp 7 to 35)
EXPLAIN
GEOLOGY
Science that deals with Earth’s physical structure and substance, history and the processes
that act on it
BRANCHES OF GEOLOGY
1. PHYSICAL GEOLOGY
▪ Branch of geology that deals with the present physical properties of earth
a) PETROLOGY
▪ Deals with the mode of formation, structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and
types of ROCKS
▪ Most important geology in Civil Engineering point of view

   7|P a g e

 b) MINERALOGY
▪ Deals with the formation, composition, occurrence, types, properties and uses of
MINERALS
c) STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
▪ Also known as GEOTECTONIC or TECTONIC geology
▪ The study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with respect to their
deformation history
▪ Deals with the internal structure of rocks which may result to the occurrence of faults,
joints and folds
d) GEOMORPHOLOGY
▪ The study of the physical features of the Earth’s surface and its relation to its geological
structure
▪ Deals with the development / transformation of its landforms
e) GEOPHYSICS
▪ The study of the physical properties of earth (e.g. Density, magnetism, texture, etc)
f) GEOCHEMISTRY
▪ Deals with the occurrence, distribution, mobility and abundance of elements in the
earth’s crust
2. HISTORICAL GEOLOGY
▪ branch of geology that focuses on the preserved evidence of geological events
a) STRATIGRAPHY
▪ Concerned with the order and relative position of strata and their relationship to
geological time scale
▪ Used for study of archaeological remains
b) PALEONTOLOGY
▪ Deals with the study of life of geologic past.
▪ involves the analysis of plant and animal fossils preserved in rocks
c) OCEANOGRAPHY
▪ Deals with the study of all aspects of the ocean
▪ Includes marine life and ecosystem
** ALLIED BRANCHES
▪ applies knowledge of geology in other sciences and/or field
1. ENGINEERING GEOLOGY/ GEOLOGY ENGINEERING
▪ application of geology in Civil Engineering
2. MINING GEOLOGY
▪ application of geology in Mining Engineering
3. GEOHYDROLOGY / HYDROGEOLOGY
▪ deals with groundwater movement

   8|P a g e

 EARTH STRUCTURE
STRUCTURE OF THE EARTH
▪ The structure of the Earth consists of various spherical shells or layers that can be
categorized in two manners:
a) Chemical/ Elemental compositions b) Mechanical/physical properties

Figure 1. Layers of the Earth

COMPOSITIONAL (CHEMICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH

▪ more commonly discussed layers of earth; layers are defined based on its chemical or
elemental composition

Figure 2. Compositional Layers of Earth

   9|P a g e

1. CRUST
▪ Consist of several elements
▪ 3 to 5 miles thick under the ocean and approximately 25 miles thick under the
continents

Elements in the Crust

3.6 2.6 2.1
5 oxygen,O
8.1
Silicon, Si
46.6
Aluminum, Al
Iron, Fe
Calcium, Ca
27.7 Potassium, K
Sodium, Na

Figure 2. Composition of Earth Crust

2 TYPES of CRUST
a. OCEANIC CRUST (Basaltic) 71%
▪ Composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flow; or
cools deeper down to create igneous rock gabbro
▪ Sediments coat the seafloor, thickest near the shore
b. CONTINENTAL CRUST (Granitic) 29%
▪ Made up of different types of rocks
▪ Average composition is granite which is less dense than mafic igneous rocks
oceanic crust
▪ Thicker part of the crust

2. MANTLE
▪ Layer under the crust, compromises 82% of Earth volume
▪ About 1, 800 miles deep
▪ Consist mostly of silicate rocks rich in magnesium and iron
▪ Heat causes rocks to rise
**CONDUCTION
– heat transfer through rapid collision of atoms which only happens in solid
– heat flows from warmer to cooler places until it reaches same temperature
**CONVECTION
– process of material that can move and flow and develops convection currents

   10 | P a g e
3. CORE
▪ Center of the Earth made of 85% iron metal and 15% nickel
a. Inner core
▪ Solid part of the core made of iron
▪ Has a radius of about 760 miles according to NASA
▪ Hottest layer of earth at 7000°C
b. Outer core
▪ Liquid part of the core composed of nickel-iron alloy
▪ About 1,355 miles thick
▪ Temperature at 5000°C

MECHANICAL (PHYSICAL) LAYERS OF EARTH

▪ layers of earth defined and divided based on the behaviors of the layers; corresponds
to the mechanical properties of the layers

a) LITHOSPHERE
▪ the solid, outer part of the Earth; includes the brittle upper portion of the mantle and
the crust, the outermost layers of Earth's structure
▪ bounded by the atmosphere above and the asthenosphere
▪ sometimes called the Geosphere itself
b) ASTHENOSPHERE
▪ the soft upper layer of the earth's mantle, below the lithosphere,
▪ relatively low resistance to plastic flow and convection is thought to occur.
c) MESOSPHERE:
▪ layer below the asthenosphere but above the outer core; essentially the lower
mantle.
▪ Despite high temperatures, the intense pressure in this region restricts the
movements of the molecules of the silicate material despite being under high
temperature, thus making it extremely rigid.
d) OUTER CORE
▪ extends from the bottom of the mesosphere or the lower mantle and surrounds the
inner core
▪ extreme temperature allows metals to remain in their liquid phases
▪ the only layer of the Earth that is a true liquid
▪ Strong magnetic field is caused by convection
e) INNER CORE
▪ solidity is due to the intense pressure from the upper layers
▪ Spins at different speed than the rest of the planet, which is thought to cause the
Earth’s magnetic field

   11 | P a g e
 Figure 3. Mechanical Layers of Earth

CONTINENTAL DRIFT AND PLATE TECTONICS

CONTINENTAL DRIFT

▪ developed in the early part of the 20th century, mostly by Alfred Wegener
▪ all of Earth’s continents were once part of an enormous, single landmass
called Pangaea, existed about 240 million years ago and began breaking up about 200
million years ago

Other supercontinents:
Pannotia formed about 600 million years ago
Rodinia existed more than a billion years ago.

   12 | P a g e
PLATE TECTONICS
• Scientific theory of the large-scale motion of seven(7) large plates and movements of
larger number of smaller plates
• Began between 3.3 to 3.5 B years ago
• Average tectonic plate thickness in the lithosphere is about 100 km

7 Major Tectonic Plates

❑ South American Plate (43, 600, 000 sq km)
❑ Indo-Australian Plate (58, 900,000 sq km)
❑ Antarctic Plate (60, 900, 000 sq km)
❑ African Plate (61, 300, 000sq km)
❑ Eurasian Plate (67, 800, 000 sq km)
❑ North American Plate (75, 900, 000 sq km)
❑ Pacific Plate (103, 300, 000 sq km)

TYPES OF TECTONIC PLATES

1. OCEANIC PLATES
• Made of oceanic crust; composed mostly of magnesium and silicon minerals
2. CONTINENTAL PLATES
• Made of continental crust; composed mainly of aluminum and silicon materials

BOUNDARIES OF TECTONIC PLATES

1. TRANSFORM BOUNDARY
▪ Occur between plates which move past each other by sliding
▪ Plates gets minimal damage
▪ Locations of these boundaries are called FAULTS

2. DIVERGENT BOUNDARY
▪ Plates slide apart from each other
▪ Moves in opposite directions
▪ Often occurs in seafloors, resulting to a new one
▪ volcanic activity produces a mid ocean ridge and
small earthquakes.

3. CONVERGENT BOUNDARY
▪ Plates move against each other
▪ One plate goes underneath another plate
▪ Volcanoes and mountains are formed at these boundaries

   13 | P a g e
MOVEMENT OF PLATES
Mantle convection drives plate tectonic
1. Hot mantle rises at the ridge axis,
creating new ocean crust.
2. The top of convection cell moves
horizontally away from the ridge crest
,as does the new seafloor
3. The outer limbs of the convection cells
plunge down into the deeper mantle,
dragging oceanic crust, at the deep-
sea trenches
4. The material sinks to the core and
move horizontally.
5. The material heats up and reaches the zone where It rise again.

LANDFORMS AND EARTH PROCESSES

EARTH PROCESS
- dynamic actions that occur inside the earth or on the earth’s surface
Constructive process: any process that builds earth material or landforms
e.g. erosion, transportation of sediments
Destructive process: any process that breaks down earth material or destroy
landforms
e.g. weathering, earthquakes, volcanic eruption

WEATHERING
- breakdown of rocks at earth’s surface under the influence of certain physical and
chemical agencies

FACTORS affecting Weathering:

1. nature of Rocks 2. length of time 3. climate

PROCESSES OF WEATHERING
1. DISINTEGRATION
▪ the process of breaking up of rocks into small pieces by the mechanical agencies of
physical agents
2. DECOMPOSITION
▪ the process of breaking up of mineral constituents to form new components by the
chemical actions of the physical agents
3. DENUDATION
▪ term used when the earth surface is worn away by the chemical and mechanical
actions of physical agents and the lower layers are exposed

   14 | P a g e
TYPES OF WEATHERING
1. PHYSICAL WEATHERING
- Physical breakdown of rock masses under the attack of certain atmospheric agents
- A single rock block is broken gradually into smaller irregular fragments and then into
particles smaller dimensions
- most active in cold, dry, and higher areas of the earth surface
- Temperature variations are responsible to a great extent of physical weathering

Exfoliation
- Curved plates of rock are stripped also known as onion-skin weathering
- Often results in dome-shaped hills or dome rocks
- Occurs along planes of parting called joints
- caused by unequal expansion and contraction, since some rocks are either
colder or warmer on the outer surface

** FREEZE-THAW WEATHERING
- Water enters cracks on rocks and freezes when temperature drops and melts and
seeps deeper in the crack. Process repeats until rock splits completely

2. CHEMICAL WEATHERING
- The chemical decomposition of the rock
- internal structure of mineral is altered by addition or removal of elements due to the
chemical reaction between the atmosphere and the rocks
- takes place in the presence of water which dissolves many active gases from the
atmosphere
- conditions are defined primarily by chemical composition of the rocks humidity and
the environmental surrounding the rock under attack

Spheroidal Weathering
- a form of chemical weathering, caused by penetration of water at bounding
joints/ fractures, attacking from all sides
- concentric or spherical shells of decayed rock are successively loosened and
separated from a block of rock

3. BIOLOGICAL WEATHERING
- Plants and animals can influence rocks
- Roots burrow into the rock, weakening the structure of the rock until it breaks away

   15 | P a g e
4. THERMAL STRESS WEATHERING
- sometimes known as isolation weathering
- Contributes to both physical and chemical weathering
- Temperature change is important in arid and semi-arid regions
▪ Rocks split apart into fragments when expanding and contracting due to
changes in temperature (physical)
▪ Moisture alters composition of rock minerals (chemical)
2 MAIN TYPES
▪ thermal fatigue
▪ caused by a rapid change of temperature of a certain point
▪ happen when a surface is repeatedly heated and cooled
▪ thermal shock
▪ failure occurs immediately during a single, rapidly applied thermal load

EARTH PROCESS BY WIND:

1. EROSION
a. DEFLATION
▪ Process of wind removing loose material from flat dry areas, uncemented
sediments
▪ Occurs in deserts, dry lake beds, floodplains, and glacial washout plains
b. ABRASION
▪ Scraping of rock surface by friction between rocks and moving particles

2. TRANSPORTATION
▪ The total sediment load carried by a wind can be divided into two

a. Bed load
▪ larger and heavier particles such as sands or gravels
▪ moved by the winds but not lifted more than 30 to 60 cm of the earth surface
b. Suspended load
▪ finer clay or dust particles which are lifted by the moving winds by a distance of
hundreds of meters above the earths surface

3. DEPOSITION OF SEDIMENT
- sediments get dropped and deposited forming what are known as Aeolian deposits
a. Sand dunes
- huge heaps of sand formed by the natural deposition of wind blown sand
- sometimes of characteristics and recognizable shape
- often found to migrate from one place to another due to change in the
direction and velocity of wind

   16 | P a g e
 3 Types of Sand Dunes:
Barchans or Crescent-Shape dunes
▪ most common occurrence and triangular in section
▪ steep side:
▪ facing away from the direction of wind
▪ inclined at an angle of about 30°to 33°
▪ Gentle side
▪ lies on the windward side
▪ makes an angle about 10° to15°
▪ maximum height: 335 meters; horn to horn width: 350 meters

Transverse Dunes
▪ similar to a barchan in section
▪ not curved in plan like barchans
▪ its longer axis is broadly transverse to the direction of the prevailing winds

Longitudinal Dunes
▪ elongated ridges of sand with their longer axis broadly parallel to the direction of
the prevailing wind
▪ 3 m height and 200 m long in average

b. Loess
▪ a loosely compacted yellowish-gray deposit of windblown sediment of which
extensive deposits occur

BY WATER (COASTAL PROCESSES):

1. EROSION
- wearing away of rock along the coastline
- Caused by Destructive waves on the coastline
- occurs where waves have direct contact with the rock

a. Hydraulic action - this is the sheer power of the waves as they smash against the cliff. Air
becomes trapped and compressed into cracks in the rock with explosive force causing
the rock to break apart.
b. Abrasion - this is when pebbles grind along a rock platform or cliff base much like
sandpaper. Over time the rock becomes smooth.
c. Attrition - this is when rocks that the sea is carrying knock against each other. They break
apart to become smaller and more rounded.
d. Solution - this is when sea water dissolves certain types of rocks. In the UK, chalk and
limestone cliffs (soft rock) are prone to this type of erosion.

   17 | P a g e
2. TRANSPORTATION
a. Solution - when minerals in rocks like chalk and limestone are dissolved in sea water and
then carried in solution. The load is not visible.
b. Suspension - small particles such as silts and clays are suspended in the flow of the
water.
c. Saltation - where small pieces of shingle or large sand grains are bounced along the
seabed.
d. Traction - where pebbles and larger material are rolled along the seabed.

