GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

III. PETROLOGY ROCKS – an Earth Materials

 Petro “rock” and logos “study”  naturally occurring solid mass or aggregate of
 Scientific study of rocks that deals with their minerals or mineraloid matter
composition, texture, and structure; their occurrence  an aggregate of minerals
and distribution; and their origin in relation to  a unit of Earth’s crust
physicochemical conditions and geologic processes.
CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS
 Hence, petrology deals with the mode of formation,
structure, texture, composition, occurrence, and types a. Physical Classification
of rocks i. Stratified
 MOST IMPORTANT BRANCH OF GEOLOGY FROM ii. Unstratified
THE CIVIL ENGINEERING’S POV BECAUSE THIS iii. Foliated
b. Chemical Classification
PROVIDES A PROPER CONCEPT AND LOGICAL
i. Calcareous
BASIS FOR INTERPRETING PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
ii. Siliceous
OF ROCKS. THUS, THE STUDY OF TEXTURE,
c. Geological Classification
STRUCTURE, MINERAL COMPOSITION, CHEMICAL i. Igneous
COMPOSITION ETC. GIVES ALL NECESSARY DETAILS  Intrusive
REGRDING THE STRENGTH, DURABILITY, COLOUR,  Extrusive
CHEMICAL COMOSITION ETC. THESE INHERENT  Hypabyssal
CHARACTERS OF ROCKS, OCCURING AT CONCERN ii. Sedimentary
FOR CIVIL ENGINEER TO JUDICIOUS ASSESS THE  Chemical
SUITABILITY OR OTHERWISE OF ROCK ARE CHIEF  Clastic
CONCERN FOR A CIVIL ENGINEERS TO JUDICIOUSLY  Organic
ASSESS THE SUITABILITY, OCCURING AT HIS iii. Metamorphic
PROJECT SITE FOR THE REQUIRED PURPOSE. THIS  Foliated
IS NECESSARY BECAUSE DIFFERENT KIND OF ROCKS  Non- Foliated
ARE SUITABLE FOR DIFFERENT SPECIFIC PURPOSE Among the different classification, Geological Classification
AND NO ROCK IS IDEAL OR BEST SUITED FOR ALL is the most proper because grouping of rock is more
KIND PURPOSES OF CONSTRUCTION. THUS, logical, less ambiguous, orderly and comprehensive. This
DIFFERENT KIND OF ROCKS SUIT DIFFERENT are based on mode of origin of rocks.
PURPOSES BY VIRTUE OF THEIR SPECIAL PHYSICAL
PROPERTIES WHICH ARE INHERENT AND
CHARACTERISTIC TO THEM. ROCK CYCLE

o Model that describe all processes by which rocks are

PETROGRAPHY
- branch of petrology that focuses on
detailed/systematic descriptions of rocks. Someone
who studies petrography is called a petrographer. The
mineral content and the textural relationships within
the rock are described in detail. The classification of
rocks is based on the information acquired during the
petrographic analysis. Petrographic descriptions start
with the field notes at the outcrop and include
macroscopic description of hand specimens. However,
the most important tool for the petrographer is the
petrographic microscope.  and be ejected as magma, which cools to form igneous,
formed, modified, transported, decomposed, melted
and reformed.
o processes that slowly build, destroy, and alter the
rocks in Earth's crust over millions of years, changing
them from one form to another
o (process) Geologic materials cycle through various
forms. Sediments composed of weathered rock lithify
to form sedimentary rock, which then becomes
metamorphic rock under the pressure of Earth's crust.
When tectonic forces thrust sedimentary and
metamorphic rocks into the hot mantle, they may melt
or magmatic, rock.

PETROGENESIS or PETROGENY
- branch of petrology dealing with the origin and mode
of formation of rocks. While the word petrogenesis is
most commonly used to refer to the processes that
form igneous rocks, it can also include metamorphic
and sedimentary processes, including diagenesis and
metamorphic reactions.
DISTINCTION BETWEEN IGNEOUS, SEDIMENTARY,
METAMORPHIC ROCKS
 The main difference between Igneous, Sedimentary
and Metamorphic rocks, is the way that they are
formed, and their various textures.
1. IGNEOUS ROCKS are formed when MAGMA (OR
MOLTEN ROCKS) HAVE COOLED DOWN AND
SOLIDIFIED. SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are formed by the
ACCUMULATION OF OTHER ERODED SUBSTANCES,