3. MASS MOVEMENT
a. Rockfall – bits of rock fall off the cliff face, usually due to freeze-thaw weathering
b. Mudflow – saturated soil flows down a slope
c. Landslide – large blocks of rock slide downhill
d. Rotational slip – saturated soil slumps down a curved surface

4. DEPOSITION
- When the sea loses energy, it drops the material it has been carrying
- occur on coastlines that have constructive waves
Factors leading to deposition include:
• waves starting to slow down and lose • sheltered areas, eg bays
energy • little or no wind
• shallow water

GROUND WATER HYDROLOGY

the science of the occurrence, distribution, and movement of water below the surface of
the earth
GROUND WATER
▪ Also called subsurface water
▪ Water that occurs below the surface of Earth
▪ Occupies all or part of the void spaces in soils or geologic strata
▪ an important source of water supply throughout the world
▪ 0.58% of the total water resources available in nature, 22.21% fresh water part and
2.6% of reservoirs
▪ Located at 4km depth in earth’s surface
▪ used in irrigation, industries, urban and rural home continues to increase
▪ Regulated by
▪ quantum and speed of rains ▪ dryness of air
▪ extent of vaporization during rain ▪ porosity and permeability of rocks
▪ Temperature ▪ vegetative cover
▪ slope of land ▪ water absorbing capacity of soil

   18 | P a g e
ORIGIN OF GROUND WATER
1. Meteoric water:
▪ Main source of groundwater
▪ Received in the form of rain and snow through infiltration of pores, fissures and joints
2. Connate Water:
▪ Exists in pores and cavities of sedimentary rocks of seas and lakes
▪ Also called sedimentary water
3. Magmatic Water:
▪ Converts water after condensation of vapor as result of volcanic action at time of
entering hot rocks

GROUNDWATER OCCURRENCE
▪ Groundwater occurrence is controlled by geology
▪ Groundwater occurs when water recharges the subsurface through cracks and pores in
soil and rock

1. Zone of Aeration (unsaturated)

▪ Consists of interstices occupied partially by water and partially by air
▪ Soil Water zone
▪ Sub-soil zone
▪ Capillary zone
2. Zone of Saturation (saturated)
▪ All interstices are filled with water under hydrostatic pressure
▪ Extends from the upper surface of saturation down to the underlying
impermeable rock
▪ Water table (Phreatic surface) occurs if there is no overlying impermeable strata
▪ Forms the upper surface of the zone of saturation

4 Types of Geological Formations

1. Aquifers
▪ A saturated formation of earth material
▪ Stores water and yield sufficient quantity
▪ Transmits water relatively easily due to high permeability
▪ Sand and gravel form good aquifers

TYPES OF AQUIFERS
a. Unconfined Aquifer
▪ Also called water table
▪ Upper water surface is at atmospheric pressure
▪ Able to rise and fall
▪ Usually closer to earth's surface

   19 | P a g e
 b. Confined Aquifer
▪ Also known as artesian or pressure aquifers
▪ Below the land surface saturated with water
▪ Bound by impermeable layers above and below
▪ Under pressure
▪ If penetrated by a well, water rises above the top of aquifer

c. Leaky Aquifers
▪ Also called semi-confined aquifers
▪ both of Upper and lower boundaries are aquitards
▪ Or one boundary is an aquitard and the other is an aquiclude

2. Aquitard
▪ Formation through which seepage is possible
▪ Yield significant compared to an aquifer
▪ Partly permeable
▪ Appreciable quantities of water may leak to an aquifer below it

3. Aquiclude
▪ A porous but not permeable geological formation
▪ May bear water but do not yield
▪ Argillaceous rocks, clay and shale are typical examples

4. Aquifuge
▪ Neither a porous nor permeable geological formation
▪ No interconnected openings
▪ Cannot transmit or absorb water
▪ Suitable for ground water occurrence
▪ Massive granites and quartzite are typical examples

EARTHQUAKE
▪ any sudden shaking of the ground caused by the passage of seismic waves through
Earth’s rocks; occur most often along geologic faults
▪ the release of sudden and extreme energy that is caused by shifting in the Earth's crust

SEISMOLOGY
- the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the earth

   20 | P a g e
FAULTS
- narrow zones where rock masses move in relation to one another
- a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust, where compression
or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides of the
fracture
- may be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at any angle

CLASSIFICATION:
1. Normal Slip
- the crust is being pulled apart, the overlying (hanging-wall) block moves down with
respect to the lower (foot wall) block
2. Reverse Slip
- the crust is being compressed, the hanging-wall block moves up and over the
footwall block – slip on a gently inclined plane is referred to as thrust faulting
3. Strike Slip
- Crustal blocks move sideways past each other, usually along nearly-vertical faults
i. Sinistral Strike Slip
- far side moves to the left
ii. Dextral Strike Slip
- far side moves to the right
b. Oblique Slip
- involves various combinations of these basic movements

FOCUS
- exact spot underneath the earth surface at which an earthquake originates
EPICENTER
- the part of the earth's surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
INTENSITY
▪ severity of earthquake shaking
▪ based on actual effects produced by the quakes on the earth
MAGNITUDE
▪ quantitative measure of the size of the earthquake at its source
▪ based on the total energy released
MODIFIED MERCALLI INTENSITY SCALE
▪ measures the intensity of an earthquake by observing its effect on people, the
environment and the earth’s surface
▪ labels an earthquake from I to XII depending on the effects of the earthquake
RICHTER MAGNITUDE SCALE
▪ measures the energy released by an earthquake using a seismograph
▪ assigns earthquakes a number between 1 and 10 in order of increasing intensity

   21 | P a g e
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE
1. DUE TO SUPERFICIAL MOVEMENTS:
- feeble earthquakes are caused due to superficial movements
- dashing waves cause vibrations along the seashore
- Water descending along high waterfalls, impinges the valley floor and causes
vibrations along the neighboring areas
- At high altitudes the snow falling is an avalanche
2. DUE TO VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS:
- Volcanic eruptions cause feeble tremors in the surface of the earth
- cause a severe vibration on the adjoining area and have really disastrous effects
3. DUE TO FOLDING OR FAULTING:
- caused due to folding of the layers of the earth’s crust
- are more disastrous and are known as tectonic earthquakes
- directly or indirectly change the structural features of the earth crust

CLASSIFICATIONS OF EARTHQUAKE
a) BASED ON DEPTH OF FOCUS:
▪ SHALLOW
▪ Lies anywhere up to 50 km below surface
▪ INTERMEDIATE
▪ Originates 50km to 300 km below the surface
▪ DEEP SEATED

b) BASED ON CAUSE OF ORIGIN

▪ TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
▪ Due to relative movements of crystal block on faulting
▪ NON-TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES
▪ Due to volcanic eruptions or landslides

c) BASED ON INTENSITY
▪ Initially given by Rossi and Ferel (Scale 1-10)
▪ Based on the sensation of people and damage caused
▪ Later modified by Mercalli and later by Wood and Neumann

   22 | P a g e
ELABORATE
Importance of Geology in Civil Engineering
✓ provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,
composition, durability, and other properties
✓ knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies helps in planning and carrying
out major civil engineering works
✓ knowledge about ground water quantity and depth of occurrence is required in
connection with water supply, irrigation, excavation and many other civil engineering
works
✓ foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly concerned with the
geology of the area where they are to be built
✓ Helps greatly in interpreting drilling data for foundation works
✓ the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very necessary in tunneling,
road construction, canals, docks and in determining stability of cuts and slopes
✓ natural formation of soil materials is necessary in soil mechanics
✓ a detailed geological report which is accompanied by geological maps and
sections, is prepared prior major engineering projects
✓ stability of civil engineering structure is considerably increased if the geological
feature like faults, joints, bedding planes, folding solution channels etc. in the rock
beds are properly located and suitably treated
✓ Planning and design, and cost and safety depends on soil conditions

PLATE TECTONICS

   23 | P a g e
 FORMATIONS DUE TO MOVEMENTS OF PLATE TECTONICS

❖ PACIFIC RING OF FIRE

Most ocean trenches circle the Pacific in the
"Ring of Fire," which also includes active
volcanoes and earthquake zones.
(National Geographic)

❖ MARIANA TRENCH: result of convergent

boundary between the Pacific and Mariana
Plates (Pacific moves underneath Mariana)

❖ PUERTO RICO TRENCH, the deepest

spot in the Atlantic Ocean, is
created where the oceanic crust of
the North American plate (carrying
the western Atlantic Ocean) is being
subducted beneath the oceanic
crust of the smaller Caribbean plate

❖ HIMALAYA MOUNTAIN RANGE: result of

convergent boundary between the Eurasian
and Indian Plates

   24 | P a g e
❖ The ALPS in New Zealand are fold mountains
created as the tiny Adriatic microplate
rotates clockwise against the Eurasian plate
to the north.

❖ the Nazca plate is subducting beneath the

South American plate, resulting in the ANDES
MOUNTAINS

❖ JUAN DE FUCA RIDGE: a mid-ocean

spreading center and divergent
plate boundary that separates
the Pacific Plate to the west and
the Juan de Fuca Plate to the east.

❖ Iceland: where the MID-ATLANTIC RIDGE separates the

North American and Eurasian plate

   25 | P a g e
❖ The EAST PACIFIC RISE is a mid-oceanic ridge,
a divergent tectonic plate
boundary located along the floor of
the Pacific Ocean. It separates the Pacific
Plate to the west from (north to south)
the North American Plate, the Rivera Plate,
the Cocos Plate, the Nazca Plate, and
the Antarctic Plate.

❖ the Arabian, Indian, and African plates are

drifting apart, forming the GREAT RIFT VALLEY in
Africa. The Dead Sea fills the rift with seawater

❖ the ALEUTIAN ISLANDS along the pacific is an

island arc formed by overriding of the North
American plate on the Pacific plate.

❖ The Ryukyu Islands, also known as the Nansei Islands

or the Ryukyu Arc. An island arc formed by the Uruma
fluctuation – earth’s crust movement that occurs
along with the formation of the Ryukyu Islands. Since
its formation, the islands have repeated uplifting and
sinking.

   26 | P a g e
 LANDFORMS AND EARTH PROCESSES
EROSION

   27 | P a g e
TRANSPORTATION

COASTAL PROCESSES: MASS MOVEMENT

   28 | P a g e
RIVER PROCESSES

DEPOSITION
SAND DUNES

   29 | P a g e
LOESS

CHEMICAL WEATHERING

   30 | P a g e
PHYSICAL WEATHERING

EXFOLIATION WEATHERING

   31 | P a g e
SPHEROIDAL WEATHERING

   32 | P a g e
ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE OF WEATHERING
❖ selection of suitable quarry for the extraction of stones for structural and decorative
purposes
❖ weathering always causes a loss in the strength of the rocks or soil
❖ For a construction engineer it is always necessary to see:
❖ the extent the area under consideration for a proposed project has been
affected by weathering
❖ the possible effects of weathering processes typical of the area on the
construction materials

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION FOR EARTH PROCESSES:

❖ In general, no site is selected for any type of important work on the moving dunes
because such dunes are always a source of trouble
❖ moving dunes damage certain important works
❖ IF compelled to select such a site, special methods should be adopted to check
the motion of the moving dunes

TYPES OF GEOLOGICAL FORMATIONS AND AQUIFERS

   33 | P a g e
EARTHQUAKE FAULTS
✓ Sierra Nevada Fault in California, United
Statescasued 1872 Lone Pine Earthquake
of M 7.4 – 8.3

✓ Sparta Fault in Greece caused M7.2 Sparta

Earthquake in 464BC

✓ Independence Valley Fault system in

Nevada United States caused 2008 Wells
earthquake – M6.0
✓ Glarust Thrust in Switzerland exist during
Cenozoic Period
✓ Kern Canyon Fault in Sierra Nevada,
California is a thrust fault
✓ Seattle Fault in Washington is an active
thrust Fault
✓ San Andreas Fault, , had a maximum
movement of 6 metres (20 feet) during the
1906 San Francisco earthquake is a 1300km
Dextral strike-slip fault
✓ North Anatolian Fault, during the İzmit
earthquake of 1999, moved more than 2.5
metres (8.1 feet) is a Dextral Strike Slip Fault
✓ Palu-Koro Fault in Indonesia is a 500km
Sinistral strike-slip fault caused M7.5
Sulawesi Earthquake in 2018
✓ Septentrional-Orient Fault Zone is an active
Sinistral strike-slip fault in the Caribbean.
1842 Earthquake in Cap Haitien(M8.1)
✓ Marikina Valley Fault System : Dextral Strike
Slip

✓ 1855 Wairarapa Fault rupture, combination

of reverse and dextral movement.

   34 | P a g e
MERCALLI AND RICHTER SCALE:

ENGINEERING CONSIDERATION FOR EARTHQUAKE

▪ time and intensity of the earthquake can never be predicted
▪ Remedy is to provide additional factors in the design of structure to minimize the losses
due to shocks of an earthquake
▪ collect sufficient data, regarding the previous seismic activity in the area
▪ assess the losses, which are likely to take place in furniture due to earthquake
shocks
▪ provide factors of safety, to stop or minimize the loss due to sever earth shocks

PRECAUTIONS to make building earthquake resilient

✓ foundation should rest on a firm rock bed
✓ Grillage foundations preferably be provided
✓ Excavation of foundation must be up to same level throughout the building
✓ concrete should be laid in rich mortar and continuous
✓ Masonry must be in max 1:4 cement mortar ratio
✓ R.C slab, cantilevers, projections, parapets, domes should be provided
✓ All parts of building must be tied firmly with each other
✓ Building should be uniform height
✓ Best materials should be used.

   35 | P a g e
EVALUATE

Tectonic Plates: Make a research on the tectonic plates found in Asia.

1. You are required to submit a geological map identifying the different plates.
2. Include an information sheet about details of the plates.
a. Location
b. Area
c. Evolution
d. Other important information
3. Provide the references at the end of your research.
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can
use any appropriate font, but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken
like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s
presentation.

Earthquake: Make a presentation about the different fault lines in the Philippines.

1. You are required to submit a geological map identifying the different fault lines
2. Include an information sheet about details:
a. Location
b. Length
c. Movement
d. Other important information
3. Provide the references at the end of your research.
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can
use any appropriate font, but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken
like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s
presentation.

   36 | P a g e
 MODULE 2: MINERALOGY

ENGAGE
In your own opinion, how are minerals formed?

Why is it important for CE students to understand the qualities of minerals?

What are the most common minerals found in CE construction materials?

Discuss fossil fuels.

EXPLORE
Read Module 2 (pp37 -58)
EXPLAIN

MINERALOGY
Scientific study of minerals, Structure (chemical and crystalline),Properties (physical),
Processes (origin, formation & occurrence), Classification and distribution, and uses

MINERALS
- This are naturally occurring, inorganic, solid element or compound crystalline
substance, has definite atomic structure and chemical composition
- over 4000 Minerals exist in earth crust
- All are composed of oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, potassium, sodium and
magnesium

   37 | P a g e
 CLASSIFICATIONS AND MINERAL GROUPS
▪ ROCK FORMING MINERALS
▪ Minerals found in abundance of earth crust
▪ forms igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rocks
▪ ORE FORMING MINERALS
▪ Minerals that are of economic values
▪ limited mode of occurrence
▪ formed by more unusual processes
MINERAL GROUP ANIONS Exception

OXIDES O2- Carbon, sulphur and silicate

SULPHIDES S-2

SULPHATES SO4–2

HALIDES Halogens (F, Cl, Br, etc)

CARBONATES CO3–2 complex

PHOSPHATES PO4–3 complex

SILICATES Si: O2 Combination of silicon and oxygen

Si:O4

NATIVE MINERALS Single elements

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

1. COLOR
- Not constant in most of the minerals
- Due to the stain or impurities in the minerals
- May indicate that mineral has undergone peculiar phenomena
PLAY OF COLORS:
- Development of series of prismatic colors by turning about in light
CHANGE OF COLORS:
- Similar to play of colors but slower rotation
IRIDESCENE:
- Show rainbow colors either in the interior or on the surface

1. STREAK
- Color of mineral powder
- Nearly constant than the color
- Determined by marking unglazed porcelain or simply by scratching with a knife and
observing the powder color

   38 | P a g e
2. LUSTRE
- Description of how much a mineral reflects light
a. METALLIC(SHINY)
i. Classy (vitreous) – like broken glass
ii. Metallic – like metal
iii. Pearly – like pearls
b. NONMETALLIC (DULL)
3. STRUCTURE AND FORM (HABIT)
- Denote the shape and form of minerals
➢ PRISMATIC ➢ HOPPER
– elongated in one direction like prism – edges are fully developed but
➢ TABULAR interior spaces are not filled; hollow
– tabular or plate like shape ➢ PLUMOSE
➢ EQUANT – fine, feathery scales resembling
– possess approximately same side plumes
length in exery direction ➢ BLADED:
➢ FOLIATED – blade like structure, elongated, flat
– thin sheets, flakes, or scales crystals like knife blades
➢ FIBROUS ➢ RADIATED:
– crystal aggregates resembling long, – fibrous diverging from central points
slender needles, hair or threadlike fibers ➢ LAMELLAR:
➢ RETICULATED – made of separable plates; feathery
– aggregate of crystals forming a or delicate aggregates
network or lattice ➢ COLLOFORM – Spherical, rounded or
➢ STELLATED bulbous shape
– composed of branches which radiate ➢ BOTRYOIDAL:
star like from a central point – an aggregate-like bunch of grapes
➢ DENDRITIC or globular
– divergent branching and treelike ➢ RENIFORM:
mineral growth – kidney shaped aggregate
➢ COLUMNAR or STALACTITIC: ➢ MAMILLARY
– thick or thin column-like structure; – display soft, rounded curves
➢ Micaceous: ➢ STRIATED:
- thin, flat sheets or flakes that easily - display shallow parallel grooves or
peels or split off a larger mass lines along flat crystal faces
➢ ACICULAR – contains many long , ➢ GRANULAR:
slender crystals which may radiate like – Densely packed grains
needles or bristles from common base; ➢ MASSIVE:
long narrow like pine leaf – No definite shape for minerals; large
➢ FILIFORM – exhibits many hair like or and lumpy
threadlike filaments