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 GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS
while METAMORPHIC ROCKS are formed when
ROCKS CHANGE THEIR ORIGINAL SHAPE AND FORM
DUE TO INTENSE HEAT/PRESSURE.
2. IGNEOUS ROCKS are commonly FOUND INSIDE THE
EARTH’S CRUST OR MANTLE, while SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS are usually found in WATER BODIES.
METAMORPHIC ROCKS are found on the EARTH'S
CRUST OR AT PLATE BOUNDARIES WHERE
TECTONIC PLATES COLLIDE
3. IGNEOUS ROCKS can be AN IMPORTANT SOURCE OF
MINERALS, and SEDIMENTARY ROCKS, or their
bedding structure, is MOSTLY USED IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING; FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF
HOUSING, ROADS, TUNNELS, CANALS ETC. Geologists
study the geological properties of METAMORPHIC
ROCKS, as THEIR CRYSTALLINE NATURE PROVIDES
VALUABLE INFORMATION ABOUT THE
TEMPERATURES AND PRESSURES WITHIN THE
EARTH’S CRUST.
4. Examples of IGNEOUS ROCKS include GRANITE,
SYENITE, DIORITE, GABBRO, PEGMATITE, DOLERITE,
BASALT, while examples of SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
include SHALE, CONGLOMERATE, BRECCIA,
LIMESTONE AND SANDSTONE. Common examples of
METAMORPHIC ROCKS are MARBLE, SLATE,
QUARTZITE, GNEISS, SCHIST.
THREE TYPES OF ROCKS
1. IGNEOUS
 IGNIS – for fire
 Primary rocks
 hard rocks formed due to cooling and
solidification of magma
 Often appear to have crystals and are never in
layers.
 Most abundant rocks in the Earth’s crust. Their
abundance is so much that their average
composition closely tallies with the chemical
composition of the Earth’s crust itself.
3 TYPES/ SUB-GROUPS:
o INTRUSIVE/PLUTONIC (at the depth/ 7-10 km
below the surface)
- very slow rate of cooling at these depths, the rocks
resulting from magma are coarse grained.
o EXTRUSUIVE/VOLCANIC (on/at the surface,
lava)
- Since the lava cools down at very fast rate
(compared to magma), the grain size of the crystals
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formed in these rocks is very fine, smooth,
crystalline.
o HYPABYSSAL ROCKS
- These igneous rocks are formed at intermediate
depths, generally up to 2 kms below the surface of
the earth and exhibit mixed characteristics of
volcanic and plutonic rocks.
-  intrusive igneous rock that is emplaced at
medium to shallow depths (<2 km) within the crust,
and has intermediate grain size and often
porphyritic texture between that of volcanic rock
sand plutonic rocks
* Magma
o The hot molten material occurring naturally below
the surface of the Earth
o Magma when melt underground, it is called lava
when it reaches Earth’s surface
o Igneous rocks are formed both from magma and
lava.
o Parent material of Igneous rock
TEXTURES OF IGNEOUS ROCKS
Factors Explaining Texture
The following three factors will primarily define the
type of texture in a given igneous rock:
 DEGREE OF CRYSTALLIZATION
o may be poorly crystallized or be even glassy or
non- crystallized form.
(i) Holocrystalline: distinctly crystallized;
(ii) Holohyaline very fine in size and glassy or non-
crystalline in nature.
 GRANULARITY
o The grain size of the various components of a rock
are the average dimensions of different
constituent minerals which are taken into account
to describe the grain size of the rock as a whole.
Thus, the rock texture is described as:
(i) Coarse-grained. above 5 mm;
(ii) Medium-grained. 5 mm and 1 mm.
(iii) Fine-grained less than 1 mm
 FABRIC/SHAPES
o This is a composite term expressing the relative
grain size of different mineral constituents in a
rock as well as the degree of perfection in the form
of the crystals of the individual minerals.
(i) Panidiomrphi: fully developed shapes;
(ii) Hypidiomorphic: euhedral, subhedral or
anhedral;
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(iii) Allotriomorphic: anhedral or irregular Cleavage- not available
shapes
Specific gravity- 2.6-2.7

The Main Types of Igneous Textures

Occurrence

- Most commonly in mountains areas. Granite are most

 APHINITIC TEXTURE - Igneous rocks with this
texture usually occur from the rapid
crystallization of lava.
- Most granite seems to have formed either by melting,
 GLASSY TEXTURE - This texture forms when lava
from a volcanic eruption cools very rapidly such
that no crystallization occurs.
 PEGMATITIC TEXTURE - This type of texture is
formed when magma cools and some minerals
increase in size extensively.
abundant plutonic rocks of mountains belts and
continental shield areas.
partial melting, or mental morphism of deeply buried shale
and sand stone.
Engineering Importance
- Granite is used as a building or ornamental stone.