   39 | P a g e
4. HARDNESS
- Resistance of minerals to abrasion or scratching
- Measured relative to a scale of ten of minerals

5. SPECIFIC GRAVITY
- the density of the mineral compared to the density of water
- metallic minerals have high SG, non-metallic minerals have lower SG

Mohs Hardness Scale Specific Gravity of Common Minerals

6. CLEAVAGE
- tendency of a crystallized mineral to break along certain definite planes yielding
more or less smooth surfaces
- cubic : 3cleavages - Dodecahedral: 6cleavage
- octahedral: 4 cleavages - Basal: 1 cleavage

7. FRACTURE
- defined as the appearance of its broken surface
a. CONCHOIDAL: concentric rings or curved surface
b. EVEN: smooth and flat
c. UNEVEN: irregular surface
d. SPLINTERY: breaks with a rough

8. TENACITY
- Behavior of mineral when deformed or broken
SECTILITY: Minerals may be cut with a knife
MALLEABILITY: The mineral may be pounded out into thin sheets
BRITTLENESS: The mineral breaks or powders easily
ELASTICITY: Regains former shape as pressure is released
DUCTILITY: Mineral may be drawn into a wire; tough as well
PLASTICITY: Mineral will not go back to original position when released

   40 | P a g e
 CRYSTALLOGRAPHY AND CRYSTALLINE SYSTEMS
CRYSTALLOGRAPHY
- the science concerned with the formation, properties, and structure of crystals
- deals with the geometric forms of crystals
MINERAL CRYSTAL SYSTEM
- also called Mineral Habits
- refers to the way crystals form within a specific mineral
e.g. Diamond: two pyramids attached at their bases
Quartz: has six sides
CRYSTAL FORMS:
▪ internal atomic arrangement of mineral manifested outwardly by development of
geometrical shapes or crystal characters
3 TYPES OF CRYSTAL FORM
Crystallized
▪ mineral occurs in the form of well-defined crystals
Amorphous
▪ shows absolutely no signs or evidence of crystallization
Crystalline
▪ well-defined crystals are absent but a tendency towards crystallization is present

SYMMETRY AND LATTICES

SYMMETRY
▪ Describes the repetition of structural features
2 GENERAL TYPES:
Translational
▪ Periodic repetition of structural feature across a length or through an area or
volume
Point
▪ Periodic repetition of structural feature at a point
▪ Reflection, rotation, and inversion are examples of point symmetry
LATTICES
▪ Directly related to translational symmetry
▪ A network or array composed of single motif that has been translated and repeated at
fixed intervals throughout the space
▪ Bravais Lattice
▪ There are only fourteen (14) different lattices that may be formed in a 3D space
▪ Divided into six (6) crystal systems
▪ Has three (3) types:
▪ Primitive
▪ Face centered
▪ Body-centered

   41 | P a g e
CRYSTAL SYSTEMS
- All minerals form crystals in one of the systems and are defined by a combination of three
factors:
1. Number of axis 2. Length of axis 3. Angles the axes meet
- Axis A is usually the shortest, while C is the longest axis

   42 | P a g e
CRYSTAL FORMS
▪ Set of faces that are geometrically equivalent and whose spatial positions are related to
one another according to symmetry
▪ Each crystal systems may obtain different crystal forms
▪ Types of Crystal forms:
▪ Monohedron ▪ Prism ▪ Scalenohedron
▪ Parallelohedron ▪ Pyramid ▪ Rhombhohedron
▪ Dihedron ▪ Dipyramid ▪ Tetrahedron
▪ Disphenoid ▪ Trapezohedron

MINERAL FAMILIES
QUARTZ FAMILY

▪ German “quarz” meaning uncertain origin

▪ Word crystal was originally used only for quartz
▪ An important rock forming mineral next to feldspar
▪ A non – metallic refractory mineral – have high melting points
▪ Member of the SILICATE mineral group

CHEMISTRY: COMPOSITION:
▪ Chemical Formula: SiO2 ▪ Silicon: 46.74%
▪ Molecular Weight: 60.08 g ▪ Oxygen: 53.26%

FORMATION:
▪ Formed by crystallization of silica-rich molten rock (magma)
▪ Formed in pegmatites during and after pneumatolytic processes (metamorphic
process due to hot vapors)
▪ Grow in hot watery solutions ( hydrothermal environments) between 100C to
450C, often at very high pressure

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Hexagonal ▪ HARDNESS: 7
▪ HABIT: Crystalline or Armophous ▪ TENACITY: Brittle
▪ CLEAVAGE: indistinct ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.6 – 2.7
▪ FRACTURE: Conchoidal ▪ STREAK: White
▪ COLOR: Pure - Colorless, Colored - ▪ TRANSPARENCY: Transparent/ Semi-
indicate impurities transparent/Opaque
▪ LUSTER: vitreous
POLYMORPHIC TRANSFORMATION: Quartz, tridymite, cristobalite, moganite, coesite, keatite
OCCURRENCE: Mostly found in igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks
USE: used in the glassmaking industry

   43 | P a g e
FELDSPAR FAMILY

▪ Came from German word “feldspat” meaning a rock that does

not contain a core
▪ Most abundant of all minerals
▪ Composes more than 50% of the earth’s crust by weight
▪ Non- metallic and silicate

▪ Chemical Formula:
▪ Plagioclase: Na Al Si3O8
▪ Potassium Feldspar (Alkali Feldspar): K Al Si3O8
(or Soda-lime Feldspar) Ca Al2 Si2O8

OCCURRENCE: crystallize from magma as both intrusive and extrusive igneous rocks and
are also present in many types of metamorphic rock; also found in many types of
sedimentary rocks
USE: a common raw material used in glassmaking, ceramics, and to some extent as a filler
and extender in paint, plastics, and rubber; alumina from feldspar improves product
hardness, durability, and resistance to chemical corrosion. In ceramics, the alkalis in
feldspar act as a flux, lowering the melting temperature of a mixture. consumed in
glassmaking, including glass containers and glass fiber

PLAGIOCLASE PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Triclinic
▪ HABIT: Tabular (Crystalline)
▪ CLEAVAGE:
Perfect – 2Directional
▪ FRACTURE: Conchoidal
▪ COLOR: white to dark gray
▪ STREAK: white
▪ LUSTER:
Vitreous usually pearly
▪ HARDNESS: 6 - 6.5
▪ TENACITY: brittle
▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.6 – 2.8
▪ TRANSPARENCY:
translucent to transparent

ORTHOCLASE: PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

• CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Monoclinic
• CRYSTAL HABIT:
• CLEAVAGE: perfect
• FRACTURE:
Uneven, Conchoidal
• COLOR: Colourless, greenish,
member of the alkali greyish yellow, white, pink
feldspar series • STREAK: White
• LUSTER: Vitreous, pearly
• HARDNESS: 6
• Tenacity: Brittle
• SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.55–
2.63
• TRANSPARENCY:
Translucent to transparent

   44 | P a g e
PYROXENE GROUP

▪ An important group of rock forming minerals

▪ occur in dark colored igneous and metamorphic rocks
▪ Rich in calcium, magnesium, iron and silicates
▪ Show a single chain structure of silicate

▪ Classified into
▪ ORTHOPYROXENE ▪ CLINOPYROXENE
▪ Enstatite: Mg SiO3 ▪ Augite: (Ca,Na)(Mg,Fe,Al)(Al,Si)2O6
▪ Hyperthene: (Mg, Fe) SiO3 ▪ Diopside: Ca Mg Si2O6
▪ Hedenbergite: Ca Fe Si2O6
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: PYROXENE - AUGITE
▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Monoclinic ▪ LUSTER: Vitreous (cleavage and crystal
▪ HABIT: Crystalline surface); dull (on other surface)
▪ CLEAVAGE: Good (prismatic) ▪ HARDNESS: 5.5 – 6.0
▪ FRACTURE: Conchoidal ▪ TENACITY: brittle
▪ COLOR: Greyish green and black ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.2 – 3.6 (Medium)
▪ STREAK: white ▪ TRANSPARENCY: Translucent/Opaque

OCCURRENCE: Occurs in ferro magnesium mineral of igneous rock

For AUGITE: commonly occurs in mafic and intermediate igneous rocks such as basalt,
`gabbro, andesite, and diorite

HORNBLENDE

•Principal component of • The general formula:

amphibole (Ca,Na)2–3(Mg,Fe,Al)5(Al,Si)8O22(OH,F)2
•A Complex inosilicate series
of minerals
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Monoclinic ▪ HARDNESS: 5 - 6
▪ HABIT: Hexagonal, granular ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.9
▪ CLEAVAGE: imperfect ▪ STREAK: colorless, white to pale gray
▪ FRACTURE: uneven ▪ TRANSPARENCY:
▪ COLOR: black, Dark Green to Brown Translucent/ Opaque
▪ LUSTER: Vitreous to dull
OCCURRENCE: common constituent of many igneous and metamorphic rocks such as
granite, syenite, diorite, gabbro, basalt, andesite, gneiss, and schist
USE: crushed hornblende is used for highway construction and as railroad ballast; cut
hornblende is use as dimension stone

   45 | P a g e
MICA GROUP
▪ Form sheet like structure
▪ Can be split into very thin sheets along one direction
▪ Rich in Aluminum and magnesium
▪ Occupy 4% of earth’s crust

MICA – BIOTITE
▪ Group of black mica • COLOR:
minerals
▪ Chemical Composition:
K(Mg, Fe)3(Al Si3)O10(F, OH)2 • HARDNESS: 2.5 – 3.0
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES: • SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
• CRYSTAL SYSTEM: 2.7 – 3.4
Monoclinic • TENACITY:
• HABIT: • brittle to flexible, elastic
• Prismatic, massive to platy • STREAK:
• CLEAVAGE: Basal, Perfect • white to grey, flakes
• FRACTURE: micaceous produced
• TRANSPARENCY:
• dark brown to black, white Transparent/ Translucent
• LUSTER: Vitreous to pearly

OCCURRENCE: Found mostly in igneous and metamorphic rocks

USE: used extensively to constrain ages of rocks, by either potassium-argon dating or argon–
argon dating; useful in assessing temperature histories of metamorphic rocks

MICA – MUSCOVITE
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM:
Monoclinic
▪ HABIT: Massive, Platy
▪ CLEAVAGE: Perfect
▪ FRACTURE: Micaceous
▪ COLOR:
▪ most common mineral of black or brown (thick)
the mica family colorless with tint of yellow,
▪ chemical composition: brown or rose (thin)
▪ KAl2(Si3AlO10)(OH)2
▪ LUSTER: Pearly to Vitreous
▪ HARDNESS: 2.5 – 3.0
▪ TENACITY: Elastic
▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY:
▪ 2.8 – 2.9
▪ STREAK:
▪ white, often sheds flakes
▪ TRANSPARENCY:
Transparent/ Translucent

OCCURRENCE: present in igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks

▪ Formed during regional metamorphosis o argillaceous rocks
USES:
Used chiefly as an insulating material in the manufacture of electrical apparatus
Used as a transparent material, isinglass, for stove doors, lanterns, etc.

   46 | P a g e
CALCITE

▪ A rock forming mineral

▪ Considered an “ubiquitous mineral” – found everywhere
▪ A principal constituent of limestone and marble
▪ Serves as one of the largest carbon repositories on Earth
▪ Chemical Formula: CaCO3

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Hexagonal ▪ LUSTER: Vitreous
▪ HABIT: Rhombohedral 3D ▪ HARDNESS: 3.0
▪ CLEAVAGE: Perfect ▪ TENACITY: brittle
▪ FRACTURE: Conchoidal ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 2.7
▪ COLOR: ▪ STREAK: white
usually white, colorless, grey, red, ▪ TRANSPARENCY: Transparent to
green, blue, yellow, brown, orange Translucent

OCCURRENCE: occurs in major rock-forming minerals such as limestones, marbles, and

chalks
USES: as a construction material, abrasive, agricultural soil treatment, construction
aggregate, pigment, pharmaceutical and more

GARNET FAMILY
▪ A rock forming mineral under the Silicate Group
▪ Share common crystal structure and generalized
chemical composition
▪ Chemical Formula: X3Y2(SiO4)3
▪ X may be Calcium, Magnesium, iron or Magnesium
▪ Y may be aluminum, Iron, Manganese, vanadium
or Chromium

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
▪ CRYSTAL SYSTEM: Isometric ▪ LUSTER: Vitreous to subadamantine
▪ HABIT: Rhombic dodecahedron or ▪ HARDNESS: 6.5 – 7.5
cubic ▪ SPECIFIC GRAVITY: 3.1 – 4.3
▪ CLEAVAGE: None ▪ STREAK: white to colorless
▪ FRACTURE: conchoidal to uneven ▪ TRANSPARENCY: Transparent to
▪ COLOR: virtual all colors, rarely blue Translucent
OCCURRENCE and FORMATION: most common in metamorphic rocks. A few occur in
igneous rocks, especially granites and granitic pegmatites
USES: widely used as a gemstone; crushed garnet is used to make abrasives

   47 | P a g e
 COAL AND PETROLEUM
COAL
– a combustible sedimentary rock formed through the process “coalification”
– formed from ancient vegetation which has been consolidated between other rock strata
and transformed by the combined effects of microbial action, pressure and heat over
considerable time period
– occurs as layers or seams, ranging in thickness; composed mostly of carbon, hydrogen,
oxygen and smaller amounts of nitrogen, Sulphur and other elements; also contains water
and particles of other inorganic matter
– broadly separated into brown and black which have different thermal properties and uses

BROWN COAL (lignite)

– has low energy and high ash content
– Unsuitable for export and us used to generate electricity in power stations located
at or near the mine
BLACK COAL
– Harder than brown coal and has higher energy content
▪ Thermal (steaming) coal
▪ Used mainly for generating electricity in power stations where it is pulverized
and burnt to heat steam generating boilers
▪ Metallurgical (coking) coal
▪ Suitable for making coke used in production of pig iron
▪ Have low Sulphur and phosphorous contents and relatively scarce
▪ Attract higher price than thermal coals
▪ Coal reserves are discovered through explorations which involves extensive use of
geophysical surveys
▪ Mined by both surface or ‘open cut’ (opencast) and underground (deep) mining
methods depending on the local geology of deposit
▪ Underground mining – accounts 60% of world coal production
▪ Open cut mining – economic when coal seam(s) is near the surface

PETROLEUM
– called mineral oil, obtained from sedimentary rocks of earth
– an inflammable liquid composed of hydrocarbons which constitute to 90 – 95% of
petroleum, remaining are organic compounds consisting of oxygen, nitrogen, Sulphur and
races of organo-metallic compounds
CRUDE PETROLEUM – consists of mixture of hydrocarbons (solid, liquid and gaseous)
– includes compounds belonging to paraffin and some unsaturated hydrocarbons
and small proportion of benzene group

   48 | P a g e
UTILIZATION OF PETROLEUM:
- Mainly used as motive power and Utilized in transportation
- easily transported from the producing areas to the consuming areas with the help
of tankers and more conveniently, efficiently, and economically by pipelines
- emits very little smoke and leaves no ash and used up to the last drop
- provides the most important lubricating agents and is used as an important raw
material for various Petro-chemical products
Origin and Occurrence
– has an organic origin and is found in sedimentary basins, shallow depressions and in the
seas (past and present)
– Most of the oil reserves in India are associated with anticlines and fault traps in the
sedimentary rock formations of tertiary times, about 3 million years ago
– Oil and natural gas originated from animal or vegetable matter contained in shallow
marine sediments, such as sands, silts and clays deposited during the periods when land and
aquatic life was abundant in various forms, especially the minor microscopic forms of flora
and fauna
– Conditions for oil formation were favourable especially in the lower and middle Tertiary
period
– Dense forests and sea organisms flourished in the gulfs, estuaries, deltas, and the land
surrounding them during this period
– decomposition of organic matter in the sedimentary rocks has led to the formation of oil
– Note: Though oil is mainly found in sedimentary rocks, all sedimentary rocks do not
contain oil

PRE-REQUISITE CONDITIONS OF OIL RESERVOIR

(i) porosity to accommodate sufficiently large amounts of oil
(ii) permeability to discharge oil and/or gas when well has been drilled.
(iii) the porous sand beds sandstone, conglomerates of fissured limestone containing oil
should be capped by impervious beds so that oil does not dissipate by percolation in the
surrounding rocks
Reserves:
- Indian Mineral Yearbook 1982 estimated a reserve of 468 million tons of which 328 million
tons was available in Mumbai High
- In 1984, the reserves were estimated at 500 million tons
- The Indian Petroleum and Natural Gas Statistics put the total reserves of crude oil at
581.43 million tons in 1986-87
- prognosticated hydrocarbon resource base in Indian sedimentary basins including deep
water has been estimated at about 28 billion tons
- only about one-fourth of hydrocarbon reserves have been established as on 1 April 2002
- About 70 per cent of the established hydrocarbon reserves is oil and rest are gas
- recoverable hydrocarbon reserves are of the order of 2.6 billion tons

   49 | P a g e
Production:
- India was a very insignificant producer of petroleum at the time of Independence and
remained so till Mumbai High started production on a large scale
- off-shore production did not start till the mid-1970s and the entire production was
received from on-shore oil fields
- In 1980-81 about half of the production of crude oil came from on-shore fields while the
remaining half was received from the off-shore resources
- off-shore production increased at a much faster rate than the on-shore production
- about two-thirds of production of crude oil is provided by the off-shore fields for more
than two decades
Petroleum Refining:
- Oil extracted from the oil wells is in its crude form and contains many impurities
- It is refined in oil refineries before use
- after refining, various products such as kerosene, diesel, petrol, lubricants, bitumen, etc.
are obtained
- India’s first oil refinery started working way back in 1901 at Digboi in Assam, it remained
the only refinery in the whole of India for more than half a century
Imports:
- Consumption of oil and its products has always outstripped production in India
- In 1950-51, India produced only 2,700,000 tons of oil against consumption of 3,400,000
tons.
- need for oil has increased dramatically in the post-independent era as industries and
transport progressed
- imports of oil were more than three times the indigenous production.

ELABORATE

MINERAL PROPERTIES:

   50 | P a g e
   51 | P a g e
   52 | P a g e
   53 | P a g e
MINERAL SYSTEMS:
1. ISOMETRIC SYSTEM: BASIC SHAPE

2. ORTHORHOMBIC SYSTEM: BASIC SHAPE

   54 | P a g e
3. TETRAGONAL SYSTEM: BASIC SHAPE

4. MONOCLINIC SYSTEM: BASIC SHAPE

5. TRICLINIC SYSTEM BASIC SHAPE

6. HEXAGONAL SYSTEM: BASIC SHAPE

   55 | P a g e
MINERAL GROUPS:
MINERAL GROUP Common Name CHEMICAL NAME Chemical Formula

Hematite Iron Oxide Fe2O3

OXIDES Corundum Aluminum Oxide Al2O3

Frozen Water H2O

Galena Lead Sulphide PbS

SULPHIDES
Pyrite Iron Sulphide FeS2

Gypsum Calcium Sulphate CaSO4 ⋅ H2O

SULPHATES
Barite Barium Sulphate BaSO4

Fluorite Calcium Fluoride CaF2

HALIDES
Halite Sodium Chloride NaCl

Calcite Calcium Carbonate CaCO3

CARBONATES Calcium- Magnesium (Ca,Mg) CO3
Dolomite
Carbonate

Apatite Ca5(PO4)3(OH)
PHOSPHATES Hydrated Copper CuAl6 (PO4)4(OH)8
Turquoise
Aluminum Phosphate ⋅5H2O

Quartz Silicon Oxygen SiO2

Tetrahedra

Feldspar Sodium-Aluminum NaAlSi3O8

SILICATES
Silicate

Olivine Iron or magnesium (Mg, Fe)2SiO4

Silicate

Gold Au

Diamond Carbon C

NATIVE MINERALS Graphite Carbon C

Sulphur S

Copper Cu

   56 | P a g e
MINERAL FAMILIES:

   57 | P a g e
   58 | P a g e
EVALUATE
Research on the different uses of the various mineral families.
Here are guide questions to help you proceed with the presentation:
a) How do the minerals look like?
b) How are they used in daily life?
c) Are they used in engineering activities?
1. Provide the references at the end of your research.
2. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
3. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can
use any appropriate font but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken
like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s
presentation.
Write an essay about the following: Which properties are the most helpful in identifying
minerals. Are these properties helpful in the field of engineering?
1. Your essay should be within 400 to 500 words.
2. If you find it necessary to add some images, you are allowed.
3. Follow the proper essay format:
i. Introduction
ii. First body paragraph
iii. Second body paragraph… and so on
iv. Conclusion
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files. Use 1 inch margin all around, Arial 12 justified. and
place your name in the header. Provide your code of honesty at the end of your
submittal.

   59 | P a g e
 MODULE 3: PETROLOGY

ENGAGE
How are rocks formed?

Where do you think rock come from?

What do you think is the best rock for concrete aggregates? Explain your opinion.

When doing finishing works, which rock is more preferred – granite or marble?

EXPLORE
Read Module 3 (pp60 – 85)
EXPLAIN

PETROLOGY
From Greek “petra” meaning rock and “logos” study
A branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution, and structure of rocks
LITHOLOGY
▪ Specialization of petrology that focuses on macroscopic hand sample or outcrop scale
description of rocks
PETROGRAPHY
▪ Specialty that deals with microscopic details of rocks
PETROGENESIS
▪ A branch of petrology dealing with the origin and formation of rocks (involves a
combination of mineralogical, chemical, and field data).
BRANCHES OF PETROLOGY
1. IGNEOUS PETROLOGY
- Focuses on the composition and texture of igneous rocks such as granite or basal
2. SEDIMENTARY PETROLOGY
- Focuses on the composition and texture of sedimentary rocks such as sandstone, shale,
or limestone

   60 | P a g e
3. METAMORPHIC PETROLOGY
- Focuses on composition and texture of metamorphic rocks such as slate, marble, gneiss
or schist
4. EXPERIMENTAL PETROLOGY
- Employs high pressure, high temperature apparatus to investigate geochemistry and
phase relations of natural or synthetic materials at elevated pressures and temperature

METHODOLOGY:
- Utilizes classical fields of mineralogy, petrography, optical mineralogy and chemical
analyses to describe composition and texture of rocks
- Modern petrologist include principles of geochemistry and geophysics through studies of
geochemical trends and cycles and use the thermodynamics data and experiments to
better understand the origins of rocks

IGNEOUS PETROLOGY
IGNEOUS ROCK
any crystalline or glassy rock that forms from cooling of a magma
CONDITIONS FOR ORIGINAL MATERIAL
very high temperature and at molten state

COMPOSITION:
1. Igneous rocks are formed both from magma and lava
2. hot molten material occurring naturally below the Earth surface is called magma
3. Magma erupted through volcanoes is called lava
4. Magma is actually a hypothetical melt
5. Lava is a material that has poured out occasionally from volcanoes in many regions
of the world again and again
6. Magma or lava from which igneous rocks are formed may not be entirely a pure
melt: it may have a crystalline or solid fraction and also a gaseous fraction thoroughly
mixed with it
7. Solid and gaseous fractions form only a small part of the magma or lava, which are
predominantly made up of liquid material igneous rock.

DIFFERENCE IN MOLECULAR CONCENTRATION

o Magma is reach in molecules of particular mineral it has better chance to grow into big
crystals which may be embedded in fine-grained mass resulting from deficient
components

RELATIVE INSOLUBILITY

   61 | P a g e
o Crystal grains get enlarged whereas crystals of other soluble contents get mixed up again
with magma
o Soluble contents make up the ground mass crystallizing toward the end

CHANGE IN PHYSICO-CHEMICAL CONDITIONS

o Abrupt and discontinuous changes in textures result in formation of unequal crystal
dimensions
o Magma crystallizing at great depths may produce well-defined large crystals
o When same magma moves upward, pressure and temperature acting on it is greatly
reduced
o Crystallization in the upper levels of magma becomes very rapid resulting in fine-grained
matrix containing the larger crystals formed earlier

CHARACTERISTICS OF MAGMA:
➢ Types of Magma are determined by chemical composition of the magma
%Wt of Fe, Mg, Ca K, Na GAS TEMP, VISCOSITY
TYPE
SiO2 composition Composition CONTENT °C Pa-sec

BASALTIC 1000 – 3
45 – 55 High Low Low 10 – 10
MAGMA 1200

ANDESITIC 3 5
55 – 65 Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate 800 – 1000 10 – 10
MAGMA

RHYOLITIC 5 9
65 – 75 Low High High 650 – 800 10 – 10
MAGMA

CLASSIFICATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

Igneous rocks are classified into two main categories:

1. based on the proportion of silica as main constituent

2. based on the basis of solidification of magma

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SILICA

The content of silica (as SiO2) in igneous rocks varies from over 80% to about 40% and
results in some. These were considered to be 'salts' of silicic acids.

1. ACIDIC ROCKS
• Igneous rocks having high percentage of silica (more than 2/3).

   62 | P a g e
 • They are compositionally rick in silica, alumina and alkalis, but are poor in calcium,
magnesium and iron.
• They are composed of quartz, alkali feldspar and muscovite mica- representing the
late stage of crystallization of magma.
• These rocks are light in color and weight.

2. BASIC ROCKS
Igneous rocks which contain relatively low percentage of silica (generally less than
50%)
These rocks are dark in color and heavier than acidic rocks.

CLASSIFICATION ON THE BASIS OF SOLIDIFICATION OF MAGMA

a. VOLCANIC ROCKS
▪ Also called extrusive rocks
▪ Formed on Earth’s surface by cooling and crystallization of lava
▪ grain size of crystals formed in these rocks is very fine, often microscopic

   63 | P a g e
 ▪ cooling of lava may take place on the surface or even under waters of seas and
oceans
b. PLUTONIC ROCKS
▪ Also called intrusive rocks
▪ Formed beneath the Earth’s surface, generally 7 – 10 km deep
▪ Coarse grained due to slow cooling rate
▪ These rocks get exposed on the surface of the earth as a result of erosion of the
overlying strata
▪ Examples: Granites, Syenites, and Gabbros
c. HYPABBYSAL ROCKS
▪ formed at intermediate depths, generally up to 2 kms below the surface of the earth
▪ exhibit mixed characteristics of volcanic and plutonic rocks
▪ Examples: Porphyries of various compositions

TEXTURE OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

- mutual relationship of different mineralogical component in a rock
- determined by the size, shape and arrangement of components within the body of the
rock

Factors Affecting Texture

▪ Rate of cooling ▪ Fabric ▪ Dimension
▪ Degree of Crystallization ▪ Shape or form ▪ Granularity

TYPES OF TEXTURE
1. EQUIGRANULAR TEXTURE
▪ Majority of crystal components of rock are broadly equal in size
▪ Shown by granites and felsites
▪ Granitic texture
▪ either all coarse-grained or all medium-grained
▪ euhedral to subhedral outlines
▪ Felsitic texture
▪ micro granular and show perfect outlines
▪ May be described as equiangular and panidiomorphic
▪ Orthophyric texture
▪ Between granitic and felsitic textures
▪ Individual grains area fine in size but microgranular
2. INEQUIGRANULAR TEXTURE
▪ Majority of constituent minerals show marked difference in relative grain sized
▪ Classified as Porphyritic and poiklitic textures

▪ Porphyritic Texture

   64 | P a g e
 ▪ Large crystals set in finer-grained or glassy groundmass; larger crystals
(phenocryst) forms earlier in crystallization sequence
▪ Poiklitic Texture
▪ Large component crystals contain smaller crystals other than minerals within
them

3. DIRECTIVE TEXTURE
▪ Indicate result of flow of magma during formation of rocks
▪ Exhibit perfect or semi perfect parallelism of crystals in the direction of magma flow
▪ Common examples are:
▪ Trachytic
▪ Characteristic of certain feldspathic lavas recognised by parallel arrangement
of feldspar crystals
▪ Trachytoid
▪ Found in some syenites

4. INTERGROWTH TEXTURE
▪ Two or more minerals crystallize out simultaneously in a limited space resulting to
mixed up or intergrown crystals
▪ Intergrowth happens during formation of igneous rocks
▪ Common examples are
▪ Graphic Textures
▪ Most obvious and regular in between quartz and feldspar crystals
▪ Granophyric Textures
▪ Intergrowth is irregular

5. INTERGRANULAR TEXTURES
▪ Crystals formed at earlier stages may get so arranged that polygonal or trigonal
spaces are left in between them
▪ The spaces are filled subsequently during rock formation by crystalline or glassy
masses of other minerals
▪ Sometimes termed INTERSERTAL if material filling the space is GLASSY in nature

FORMS OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

▪ Factors affecting cooling of igneous rocks
▪ Structural disposition of host rock (country rock)
▪ Viscosity of magma or lava
▪ Composition of magma or lava

   65 | P a g e
 ▪ Environment in which injection of magma or eruption of lava takes place

Rate of Cooling/ Degree of Crystallization

Holocrystallline ▪ All mineral components are distinctly crystallized
▪ Also termed as phaneric
Holohyaline ▪ All components are very fine in size and glassy or non-crystalline
▪ Also termed as aphinitic
Merocrystalline ▪ Intermediate type
▪ Combination of crystallized and glassy character
Shape as seen under the microscope
Euhedral ▪ Perfectly shaped texture
Subhedral ▪ Semi-perfect shaped texture
Anhedral ▪ Totally irregular shaped texture

Granularity
Coarse-grained ▪ Average grain size is above 5mm
▪ Mineral components are easily identified by the naked eye
Medium-grained ▪ Average grain size ranges from 5mm to 1mm
▪ magnifying lens necessary for identifying mineral components
Fine-grained ▪ Average grain size is less than 1mm
▪ Identification is only possible with microscope

Fabric used to express relative grain size of different mineral

components and degree of perfection in crystal form of individual
minerals
Panidiomorphic ▪ Majority of components are fully developed shapes
Hypidiomorphic ▪ Contains crystals of all shape category
Allotriomorphic ▪ Most crystals are anhedral or irregular

Other factors involved:

DIFFUSION RATE - rate at which atoms or molecules can move through the liquid

NUCLEATION RATE OF NEW CRYSTALS - rate at which enough of the chemical constituents
can come together in one place without dissolving.
GROWTH RATE OF CRYSTALS - the rate at which new constituents can arrive at the surface of
the growing crystal; depends greatly on diffusion rate of molecules of concern
IMPORTANT IGNEOUS ROCKS

   66 | P a g e
1. PLUTON
• a deep-seated intrusion of igneous rock, a
body that made its way into pre-existing
rocks in a melted form (magma) several
kilometers underground in the Earth's crust
and then solidified
• magma cooled and crystallized very
slowly, allowing the mineral grains to grow
large and tightly interlocked — typical
of plutonic rocks.

2. BATHOLITHS
• a giant mass of intrusive igneous rock that
forms when magma collects and cools deep
in the earth’s crust without being exposed to
the surface
• usually larger than 40 square miles
• main composition is coarse grained granite
• Mostly formed inside mountain folds that have
undergone faulting as this creates spaces that
the magma can intrude into and form a new
structure after cooling

3. DIKES
• a body of rock, either sedimentary or igneous, that cuts
across the layers of its surroundings
• form in pre-existing fractures, meaning that dikes are
always younger than the body of rock that they have
intruded into.

   67 | P a g e
4. SILLS
• a tabular sheet intrusion that has intruded
between older layers of sedimentary rock,
beds of volcanic lava or tuff, or even
along the direction of foliation in
metamorphic rock.
• The term is synonymous with concordant
intrusive sheet.

5. LACOLITHS
• are mushroom-shaped bodies with a flat floor
and a domed roof. Thus, they appear to have
begun forming in the same way as sills;
however, as magma continued to intrude, it
pushed up the overlying layers rather than
continuing to spread out laterally.

6. VOLCANIC NECKS
• also called a volcanic plug or lava neck
• is a volcanic landform created when lava
hardens within a vent on an active volcano
• When forming, a plug can cause an extreme
build-up of pressure if volatile-charged magma is
trapped beneath it, and this can sometimes lead
to an explosive eruption
• If a plug is preserved, erosion may remove the
surrounding rock while the erosion-resistant plug
remains, producing a distinctive landform.

   68 | P a g e
Most Common Igneous Rocks
1. GRANITE
• a common type of intrusive (plutonic)
rocks.
• It is light color with pink to grey color.
• This rock mainly consists of quartz,
feldspar and mica.
• used as the most important building
stone for the decorative, monumental,
and architectural purposes because of
its light color.

2. GABBRO
• It is coarse grained, intrusive mafic igneous rock
which is chemically equivalent to basalt.
• It is dark in color with grey to black.
• It is used as a road material and concrete
aggregate.
• It is also used in kitchen and their countertops.
Also widely used as graveyard headstone.

3. BASALT
• Basalt is common extrusive (volcanic) rock formed
by the rapid cooling of lava.
• It is usually grey to black in color.
• It has fine-grained mineral texture.
• It is used in construction (as building blocks or in
groundwork)
• It is also used in construction of bridges, making
cobblestones, and making statues.

   69 | P a g e
 4. DOLERITE
• is mafic, holocrystalline, subvolcanic rock
• also known as diabase and has a dark brown color.
• used as crushed stone and as ornamental stone.

5. DIORITE
• an intrusive igneous rock and an extremely hard rock
• It is grey to dark grey in color. It can also be black or bluish grey.
• Its hardness is to be worked finely and take a high polish to provide a durable finished
work.
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
• are often deposited in layers, and frequently contain fossils.
• are also called secondary rocks.
• formed through the deposition and solidification of sediment, especially sediment
transported by water (rivers, lakes, and oceans), ice (glaciers), and wind.
• includes a wide variety of rocks formed by accumulation, compaction and consolidation
of sediments.
• sediments may be defined as particles produced from the decay and weathering of pre-
existing rocks or may be derived from remains of dead sea or land animals in suitable
environments
• accumulation and compaction of these sediments commonly takes place under water
or at least in the presence of water.

FORMATION
• The process of formation of sedimentary rocks is ever prevailing.
• The sediments so produced are transported to the settling basins such as sea floors
• where they are deposited, get compacted and consolidated and finally transformed
into a cohesive solid mass. That is a sedimentary rock.
• Some chemical processes especially evaporation and precipitation regularly operate
on surface of water bodies containing dissolved salts and produce solids that settle
down in those bodies.
• Sedimentary rocks are broadly grouped into three classes on the basis of their mode
of formation: Mechanically formed or Clastic Rocks; Organically formed Rocks and
Chemically formed Rocks
• The last two groups are considered as a single class and named as Non-Clastic Rocks
and Clastic (Mechanically Formed) Rocks
• A series of well-defined steps are involved in the formation of clastic rocks.

   70 | P a g e
1. DECAY AND DISINTEGRATION
• Rocks existing on the surface of the earth are exposed to decay and disintegration
by the action of natural agencies like atmosphere, water and ice on them
• The original hard and coherent rock bodies are gradually broken down into smaller
and still smaller fragments, grains and particles.
• The disintegrated, loosened material so formed and accumulated near the source is
called detritus. Hence, clastic rocks are often also called as detrital rocks

2. TRANSPORT OF SEDIMENTS
• The detritus produced from the decay and disintegration of the pre-existing rocks
forms the source of the sedimentary rocks but it has to be transported to a Suitable
place for transformation again into a rock mass.
• The wind, running water and ice in the form of glaciers are the very strong and
common agents of transport for carrying millions of tonnes of sediments and particles
from one place to another including seas and oceans.
• The winds transport the sediments from ploughed fields, the deserts and dry lands in
series of jumps (saltation) and in suspension modes.
• These loads of sediments are dropped down wherever intercepted by rains.
• The mightiest agents of transport of sediments are, of course, streams and rivers, all
terminating into lakes or seas.
• The running water bodies transport the sediment load as bed-load, suspended-load
and. dissolved load, all dumped at the settling basins.
• Ice in the form of huge moving bodies called glaciers also breaks the rocks along their
bases and sides (in valley glaciers) and dumps the same at snow lines thereby making
large volumes of the clastic load available for further transport by other agencies. It is
easy to imagine that millions of tonnes of land mass as scratched by these surface
agencies is transported to seas and oceans every year and deposited there.

3. GRADUAL DEPOSITION
• The sediments as produced through weathering and erosion are transported to
settling basins. These basins may be located in different environments such as on the
continents, along the seashores or in deep-sea environments.
• As such sedimentary rocks formed in different environments will show different
inherent characters.
• In the continental environments may be included the glacial deposits, the fluvial
deposits, the glacio-fluvial deposits and the eolian deposits, each type giving rise to
a definite type of sediment accumulation.
• In the marine deposits, some sediments may be dropped just along the seashore, or
at some shallow depth within the sea or miles away in the deep-sea environment.

   71 | P a g e
4. DIAGENESIS
• The process of transformation of loose sediments deposited in the settlement basins
to solid cohesive rock masses either under pressure or because of cementation is
collectively known as diagenesis.
• It may be achieved by either of the two methods: welding or cementation.

WELDING (compaction) is the process of compaction of the sediments accumulated in lower

layers of a basin due to the pressure exerted by the load of the overlying sediments.
• This results in squeezing out all or most of the water .from in between the sediments,
thus bringing them closer and closer and consolidating them virtually in a solid rock
mass.
• In fact the degree of packing of sediments in a sedimentary rock is broadly directly
proportional to the load of the overlying sediments.

CEMENTATION is the process by which loose grains or sediments in a settlement basin get
held together by a binding material.
• The binding material may be derived from within the accumulated particles or the
fluids that percolate through them and also evaporate or precipitate around those
particles thus binding them in a rock like mass.

CLASSIFICATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. CLASTIC ROCK (also called CHEMICALLY-FORMED ROCKS)
• “Clastic” comes from the Greek word for “broken”
• refers to fragments of rock and minerals created by weathering and erosion.
• Classified by particle size

   72 | P a g e
 2. NON-CLASTIC (or also called ORGANICALLY-FORMED ROCKS)
• These extensive water bodies sustain a great variety of animal and plant life.
• The hard parts of many sea organisms are constituted chiefly of calcium and/or
magnesium, carbonates.
• Death and decay of these organisms within the water bodies gradually results into
huge accumulations of carbonate materials, which get compacted and
consolidated in the same manner as the normal sediments.
• Lime stones are the best examples.

IMPORTANT SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

1. BRECCIA
• mechanically formed sedimentary rock classed as Rudite.
• consists of angular fragments of heterogeneous composition embedded in a fine
matrix of clayey material.
• fragments making breccia are greater than 2mm average diameter but sometimes
these may be quite big in dimensions.
• angularity of the fragments indicates that these have suffered very little or even no
transport after their disintegration from the parent rocks.
a. BASAL BRECCIA
• formed by the sea waters advancing over a coastal region covered with fragments
of chert and other similar rocks.
• advancing waters supply the fine mud, which is spread over the rock fragments and
acts as a binding material.
• Once the seawater retreats, the loose chert fragments get cemented together as
breccia rocks.

   73 | P a g e
b. FAULT BRECCIA
• This rock is also called crush-breccia. Such rocks are so named because they are
made up of angular fragments that have been produced during the process of
faulting.

C. AGGLOMERATIC BRECCIA
• It is a specific type of breccia containing angular and sub angular fragments derived
from volcanic eruptions.
• It may also contain some fused material that has been cemented together with the
solid material broken and thrown out of the craters.

`
2. CONGLOMERATES
• Clastic in nature and also belong to rudaceous group.
• consist mostly of rounded fragments of various sizes but generally above 2mm.
cemented together in clayey or ferruginous or mixed matrix.
• The roundness of gravels making the rock is a useful characteristic to differentiate it
from breccia in which the fragments are essentially angular.
• The roundness indicates that the constituent gravels have been transported to
considerable distances before their deposition and transformation into conglomerate
rock.
On the basis of the dominant grade of the constituent gravels in following three types:
• Boulder-Conglomerates (gravels> 256mm)
• Cobble-Conglomerate (gravels: 64-256 mm)
• Pebble-Conglomerate (gravels: 2-64 mm)

   74 | P a g e
On the basis of source of the gravels:

A. Basal-conglomerates
gravels derived from advancing sea-waves over subsiding land masses
B. Glacial-conglomerates
gravel making the conglomerates are distinctly of glacial origin
c. Volcanic-conglomerates
gravels are of distinct volcanic origin but have subsequently been subjected to lot of
transport resulting in their smoothening and polishing by river transport before their deposition
and compaction or cementation.

Basal-conglomerates

Volcanic-conglomerates
Glacial-conglomerates

3. SANDSTONES
• Sandstones are mechanically formed sedimentary
rocks of Arenaceous Group.
• These are mostly composed of sand grade particles
that have been compacted and consolidated
together in the form of beds in basins of sedimentation.
• The component grains of sandstones generally range
in size between 2mm and 1/16 mm. Silica in the form of
very resistant mineral QUARTZ is the dominant mineral
constituent of most sandstones.

   75 | P a g e
On the basis of their composition and the nature of the cementing material.
• Siliceous Sandstones. Silica (Si02) is the cementing material in these sandstones.
• Calcareous Sandstones. are those varieties of sandstones in which carbonates of
calcium and magnesium are the. cementing materials.
• Argillaceous Sandstones These are among the soft varieties of sandstone because
the cementing material is clay that has not much inherent strength.
• Ferruginous Sandstones As the name indicates, the cementing material is an iron
oxide compound. On the basis of mineralogical composition.
• Arkose. This is a variety of sandstone that is exceptionally rich in felspar minerals
besides the main constituent quartz.
• Greywacke. These are broadly defined as grey coloured sandstones having a
complex mineralogical composition.
• Flagstone. It is a variety of sandstone that is exceptionally rich in mica dispersed in
parallel or sub parallel layers.
• Freestone. It is a massive variety of sandstone that is rich in quartz and does not
contain bedding planes or any mica. It is compact, dense, massive and a strong rock
suitable for construction demanding high crushing strength.

4. SHALE
• is a fine-grained sedimentary rock of argillaceous
(clayey) composition.
• are generally characterized with a distinct fossility
(parting) parallel to the bedding planes and are made
up of very fine particles of silt grade and to some
extent of clay.
• Besides fossility, some shales show the laminated
structure.

5. LIMESTONES
• These are the most common sedimentary rocks
from the non-clastic-group and are composed
chiefly of carbonate of calcium with subordinate
proportions of carbonate of magnesium.
• They are formed both bio-chemically and
mechanically.

Following are common types of limestones.

• Chalk. It is the purest form of limestone characterized by fine-grained earthy texture.
The common colour of chalk is white. Some chalks may be exceptionally rich in the
remains of very small sea organisms called foraminifera.

   76 | P a g e
 • Shelly Limestone. Also called fossiliferous limestone, it has a rich assemblage of fossils
that are fully or partly preserved. When the limestone is made up entirely of fossils, it is
termed coquina.
• Argillaceous Limestone. These limestones contain clay as a significant constituent and
are clearly of allochthonous origin.
• Lithographic Limestones. These are compact massive homogeneous varieties of pure
limestones that find extensive use in litho- printing.
• Kankar. It is a common nodular or concretionary form of carbonate material formed
by evaporation of subsoil water rich in calcium carbonate just near the soil surface.
• Calc-Sinter. It is a carbonate deposit formed by precipitation from carbonate rich
spring waters.

6. DOLOMITE
• It is a carbonate rock of sedimentary origin and is
made up chiefly more than 50 percent - of the
mineral dolomite which is a double carbonate of
calcium and magnesium with a formula of
CaMg(CO3H).
• Ferrous iron is present in small proportions in some
varieties.
• Gypsum also makes appearance in some
dolomites.
• But the chief associated carbonate is that of
calcium, in the form of calcite.

7. COALS
• These may broadly be TYPES:
defined as metamorphosed
sedimentary rocks of
carbonaceous character in
which the raw material has
mostly been supplied by
plants of various groups.
• The original raw material Peat Lignite
passes through many
biomechanical

Bituminous Coals Anthracite

   77 | P a g e
8. IRON ORES OF SEDIMENTARY ORIGIN
• The iron ores form beds or layers of variable thickness
that occur interstratified with other sedimentary
rocks.
• Sedimentary iron deposits are regarded having
formed chiefly as chemical
• precipitates in the form of oxides, carbonates and
silicates from marine waters rich in corresponding
salts.
• Metasomatic replacement has also been suggested as another important process for
formation of many iron ore deposits.
• It is also suggested that certain type of bacteria play considerable role in the
precipitation of iron.

9. GYPSUM
• It is a sedimentary rock composed of the mineral of the
same name-gypsum, which has a composition of
CaSO4.2H2O.
• Its common colour is white but it may also occur in other
shades such as yellow, red or dark grey due to impurities
present in the rock.
• Gypsum is formed in nature as a result of evaporation
from sea-waters rich in sulphate salts.

METAMORPHOUS PETROLOGY
Metamorphic rocks
arise from transformation of existing rock types in a process called metamorphism
protoliths may be sedimentary rock, igneous rock or another older metamorphic rock.

Metamorphism
The change of mineral or geologic texture in pre-existing rocks occurs primarily due to
heat, pressure and the introduction of chemically active fluids changes at or just beneath
Earth’s surface due to weathering and/or diagenesis are not classified as metamorphism
typically occurs between diagenesis 200 oC and melting 850oC.

Metamorphic mineral
form only at the high temperatures and pressures associated with the process of
metamorphism known as index minerals, include laumontite, lawsonite, glaucophane,
paragonite, pyrophyllite, sillimanite, kyanite, staurolite, andalusite and some garnet.

   78 | P a g e
Migmatite
A rock at the frontier between igneous and metamorphic rocks also be known as
diatexite.

Metasomatism
chemical alteration of a rock by hydrothermal and other fluids
is open system behavior which is different from classical metamorphism which is the in-situ
mineralogical change of a rock without appreciable change in the chemistry of the rock
**Note: Metasomatism and metamorphism nearly always occur together
Metamorphic rocks started out as some other type of rock, but have been substantially
changed from their original igneous, sedimentary, or earlier metamorphic form.
Metamorphic rocks form when rocks are subjected to:
• high heat,
• high pressure,
• hot mineral-rich fluids or, more commonly, some combination of these factors.

Conditions like these are found deep within the Earth or where tectonic plates meet.
PROCESS OF METAMORPHISM
• metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead transforms them into denser,
more compact rocks
• New minerals are created either by rearrangement of mineral components or by
reactions with fluids that enter the rocks
• Pressure or temperature can even change previously metamorphosed rocks into
new types
• Metamorphic rocks are often squished, smeared out, and folded
• Despite uncomfortable conditions, metamorphic rocks do not get hot enough to
melt, or they would become igneous rocks.
Metamorphism occurs in the solid state and doesn’t include:
• Weathering • Diagenesis • Melting

Metamorphic change is slow and in the solid state.

METAMORPHISM PROCESSES that work simultaneously:

1. RECRYSTALLIZATION – minerals change size/shape

   79 | P a g e
2. PHASE CHANGE – new minerals from with same chemical formula but different crystal
structure (Example: andalusite to kyanite)

3. NEOCRYSTALLIZATION
– new minerals with changes in temperature and pressure.
– Initial minerals become unstable and change to new minerals.
• Original protolith are digested in reactions.
• Elements restructure to form new minerals.

In this way, shale can transform into garnet mica schist.

4. PRESSURE SOLUTION.
– Mineral grains partially dissolve.
– Dissolution requires small amounts of water.
– Minerals dissolve where their surfaces press together.
– Ions from the dissolution migrate in the water film.

   80 | P a g e
 5. PLASTIC DEFORMATION
– mineral grains soften and deform.
• Requires elevated temperatures.
• Rock is squeezed or sheared.
• Minerals act like plastic, changing shape without breaking.

GROUPS OF MINERALS FORMED

1. STRESS MINERALS
• The minerals, which are produced in the metamorphic rocks chiefly under
differential stress factor.
• They are characterised by flaky, platy, lamellar, flattened and Elongated forms.

2. ANTI-STRESS MINERALS
• These are metamorphic minerals produced primarily under the influence of
temperature factor.
• Such minerals are generally of a regular equidimensional outline.
Examples:
• sillimanite, olivine, cordierite and many pyroxenes

MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION
Metamorphic rocks exhibit a great variation in their mineralogical composition that
depends in most cases on
(i) the composition of the parent rock;
(ii) the type and degree of metamorphism undergone by the rock.

   81 | P a g e
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. CRYSTALLOBLASTIC
Textures which include all those textures that have been newly imposed upon the rock
during the process of metamorphism and are, therefore, essentially the product of
metamorphism.
2. PALIMPSEST (RELICT)
• Textures that include textures which were present in the parent rock and have been
retained by the rock despite metamorphic changes in other aspects.
• Among the crystalloblastic textures, Porphyroblastic and Granoblastic types are
most common. outlines) of stronger minerals.
• In the granoblastic texture, the rock is made of equidimensional recrystallized
minerals without there being any fine grained ground mass.
• Palimpsest textures are similar in essential details as in the parent rock with little or no
modifications taking place during metamorphism.
• These are described by using the term blasto as a prefix to the name of the original
texture retained by the rock.

CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks have been variously classified on the basis of:
1. texture and structure,
2. degree of metamorphism,
3. mineralogical composition and
4. mode of origin

1. FOLIATED ROCKS
• All metamorphic rocks showing development of conspicuous parallelism in their
mineralogical and structural constitution falling under the general term foliation are
grouped together as foliated rocks.
• The parallelism indicating features include slaty cleavage, schistosity and gneissose
structures
• Typical rocks included in this group are slates, phyllites, schists and gneisses of great
variety.
2. NON-FOLIATED ROCKS
• Included in this group are all those metamorphic rocks characterised with total or
nearly total absence of foliation or parallelism of mineralogical constituents.
• Typical examples of non-foliated rocks are quartzites, hornfels, marbles, amphibolites
and soapstone etc.

   82 | P a g e
IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. SLATE
• is an extremely fine-grained metamorphic rock
characterized by a slate cleavage by virtue of
which it can be readily split into thin sheets
having parallel smooth surfaces.
• USE: Slate is used locally (where available) for
construction purpose as a roofing and paving
material only.

2. SCHISTS

• are megascopically crystalline foliated metamorphic

rocks characterized by a typical schistose structure.
• The constituent flaky and platy minerals are mostly
arranged in parallel or sub parallel layers or bands.

3. GNEISS
• is a megascopically crystalline foliated
metamorphic rock characterized by
segregation of constituent minerals into layers
or bands of contrasting color, texture and
composition.
• USE: Compact, dense and massive varieties of
gneisses find applications as road stones and in
some cases as building stones.

4. QUARTZITE

• are granular metamorphic rocks composed chiefly of inter

sutured grains of quartz.
• USES: The rock is generally very hard, strong, dense and
uniformly grained.
• It finds extensive use in building and road construction.

   83 | P a g e
5. MARBLE
• is essentially a granular metamorphic rock composed chiefly
of recrystallized limestone (made of mineral calcite).
• USES: Marble is commonly used in the construction of palatial
and monumental buildings in the form of blocks, slabs,
arches and in the crushed form as chips for flooring.
• Because of its restricted occurrence and transport costs, it is
mostly used as ornamental stone in costly construction.

ELABORATE
ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE: IGNEOUS ROCKS
1. Many of igneous rocks, where available in abundance, are extensively used as
materials for construction.
2. Granites, syenites and dolerites are characterized by very high crushing strengths and
hence can be easily trusted in most of construction works.
3. Basalts and other dark colored igneous rocks, though equally strong, may not be used
in residential building but find much use as foundation and road stones.
4. The igneous rocks are typically impervious, hard and strong and form very strong
foundations for most of civil engineering projects such as dams and reservoirs.
5. They can be trusted as wall and roof rocks in tunnels of all types unless traversed by
joints. At the same time, because of their low porosity, they cannot be expected to
hold oil or groundwater reserves.
6. Some igneous rocks like peridotites and pegmatites are valuable as they may contain
many valuable minerals of much economic worth.

ENGINEERING IMPORTANCE: SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

• Sedimentary rocks cover a great part of the crust of the earth; they make up more
that 75 percent of the surface area of the land mass.
• It is with these types of rocks that an engineer has to deal with in majority of cases.
• It is, therefore, essential for a civil engineer to know as much as is possible about the
salient features of these rocks.
• He has to see, for instance, if such rocks would withstand loads under heavy
construction and also, if they could be trusted in cuts and tunnels in highway
construction and also as reservoirs.
• They are the most important rocks to act as natural reservoirs of oil and ground water
supplies.

   84 | P a g e
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
1. FORMATION. Igneous rocks are formed when magma (or molten rocks) have cooled
down and solidified. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the accumulation of other
eroded substances, while metamorphic rocks are formed when rocks change their
original shape and form due to intense heat or pressure.

2. ORIGIN. Igneous rocks are commonly found inside the Earth’s crust or mantle, while
Sedimentary rocks are usually found in water bodies (sea, oceans etc.). Metamorphic
rocks are found on the Earth’s surface.

3. IMPORTANCE. Igneous rocks can be an important source of minerals, and

Sedimentary rocks, or their bedding structure, is mostly used in civil engineering; for
the construction of housing, roads, tunnels, canals etc. Geologists study the
geological properties of metamorphic rocks, as their crystalline nature provides
valuable information about the temperatures and pressures within the Earth’s crust.
Examples of Igneous rocks include granite and basalt, while examples of Sedimentary rocks
include shale, limestone and sandstone. Common examples of metamorphic rocks are
marble, slate and quartzite.

EVALUATE
Research on the different rock formations in Baguio city.
1. Guide questions for you to proceed:
a. What are the major rock formations available in the city?
b. What does the presence of these rock formations imply?
c. What is Mirador Limestone?
d. What is Baguio formation?
Write a short essay about your opinion on the evolution of Baguio city and Northern Luzon
according to the different rock formations in the area.

1. Your essay should be within 250 to 300 words.

2. If you find it necessary to add some images, you are allowed.
3. Follow the proper essay format:
i. Introduction
ii. First body paragraph
iii. Second body paragraph
iv. Conclusion
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files. Use 1 inch margin all around, Arial 12 justified. and
place your name in the header. Provide your code of honesty at the end of your
submittal.

   85 | P a g e
 MODULE 4: STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY AND ROCK MECHANICS

ENGAGE
What is the importance of rock mechanics in the CE profession?

What is the significance of understanding the different waves in the CE profession?

What are the situations that grouting is required in a project?

EXPLORE

EXPLAIN
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
deals with the geometric relationships of rocks and geologic features in general
studies the 3D geometry from micro to macro scale of rocks to explain the deformation
processes the rocks experienced since their origination
it introduces the physical side of Geological Sciences and emphasizes:
• Geometry – shape, orientation, position, size, etc.)
• Motion – beginning and ending positions and paths of particles and bodies—
deformation or change in geometry)
• Mechanics – explanations of why the geometry and motion are as they are)
ROCK MECHANICS
theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behaviour of rock
branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the force fields of its
physical environment
BRANCHES:
a) Structural rock mechanics
concerned with the stability of engineering structures in which the material is
predominantly rock.
b) Comminution
which is concerned with the reduction of rock to small fragments by the application
of external forces as in drilling, blasting, cutting and grinding

   86 | P a g e
Scale Terms
Global:
o A scale covering almost the entire world
Regional or Provincial:
o Roughly definable; generally corresponds to a physiographic province. Taurus
Mountains, Himalayan Plato.
Macroscopic or Map Scale:
o Larger than an area one can see from a particular point on the ground.
Mesoscopic:
o An area visible from a particular point on the ground (outcrop to hand sample)
Microscopic:
o Visible with the help of an optical microscope.
Submicroscopic:
o Visible the with help of an advanced microscopic device like TEM (Transmission
electron microscopy) or SEM (scanning electron microscope)
Penetrative:
o Characterizes the entire body of the rock
Non-penetrative:
o Does not characterize the entire body of the rock (ex. a part of the body)

STRUCTURE
Primary structures:
structures that develop during the formation of the rock
represent the local conditions of the environment within which the rock forms (Davis
& Reynolds, 1996)
Ex. Bedding, ripple mark or cross bedding in sedimentary rocks
Secondary structures:
structures that develop in sedimentary or igneous rocks after lithification, and
in metamorphic rocks during or after their formation
Fundamental secondary structures are joints and shear fractures; faults, folds,
cleavage, foliations, lineations, shear zones (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).

Important Terms in Measurement

• Trend: The direction of a horizontal line specified by its bearing or azimuth.
• Bearing: The horizontal angle measured east or west from the true north or south.
• Azimuth: The horizontal angle measured clockwise from the true north.
• Strike: the trend of a horizontal line on an inclined plane. It is marked by the line
of the intersection with a horizontal plane. (Davis & Reynolds, 1996).
• Inclination: The vertical angle, measured downward from the horizontal to a
sloping plane or line.

   87 | P a g e
Fracture
a local separation or discontinuity plane in a geologic formation, such as joints or faults
very narrow zones, often thought of as surfaces, associated with discontinuities in
displacement and mechanical properties (strength or stiffness)
commonly referred to as cracks in material science and rock mechanics-oriented
literature
TYPES OF FRACTURE

shear fracture or slip surface: a fracture along which the relative movement is parallel
to the fracture
fault: more commonly restricted to discontinuities with larger offset
Distinct fracture surfaces along which rocks have been offset by movement parallel
to the fracture surface.
slip surface: used for fractures with fracture-parallel movements regardless of the
amount of displacement and is consistent with the traditional use of the term fault
Extension fractures
are fractures that show extension perpendicular to the walls
are typical for deformation under low or no confining pressure, and form at low
differential stress
the most common type of extension fracture at or near the surface of the Earth and
involve very small strains
Tensile Fractures are extension fractures that form under conditions where at least
one of the stress axes is tensile
Joints have little or no macroscopically detectable displacement, but close
examination reveals that most joints have a minute extensional displacement across
the joint surfaces
separation in rock where the amount of separation is not greater than the
displacement associated with the opening of the fracture.
Fissures: When filled with air or fluid; more open than joints, and are characteristic
of the uppermost few hundred meters of the solid crust
Veins: Mineral-filled extension fractures
Dikes: magma-filled fractures

   88 | P a g e
   89 | P a g e
Joints

   90 | P a g e
Faults
Distinct fracture surfaces along which rocks have been offset by movement parallel to
the fracture surface.

Macroscopic scale Mesocopic scale

Thrust faulting of Jurassic

sedimentary rock at Ketobe knob
along the San Rafael swell in
The San Andreas Fault
central Utah (Shortening occures;
system is a right lateral
Davis & Reynolds 1996).
strike-slip fault.

Microscopic scale

Thin section of feldspar in the

Salihli granodiorite cut by
microfaults; note bookshelf order
of feldspar fragments, (Hetzel
etal., 1995, JGSL)

   91 | P a g e
Folds
Folds are planar surfaces that are curved or bent due to external forces.
2 types:
anticline is a type of fold that is an arch-like shape and has its oldest beds at its core
syncline is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure

Anticline Syncline
Macroscopic scale Mesocopic scale

Anticlines at SandymouthBay at Cornwall

UK .(http://www.stacey.peak-
Landsatimage of large anticlines in the media.co.uk/bude-walk/)
ZagrosMountains (NASA).
Microscopic scale

Microfolds in a metamorphic rock; phyllite

from the eastern Alps of Italy

   92 | P a g e
Foliation
is any penetrative planar fabric or layering in a rock. (Marshak & Mitra, 1988)
Examples of planar fabric:

Gneiss with foliation

Foliationin folded,metamorphic rocks .
Devonian Gile Mountain Formation,
Quechee Gorge Vermoont, US. (Vermont
Geological Survey)

Lineation
Is a prefered linear alignment of elements in rocks. (Davis & Reynolds, 1996)

This photograph illustrates a pronounced and

prominent stretching lineation plunging steeply to the
north, as a rake upon the main shear foliation

   93 | P a g e
 Block diagram of mineral lineation

Shear zone
Is a general term for a relatively narrow zone with subparallel boundaries in which rocks
are more highly deformed than rocks adjacent to the zone. (Marshak &
Mitra, 1988)

Simplified model of the connection between faults, which normally form in the upper crust,
and classic ductile shear zones (Fossen, 2010, Cambridge Press).

   94 | P a g e
Symbology in structural geology
Some common symbols whose usage is well established:

   95 | P a g e
 WAVE THEORY
SEISMIC VELOCITY
Elastic energy propagates through the earth in different ways and at different speeds.
Each wave has a distinct particle motion, elastic deformation and speed of propagation.
The speed of propagation depends upon the elastic properties and the density of the
medium.

ELASTIC PROPERTIES
•used to define physical deformation experienced in response to an applied mechanical
force
•energy from initial elastic deformations are transferred to adjacent materials

Energy transfer continues as deformation propagates away from the source. Seismic waves
are used to describe the speed, direction and location of elastic deformations as they
propagate through materials.

ELASTIC DEFORMATION
implies that material returns to original volume and shape once the applied force is
removed; therefore conserves energy. Change in volume and/or shape occurs when a
mechanical force is applied. This is commonly described in terms of:
a)Stress b)Strain

STRESS
is defined as the internal reaction of the body to the external force applied to a body over
its cross-sectional area.

MAIN TYPES OF STRESS

o Normal stress- reaction perpendicular to the surface of object.
o Compressive stress - reaction due to compressive force.
o Tensile stress – reaction due to tensile force
o Shear stress – reaction in the tangential surface
Compressive Stress Tensile Stress

   96 | P a g e
 Normal Stress Shear Stress

STRAIN
is the deformation of a material under the influence of an applied stress.

• ELASTIC STRAIN. For relatively small strains, body will recover its original shape and
volume when stress is removed
• PLASTIC STRAIN. For large strain, the body deforms continuously and may even
fracture Unlike elastic strain, this type permanently alters the shape of the body.

MATERIAL ELASTIC PROPERTIES

Seismic waves cause the earth to undergo linear elastic deformation; an application of
Hooke’s Law assumes a linear relationship between stress and strain:

𝜎𝛼𝜖
LAMÉ PARAMETERS
These are two material-dependent quantities denoted byλand μ that arise instrain-
stressrelationships.
•Shear modulus (μ or G)
•Elastic modulus (λ) -(Young’s modulus, Eor Bulk modulus, K)

SHEAR MODULUS

The parameter defines resistance of object to shear.

• Sometimes referred to as the modulus of rigidity.

• When a block of material is subjected to a shear
stress, it experiences a shear strain

   97 | P a g e
ELASTIC MODULUS
Also referred to as the modulus of
incompressibility, it is the resistance of a
material to elastic compression.
• Bulk modulus, K. The ratio of volumetric
stress to the volumetric strain
• Young’s modulus, Y or E. The ratio of
linear (longitudinal) stress to the linear
(longitudinal) strain

POISSON’S RATIO

“The ratio of transverse strain to longitudinal strain due to a

longitudinal stress.”

The decrease in length could be compensated for by

decrease in pore space.

Related to all elastic moduli:

3𝐾 − 2𝐺
𝜂=
6𝐾 + 2𝐺
𝐸 = 2𝐺(1 + 𝑛)
𝐸 = 3𝐾(1 − 2𝑛)

SEISMIC WAVE VELOCITIES

They define the speed at which various elastic deformations propagate through materials. Rocks
and other materials can be characterized by their elastic properties, but seismic velocities represent
a more practical set of physical properties for seismic methods.
TYPES OF SEISMIC WAVES
1. Body waves. Seismic waves that move through the interior of earth.
a. Pressure waves (P-waves)
• Also known as Primary waves
• are compressional waves in which particle motion is in the direction of the
wave propagation
• travel faster than other seismic waves, hence they are the first signal from
earthquake to arrive at any affected location or at a seismograph
• may be transmitted through gases, liquids, or solids.

   98 | P a g e
 b. Shear waves (S-waves)
• also known as Secondary waves or elastic S-wave.
• are waves in which the particle motion is perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation

2. Surface waves. Waves that travel near the earth’s surface.

a. Rayleigh waves. They are elliptic particle motion; amplitude decreases with
depth.
• Prograde. Same direction as the propagating wave.
• Retrograde. Opposite direction as propagating wave.

b. Love waves. Particle motion is parallel to earth’s surface and perpendicular

to direction of wave propagation. Amplitude of lateral motion decreases
with depth. Travel faster than Rayleigh waves but do not travel as fast as P or
S waves.

   99 | P a g e
P-WAVE AND S-WAVE VELOCITY MEASUREMENTS

ULTRASONIC ELASTIC WAVE VELOCITY

MEASUREMENTS

To measure the P-wave ans S-wave velocities

for a given rock, a core samples is taken. The
core sample is then held in place between
two piezometric transducers.

Piezometric transducers contain materials

which contract and expand in response to
an applied voltage.

   100 | P a g e

FACTORS IMPACTING THE SEISMIC VELOCITY

A. MINERALOGY AND STRUCTURE

• Determines its bulk modulus, shear modulus and density.
o Moduli defines P-wave and S-wave velocities
• Igneous, metamorphic, carbonate and anhydrite rocks.
o Have relatively large seismic velocities
o Only deform under extreme compressional and shear stresses, therefore
characterized by larger bulk and shear moduli
• Soils and most sedimentary rocks:
o Lower seismic velocities.
o Sandstones and soils, clays have a tendency to present in load-bearing
positions.
o Seismic velocities are heavily influenced by clay content.
o Small abundancies of clays have shown to significantly reduce the seismic
velocity by reducing shear modulus.

B. POROSITY
• The most significant factor affecting seismic wave velocities.
• Seismic waves travel faster in solids compared in fluids.
• S-waves unable to propagate through fluids
• Higher porosity of substance will decrease both the P-wave and S-wave
velocities.
• Seismic wave propagation becomes less efficient when forced through a fluid.
• The pore structure also plays an important role in reducing the efficiency of
seismic wave propagation within rocks.

C. PORE FLUID AND SATURATION

o Pore fluid
o Pore fluid determines the elastic properties of the pore space.
o P-wave velocity of a rock is less impacted by porosity if the pore space is
saturated due to P-wave velocity being larger in water and oil than in air.
o Pore saturation
o P-wave and S-wave velocities increase as pore saturation increases.
o Described in a rudimentary manner using Wyllie’s equation.

D. LITHIFICATION
• Describes the geological process where unconsolidated sediments become
consolidated through compaction and cementation.
• Sediments and soils become compacted when subjected to tectonic
compression or under the weight of overlying geological units.

   101 | P a g e

 • Cementation:
o Refers to chemical fluid processes in which pore space is replaced by a
precipitate and mineral grains become fused to one another.
o Increases the incompressibility and rigidity of the sedimentary rock.
o Increases bulk and shear moduli.
o Responsible for increasing the seismic velocities.

GROUTING
• Injection of a slurry or a liquid solution into a soil or rock formation
• One of ways in which ground water can be controlled during civil engineeringworks
• Relatively costly and so wastage must be controlled
• Achieved by use of additives which improve the gelling properties of the grout and
limit its spread through the ground.

GROUTING TECHNIQUES
1. PERMEATION GROUTING
• Also known as cement grouting or pressure grouting
• Fills cracks or voids in soil and rock and permeates coarse,
granular soils with flowable particulate grouts to create a
cemented mass.
• Grout flows into soil voids freely with minimal effect.

COMMON USES:
▪ Create barriers to groundwater flow
▪ Underpin foundations
▪ Provide excavation support
▪ Stabilize and strengthen granular soils

B. DISPLACEMENT – SOIL FRACTURE GROUTING

• Also known as compensation grouting.
• Injection of a cement slurry grout, hydro-fracturing soil,
creating lenses
• The lenses compact surrounding soil and then lift the
overlying soil and structures.
• Grout rapidly penetrates into a fractured zone created
when the grout pressure is greater than tensile strength of soil
or rock.
COMMON USES:
• Re-level structures
• Stabilize overlying structures during tunneling

   102 | P a g e

C. DISPLACEMENT – COMPACTION GROUTING
• It involves the injection of a low slump, mortar grout to
densify loose, granular soils and stabilize subsurface voids or
sinkholes.
• Grout remains more or less intact as a mass and exerts
pressure on soil.
COMMON USES:
• Suitable for rubble fills, poorly placed fills, loosened or
collapsible soils, soluble rocks and liquefiable soils.
• Often selected for treatment beneath existing structures
because the columns do not require structural connection
to the foundations.
• Decrease or correct settlement
• Increase bearing capacity
• Stabilize sinkholes or reduce sinkhole potential

D. JET OR REPLACEMENT – DISPLACEMENT GROUTING

• Uses high velocity fluid jets to construct cemented soil of

varying geometries in the ground.

COMMON USES:
a. Underpin foundations such as quay walls and heavy
structures.
b. Provide excavation support.
c. Seal the bottom of planned excavations.

GROUT CHARACTERISTICS
1. GROUTABILITY
• Quality of a grout must be sufficiently fluid to enter the soil quickly
• The movement should not be too fast.
• Pumping pressure should not be large enough for particles of soil to be disturbed by
which grouting pressure is limited to 20kN/m2.
• To obtain satisfactory performance grain size distribution should be known because
it shall show the relationship between the grout particle size and the void
dimensions.

   103 | P a g e

2. STABILITY
• Capacity of grout to remain in a fluid state and not segregate into separate
components.

3. PERMANENCE
• Resistance the grout possesses against being displaced from the soil voids with time.

4. TOXICITY
• Capacity of grouts to contaminate the grout water.

5. SETTING TIME
• Time required for the grout to set into cemented mass or gel.
• Early setting causes difficulty in the grout reaching its destination.
• Late setting causes the grout being washed away if seepage is occurring through
soil.

GROUT MATERIALS
1. Suspensions.
Grout particles in suspension in a liquid medium
Cement + Water, clay, etc
2. Emulsion.
Minute droplets of liquid in suspension.
Asphalt or bitumen with water
3. Solutions.
Liquid homogenous mixture of two of more materials
Chemical grouts

TYPES OF GROUTING MATERIALS

1. Cement grouting.
Cement (or cementitious grout) is used for grouting materials with a high permeability.
Neat cement and water or a mixture of sand (4 parts to cement (1 part) is the usual
composition.

2. Bentonite grouting.
Produced from clay which has thixotropic properties – forms a highly water-resistant gel
which, when mixed with additives, can create a permanent barrier to water flow. It is
used where soil particles are too small for cement grouting, most commonly to combat
seepage in alluvial soils beneath the foundations of dams or other water-bound
structures.

   104 | P a g e

3. Chemical grouting.
Used in soils of medium to coarse grading. Materials such as sodium silicate and calcium
chloride are mixed together in liquid from and solidified into a gel. It has the advantages
of allowing economical spacing of bore holes, greater penetration of the grout, and
more flexibility in terms of the time of grouting.
MAIN PROCESSES
a. Two-shot’ process. Pipes are driven into the ground. One chemical is injected
followed by another meaning that the reaction, and soil strengthening, is rapid.
b. One-shot’ process. This involves chemical mixing prior to injection, with the
hardening being delayed by the composition. This allows for wider borehole
spacing.

4. Resin grouting.
As opposed to chemical grouts, resin grouts have a very low viscosity which are able to
penetrate find sands. The type of resin used depends on the chemical content of the
local water table and may result in different times for setting.
COMMON TYPES:
a) Tannin-based grouts
b) Phenol-formaldehyde
c) Resorcinolformaldehyde

5. Bituminous Grouting.
Serve as a suitable grouting material that ca be injected into fine sands as an
impermeable barrier to water. Soil strength will not be increased, but cut-off walls
beneath dams and other water-bound structures can be formed effectively.

ELABORATE
IMPORTANCE OF JOINTS
✓ Important in understanding the local and regional geology and geomorphology, and
development of natural resources
✓ Essential in safe design of structures and environmental protection
✓ significant part of understanding the geology and geomorphology of an area
✓ strongly influences and controls the natural circulation (hydrogeology) of fluids
✓ Vital in economic and safe development of petroleum, hydrothermal, and groundwater
resources
✓ regional and local joint systems exert a very strong control on how ore-forming fluids
✓ joints often form discontinuities that may have a large influence on the mechanical
behavior of soil and rock masses in, for example, tunnel, foundation,
or slope construction
✓ an important part of geotechnical engineering in practice and research.
Fissure: https://youtu.be/9xdAnftBKvY

   105 | P a g e

EVALUATE
Research and discuss the procedure of soil nailing and differentiate it with grouting.
1. Here are some guide questions to help you out with your presentation:
a. What is soil nailing, grouting?
b. What are the materials involved?
c. What are the situations requiring soil nailing (grouting)?
b. Provide the references at the end of your research.
c. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
d. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can
use any appropriate font but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken
like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s
presentation.

Explain: Does grouting impact the soil properties? If it does, as an engineer, how will you
prevent soil contamination with grouting?

1. Your essay should be within 250 to 300 words.

2. If you find it necessary to add some images, you are allowed.
3. Follow the proper essay format:
i. Introduction
ii. First body paragraph
iii. Second body paragraph
iv. Conclusion
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files. Use 1 inch margin all around, Arial 12 justified. and
place your name in the header. Provide your code of honesty at the end of your
submittal.

   106 | P a g e

 MODULE 5: GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING

ENGAGE
Enumerate the different methods of studying the surface and subsurface composition of
an area?

Which method yields the most accurate results?

EXPLORE
Read Module 5 (pp 107 – 128)
EXPLAIN
GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
▪ Involve simple methods of study made on the surface with the aim of ascertaining
subsurface details
▪ Measures physical properties and interpreting in terms of subsurface geology
Passive methods
▪ Which detect variations within the natural fields associated with the earth, like the
gravitational and magnetic fields, such as gravit, magnetic, some electric and some
electromagnetic methods, radioactive and geothermal methods
Active methods
▪ These artificially generated signals transmitted into the ground and then modify the
received signals in ways that are characteristic of the materials through which they
travel. Examples of these methods are seismic and some electrical methods.
▪ Generally, natural field methods (passive methods) can provide information on
earth properties to greater depths and are simpler to carry out than artificial source
methods (active methods). Moreover, the artificial source methods are capable of
producing a more detailed and better resolved picture of the subsurface geology.

APPLICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS

▪ May be applied in solving problems of regional geology
▪ locating and estimating economically important mineral deposits
▪ Locating and assessing groundwater potential and quality
▪ Problem solving in connection with geology

   107 | P a g e

CLASSIFICATION OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
GRAVITY METHOD
▪ Represent a set of geophysical methods which make use of natural gravity of field of
earth
▪ Gravity prospecting involves the measurement of variations in the gravitational field of
the earth (i.e. minute variations in the pull of gravity from rock within the first few miles of
the earth’s surface)

PHYSICAL PROPERTY:
▪ Density – controlling physical property
▪ Different types of rock have different densities and the denser rocks have the
greater gravitational attraction.
▪ If the higher–density formations are arched upward in a structural high, such as an
anticline, the earth’s gravitational field will be greater over the axis of the structure
than along its flanks.

PRINCIPLE:
▪ Nature of distribution of gravity on the surface is analyzed
▪ useful wherever the formations of interest have densities which are appreciably
different from those of surrounding formations

Instruments:
▪ gravimeter: - used in relative gravity measurement is mass loaded spring
▪ gravity instruments are designed to measure variations in the force of gravity from one
place to another than the absolute force itself

Use:
▪ It is mainly used for oil exploration. Sometimes in mineral and ground water
prospecting
▪ effective means of mapping sedimentary basins where the basement rocks have a
higher density than the sediments
▪ uitable for locating and mapping salt bodies because of the low density of salt
compared with that of surrounding formations
▪ used for direct detection of heavy minerals such as chromite

   108 | P a g e

MAGNETIC METHOD
▪ Take advantage of natural magnetic field associated with the earth and its relation to
subsurface geology
▪ deals with variations in the magnetic field of the earth which are related to changes of
structures or magnetic susceptibility in certain near surface rocks

CONTROLLING PROPERTY:
▪ Magnetic susceptibility

PRINCIPLE:
▪ Based on magnetic bodies present in earth's surface that contribute to the
magnetic field of the earth
▪ Bodies possessing different magnetic moments to surrounding rocks contribute to
deviations in measurements – magnetic anomalies
▪ Different parameters measured during magnetic investigations are total magnetic field
(intensity and direction) and different space components
▪ Magnetic surveys have inherit limitations; thus unique and accurate solutions, magnetic
prospecting is often carried out along with gravity or other methods
▪ Magnetic surveys are designed to map structure on or inside the basement rocks or to
detect magnetic mineral directly.

APPLICATION OF MAGNETIC INVESTIGATIONS

▪ For delineation of large structural forms favorable for the accumulation of oil and
gases
▪ For detection of and location of faults
▪ For locating strongly magnetic iron ores
▪ By virtue of their inexpensive nature and easy operation, magnetic method are
widely used for detection of ore deposits, geological structures
▪ In mining exploration, magnetic methods are employed for direct location of ores
containing magnetic minerals such as magnetite

ELECTRICAL METHOD
▪ Numerous and more versatile and are more popular
▪ More successful in dealing with variety of problems like groundwater studies, subsurface
structure and many others

CONTROLLING PROPERTIES:
▪ Electric conductivity
▪ Magmatic permeability
▪ Dielectric constant of subsurface bodies

   109 | P a g e

PRINCIPLE:
▪ Difference in electrical properties such as subsurface formation, structures, ore
deposits, etc are investigated suitably and exploited to draw necessary
conclusions

CATEGORIES:
▪ Electrical resistivity method
PRINCIPLE:
▪ Studies electrical resistivity (or conductivity) of subsurface formation; note that
the electrical resistivity varies for inhomogenous surface
▪ current is driven through the ground using a pair of electrodes and the resulting
distribution of the potential in the ground is mapped by using another pair of
electrodes connected to a sensitive voltmeter
▪ A resistive subsurface body, current lines move away from it and for conductive
subsurface body, current lines move towards it
Types:
▪ Profiling
▪ Used to detect lateral changes in resistivy by throwing light on the
change in subsurface lithology
▪ Sounding
▪ Used to determine vertical changes in resistivity to reveal changes in
lithology at a particular place with increasing depth
USE:
used to map boundaries between layers having different conductivities
employed in engineering geophysics to map bedrock
used in groundwater studies to determine salinity. – The induced polarization (IP)
makes use ionic exchanges on the surfaces of metallic grains (disseminated sulphides)

Other categories:
▪ Electromagnetic method
▪ detect anomalies in the inductive properties of the earth’s subsurface rocks
▪ alternating voltage is introduced into the earth by induction from transmitting
coils and the amplitude and phase shift of the induced potential generated in
the subsurface are measured by detecting coils and recorded
▪ used to detect metallic ore bodies
▪ Self – potential method
▪ used to detect the presence of certain minerals which react with electrolytes
in the earth to generate electrochemical potentials
▪ Induce polarization method

   110 | P a g e

SEISMIC METHOD
CONTROLLING PROPERTIES:
Elastic property differences

PRINCIPLE:
• Based on the principle that subsurface rock formations bear different elastic
properties
• Due to the differences, velocities of seismic wave propagation through the
subsurface layers of earth, suffer reflection or critical reflection arrive at the surface of
earth where they are detected by geophones
• the depth of various elastic boundaries can be determined from the time taken by
the waves to travel through the subsurface formation and from the seismic wave
velocities of the media
• geophones are fixed at suitable intervals on the ground, and the seismic waves reach
the surface and are recorded, time-distance curves are constructed based on the
times of their arrival
• direct waves are the first to reach the geophones, the distance beyond the point is
called the critical distance

2 TYPES of SEISMIC METHODS:

a. Seismic Reflection Method
SEISMIC REFLECTION:
• The seismic signal is reflected back to the surface at layer interfaces and is
recorded at distances less than depth of investigation.
• used to map the structure of subsurface formations by measuring the times required
for a seismic wave, generated in the earth by a near surface exploration of
dynamite, mechanical impact or vibration, to return to the surface after reflection
from interface between formations having different physical properties
• Variations in the reflection times from place to place on the surface indicate
structural features in the strata below.
• Depths to reflecting can be determined from the times using seismic velocity
information.
• Reflections from depths as great as 20,000 feet can be observed from a single
explosion, so that in most areas, geologic structures can be determined throughout
the sedimentary section
• USED TO locate and map features such as anticlines, faults, salt domes and reefs.
Many of these are associated with the accumulation of oil and gas

   111 | P a g e

 b. Seismic Refraction Method
• Effective for depths more than 100m but are not suitable for shallow exploration
• Are employed for investigating depths from close surface to several kilometer deep
• Shallow Seismic Refraction are found effective in investigation the suitability of
foundation sites for civil engineering structures
SEISMIC REFRACTION:
• The signal returns to the surface by refraction at subsurface interfaces and is
recorded at distances much greater than depth of investigation.

▪ RADIOMETRIC METHOD
CONTROLLING PROPERTY:
Natural radioactivity of rocks and ores

PRINCIPLE
Normal radioactivity varies in different types of rocks:
i.e. Igneous Rocks: decreases with decreasing acidity.
rocks that contain radioactive ore bodies will exhibit very high radioactivity giving rise
to anomalies during surveys
profile form this method clearly describes the subsurface lithology, structure and ore
body

INSTRUMENTS USED:
(i) Detector
(ii) Amplifier or recording unit
(iii) Power supply

APPLICATION:
Exploration of radioactive substances such as uranium and thorium
Location of rare minerals
Geological mapping
Exploration of oil and gas
Ground water studies

   112 | P a g e

▪ GEOTHERMAL METHOD
CONTROLLING PROPERTY:
Thermal conductivity

PRINCIPLE
▪ Temperature distribution on the surface of earth is due to three different sources:
(i) Heat received from the sun
(ii) Heat conveyed from the hot interior of earth due to conduction and convection
(iii) Heat due to decay of radioactive minerals in the earth crust
▪ Correction are applied to eliminate solar heat component and heat contribution of
radioactive mineral decay
▪ Once corrections are made, the residual values of temperature distribution on the
earth’s surface can be interpreted in terms of subsurface structures, rock formation
and ore bodies

MATERIALS/ INSTRUMENT:
Thermistors thermometers are used for measuring the temperature on the earth
surface, shallow holes or in deep bore holes
Crystal detectors and radiometers are also used

APPLICATION:
Deep structural studies
Ore deposits
Ground water studies
Delineation of salt-water freshwater interfaces

ENGINEERING GEOLOGICAL SITE INVESTIGATION

SITE INVESTIGATION AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION
▪ Process of collecting necessary information for safe and economic design,
construction and maintenance of civil engineering structures, environmental
management or extraction/development of resources

SITE INVESTIGATION AND GEOTECHNICAL INVESTIGATION

▪ SITE INVESTIGATION
▪ Information on hydrology
▪ Meteorology
▪ Environment
▪ Natural resources
▪ Activities and topography

   113 | P a g e

 ▪ GROUND INVESTIGATION
▪ Information Ground and groundwater Conditions
▪ MONITORING
▪ Time dependent change in ground movements, ground water fluctuation and
movement

PURPOSE:
Understand SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS in terms of:
▪ Soil and rock profile
▪ Geological features
▪ Position and variation of ground water table
▪ Physical properties of soil and rock
▪ Identify present contamination (if any)
▪ Gather general data of adjacent structures, hydrological data, topography,
soil maps, seismicity

THREE MAJOR PARTS OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS

1. PLANNING
▪ Obtain reliable data with minimum cost of explorations
▪ Decide on quantity and quality depending on type, size and importance of
project and whether investigation is preliminary or detained

2. EXECUTION
▪ Collection of disturbed and/or undisturbed samples of subsurface strata from field
▪ Conducting in-situ tests of subsurface material and directly or indirectly obtaining
properties
▪ Study of ground water conditions and collection of samples for chemical analysis
▪ Geophysical exploration
▪ Laboratory testing of samples

3. REPORT WRITING
▪ Description of site conditions:
▪ Topographic features, hydraulic conditions, existing structures
(supplemented by plans/drawings)
▪ Description of nature, type and importance of proposed construction
▪ Description of field and lab tests carried out
▪ Analysis and discussion of data collected information
▪ Preparation of charts, tables, and graphs
▪ Calculations and recommendations

   114 | P a g e

GENERAL OBJECTIVES of SITE INVESTIGATIONS:
❖ Assess suitability of site for proposed structure
❖ Evaluate impact of construction on existing site conditions on proposed project
❖ Anticipate what can be expected in the future (during construction and
performance of structure)
❖ Develop criteria for design and construction based specific site physical parameters
❖ Recommend corrective measures (if necessary)

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES of SITE INVESTIGATIONS:

❖ Determine depth and nature of soil/rock at site and stratification
❖ Observe drainage conditions from and into the site and G water effects
❖ Assess special construction problems with respect to existing structures nearby
❖ Identify potential geological hazards: landslides, earthquakes, flooding, volcanoes,
etc
❖ Perform some in-situ tests: permeability, bearing capacity, shear strength,
compressibility/ settlement behavior
❖ Obtain disturbed and undisturbed soil and rock samples for visual identification and
appropriate lab tests
❖ Assess quantity and quality and proximity of construction materials for proposed
project

ON-SITE and REMOTE INVESTIGATIONS

must include:
❖ Nature of immediately underlying soil and rock
❖ Geology and geological structures of project and adjacent areas
❖ Topography and vegetation
❖ Ground water situations
❖ Gullying and natural slopes
❖ Depth to bedrock
❖ Types of materials excavated and Stability of excavation
❖ Presence/ absence of toxic wastes
❖ Position of utilities and Permission to access property
❖ Influence factors of site selection/rejection
❖ Drill site to assess parameters (if necessary)

   115 | P a g e

ELEMENTS/ PHASES OF INVESTIGATION
1. Formulating investigation/stating question
• Once questions are framed the following aspects are defined:
a) Detail or amount of required information
b) Scope of investigation
c) Size of area
d) Time available (required time)
❖ Some cases may be time limited by other factors
❖ Time is a function of need of engineer, season, and location

2. Data collection (secondary or primary)

OFFICE STUDY
❖ Gathering all existing information
➢ Geology, geomorphology, hydrogeology, population, accessibility, aerial
photography
❖ Reduces time of field work if conducted properly
❖ Secondary data collection is completed
❖ Upon completion of secondary data:
➢ Available source selected
➢ Information extracted and data is organized in usable form
➢ Compared with required data and enable to give a guide to select
appropriate methods for acquiring it

SURFACE EXPLORATION
▪ Locating springs, seeps
▪ Mapping landslides
▪ Measuring structural parameters of rock outcrops
▪ Data transfer to map (end product of investigation or used for spatial distribution of
other information

SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION
▪ Direct examination by
▪ Test pits, trenches, drilling
▪ Indirect examination by
▪ Geophysical methods
▪ Data compiled in form of
▪ Geologic profiles, graphic logs, 3D representations

   116 | P a g e

 3. Data interpretation
❖ Interpretation starts with analysis of data in light of question
❖ Analysis results serve as basis for developing conclusions and recommendations
❖ Actual investigation data analysis occurs throughout data collection
❖ To avoid extraneous data or failure to collect data not initially recognized
relevant
❖ To un interpret:
❖ Understand role of measurement scales
❖ Make data manageable for analysis
❖ Apply analytical techniques

4. communication
❖ final step in an investigation
❖ answers developed by the investigation should be transferred to the user for action
o the user: individual, company manager, government board, court, etc
❖ no single way of communication is appropriate in all cases
❖ presentation the public, oral communication, written in a defined format
❖ conclusions must be supported by data and analysis
❖ confidence in the conclusion means the user must be able to see how the data
supports the conclusions
❖ assist reader or listener in understanding the findings by stating logical consequences
of conclusion (especially for less technical background)
❖ use pictures, diagrams, and other nonverbal means of communication

STAGES OS SITE INVESTIGATION

1. Initial or Preliminary/ Reconnaissance study
Involves collection of source information
Collection of data from man’s activities such as wells, quarries, mines etc
Walk over site (fieldwork)

2. Detailed Study(Site Exploration) (surface and subsurface exploration)

2 Main goals:
Determine and interpret surface and subsurface conditions that influence design and
construction project
Evaluate behaviour, characteristics and engineering significance of earth materials
present or those intended for use in construction
2 types of exploration
a) Surface
Surface information (soil and rock) understand geological process which formed
the soil and rocks (natural outcrops, river cuts, etc)

   117 | P a g e

 b) Subsurface
Know thickness of overburden/soil in the absence of exposures permitting
identification of underlying bedrock
Know uncertainty of the relation of springs and seeps to the regional groundwater
table
Identify nature of discontinuities in orientation in the subsurface

METHODS OF SUBSURFACE EXPLORATION

DIRECT METHODS
1. Drilling/Boreholes/Probes
Establish correlation between lithologic units of vertical succession
Evaluate the physical conditions of rocks such as rock quality designation
Collect samples of various rock units for laboratory tests
Carry out water pressure tests
TYPES OF BORING
a. AUGER BORINGS
Simplest method of exploration and sampling
Power driven or hand operated
Maximum depth is 10m
Suitable in all soils above groundwater table but only in cohesive soil below
groundwater table
Hollow stem augers used for sampling or conducting Standard Penetration
Test
a.1 SOLID (CONTINUOUS) FLIGHT AUGERS:
• Continuous augers added in 1.5m having a diameter varying from 102 to
204mm
• Limited to non caving soils and depths less than 10m with finger or fish tail
bit at the front end to loosen soil
• Due to limited application, continuous flight augers are generally not
suitable for use in investigations requiring soil sampling
a.2 HOLLOW STEM AUGURS (HAS)
• Are very similar to the continuous flight auger except it has a large hollow
center
• Added in 1.5m increment
• Allow soil sampling without removal
• Acts as temporary casing to stabilize borehole
• Generally limited to depths less than 30m
• Limitations:
o Cutting produces are mixed as they move up the auger flights and
are limited for visual observation purposes

   118 | P a g e

 a.3 BUCKET AUGERS BORINGS
▪ Used for obtaining large disturbed samples
▪ Diameters range from 0.60m to 1.2m
▪ Increment of 0.3m to 0.6m depths
▪ Good for gravelly soils and cobbles
▪ Swivel mounted bottom valve prevents loss of material
▪ Working below GW level possible
▪ Construction of rooted piles with belled bucket augers
▪ Typically advanced by truck-mounted drill
▪ Boring is advanced by a rotation drilling buked with cutting teeth
mounded to the bottom
▪ Drilling bucket is attached to the bottom of Kelly bat, which typically
consists of two- or four-square steel tubes assembled as one inside
another enabling the Kelly bar to telescope to the bottom of the hole

b. Rotary Drilling
Used in clay, sand and rocks
Not used for materials containing large percentage of gravel size and
larger

c. Percussion Drilling
Used for making holes in rocks, boulders and other hard strata
Advantage: used for all types of materials including drilling holes in glacial
tills
Disadvantage: material at the bottom of the hole is disturbed by heavy
blows
quite expensive than others

d. Core Drilling
used for drilling holes and obtaining rock cores
Drilling bits I rotary drilling:
drag bits for clays and loose sands
Tricon roller bits for dense coarse-grained granular soils, cemented zones
and soft or weathered rock

2. Manual Hand Auger Method

3. Hand operated Power Augers
4. Drifting
Exploratory drifts made horizontally into the ground to know the subsurface
geological conditions and to know the depth of fresh sound rock
Commonly used for dam abutment investigations

   119 | P a g e

 5. Test Pits/ Trenches
Shallow visual investigations and take sample from top few meters of soil
Economical and rapid
Excavation with hand tolls, backhoe etc
1 to 3 m deep can be extended to 6m

c. INDIRECT METHODS
Geophysical Techniques

3. Implementation
4. Post construction Stage

ELABORATE
IMPORTANCE OF GEOPHYSICAL INVESTIGATIONS
▪ solves a vast variety of problems
▪ Investigations are carried out quickly
▪ Large areas can be investigated in a reasonable short period of time
▪ Geophysical instruments used in the field are simple
▪ Portable and are operated easily
▪ Only physical observations are made
▪ Economical without use of consumable materials like chemicals
▪ Different interference suit different purposes
▪ Interferences drawn from the same field can be interpreted differently
▪ Subsurface of rock type
▪ Geological structures
▪ Groundwater conditions
▪ Ore deposits
▪ Depth of bed rock

   120 | P a g e

CLASSIFICATIONS OF GEOPHYSICAL METHODS

   121 | P a g e

   122 | P a g e
 ELECTRICAL METHOD

   123 | P a g e

 SEISMIC METHOD

   124 | P a g e

   125 | P a g e
   126 | P a g e
   127 | P a g e
What do we investigate?

EVALUATE
Enumerate 10 applications of Geophysical Methods

Research on Baguio Mineral District.

1. Guide for you to work on:
a. Why is it considered a world-class mining district?
b. What are the major minerals found?
c. What are the major mines?
2. Provide the references at the end of your research.
3. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
4. Files shall be placed in docx files, ppt or pdf. Since your creativity is graded, you can
use any appropriate font but the minimum size should be 12. This is not to be taken
like a photo album or scrapbook. Make it professional looking like an engineer’s
presentation.

Discuss the activities and the foundation of Geological Society of the Philippines.
1. Your essay should be within 250 to 300 words.
2. If you find it necessary to add some images, you are allowed.
3. Follow the proper essay format:
i. Introduction
ii. First body paragraph
iii. Second body paragraph
iv. Conclusion
4. Avoid plagiarism. Corresponding deductions will be applied.
5. Files shall be placed in docx files. Use 1 inch margin all around, Arial 12 justified. and
place your name in the header. Provide your code of honesty at the end of your
submittal.

   128 | P a g e

 CONTACT INFORMATION OF THE FACILITATOR

CIVIL /GEODETIC ENGINEERING

Engr. Joana Marie F. Casandra - Obfan
FB account/messenger:
E-mails: jmcobfan@slu.edu.ph

Engr Sharon Lazo

FB account/messenger:
E-mails: sknlazo@slu.edu.ph

   129 | P a g e