 PHANERITIC TEXTURE - This texture is seen in

plutonic igneous rocks, which underwent slow
crystallization underneath the surface of the earth.
 PORPHYRITIC TEXTURE - This texture is caused
by the rapid change of conditions as the magma
continues to cool down
 PYROCLASTIC TEXTURE - Pyroclastic textures
form when violent volcanic eruptions throw the
lava into the atmosphere creating fragmental and
glassy materials.
A.) IMPORTANT IGNEOUS ROCKS – DESCRIPTION,
DISTRIBUTION, OCCURRENCE AND PROPERTIES
* DOLERITE, SYENITE, PEGMATITE, BASALT, GRANITE,
DIORITE, GABBRO,
a. GRANITE
- A white colored plutonic rock found throughout the
continental crust.
- coarse- or medium-grained intrusive igneous
rock that is rich in quartz and feldspar; it is the most
common plutonic rock of the Earth’s crust, forming
by the cooling of magma (silicate melt) at depth.
b. SYENITE
Syenite is a coarse-grained intrusive igneous rock with a
general composition similar to that of granite, but deficient
in quartz, which, if present at all, occurs in relatively small
concentrations (< 5%). Some syenites contain larger
proportions of mafic components and smaller amounts of
felsic material than most granites; those are classed as
being of intermediate composition. The volcanic equivalent
of syenite is trachyte.
Properties
Texture- like that of granite, is granular, and these rocks
differ from granite only by the absence or scarcity of
quartz. They are coarse to medium- grained,
holocrystalline in nature and exhibiting graphic, inter-
grown or porphyritic relationship among its constituents
Color - variable but typically light coloured.
Composition-The most common felspars of syenites are
orthoclase and albite; microcline, oligoclase and anorthite
are also present in them in subordinate amounts.

 Properties In some syenites, the felspathoids (nepheline, leucite) also

make appearance.
- It consists of grains of quartz (10%-50%), feldspar and
sodium feldspar. These minerals make up more than
Occurrence- Syenite is not a common rock. Regions where
80% of the rock.
it occurs in significant quantities include the following.
Texture- granular and phaneritic in texture
Distribution- Syenites are products of alkaline igneous
Color-red, pink, gray, or white color with dark mineral activity, generally formed in thick continental crustal
grains visible throughout the rock areas, or in Cordilleran subduction zones. To produce a
syenite, it is necessary to melt a granitic or igneous
Composition- Granite is composed mainly of quartz and protolith to a fairly low degree of partial melting
feldspar with minor amounts of mica, amphiboles, and
other minerals.

Streak-White

Luster-dull to grainy with sporadic parts pearly and c. DIORITE

vitreous

Mohs hardness-6 to 7

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An intermediate intrusive rock which is gray to dark-gray
or black and composed principally of plagioclase feldspar,
biotite, and hornblende or pyroxene.
Properties
- Intermediate in composition between gabbro and
granite.
 Occurrence
- It is produced in volcanic arcs, and in mountain
building where it can occur in large volumes as
batholiths in the roots of mountains.
- Because it is commonly speckled black and white, it is
often referred to as "salt and pepper" rock. Diorite is
the plutonic equivalent of andesite.
Engineering Importance
- it is used sometimes in mined as a crush stone.it has a
durability that compares favorably to granite and top
rock. It is used as a base material in the construction of
road, buildings and parking area. It is also used as a
drainage stone and for erosion control.
d. GABBRO
A dark colored plutonic igneous rock composed mainly of
course grains of calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar and
pyroxene. usually black or dark green in color and
composed mainly of the minerals
Properties
- Chemically and mineralogically, gabbro is equivalent
to other plutons or as small individual plutons or
dikes.
Occurrence
- It is the most abundant rock in the deep oceanic crust.
- Their most common occurrence is in the lower parts of
large, layered complexes.
- Most gabbros appear to intrude the rocks surrounding
them and so are thought to be of igneous origin,
although some may also may be produced by
metamorphic process.
 
Engineering Importance
A variety of uses in the construction industry. It is used for
everything from crushed stone base materials at
construction sites to polished stone counter tops and floor
tiles.
e. PEGMATITE
are extreme igneous rocks that form during the final stage
of a magma's crystallization. They are extreme because
they contain exceptionally large crystals and they
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sometimes contain minerals that are rarely found in other
types of rocks.
These are exceptionally coarse-grained igneous rocks
formed from hydrothermal solutions emanating from
magmas that get cooled and crystallized in cavities and
cracks around magmatic intrusions. These rocks are
searched for their containing big sized crystals of minerals.
Some of these crystals may be gems and other precious
minerals.
Properties
Texture- A pegmatitic texture is one in which the mineral
grains are exceptionally large.
Color- Pegmatite is available in black, brown, cream,
green, grey, pink, red, rust, silver, white, yellow colors.
Composition- To be called a "pegmatite," a rock should be
composed almost entirely of crystals that are at least one
centimeter in diameter. The name "pegmatite" has nothing
to do with the mineral composition of the rock. Most
pegmatites have a composition that is similar to granite
with abundant quartz, feldspar, and mica.
Occurrence
Pegmatites occur in a variety of forms as dykes, veins,
lenses and patches of irregular masses. Found in all over
the world. They are most abundant old rocks. Some are
found in large intrusive igneous rocks, while others are
scattered over rocks surrounding intrusive magmatic
rocks.
Distribution
Worldwide, notable pegmatite occurrences are within the
major cratons, and within greenschist-facies metamorphic
belts. Aplite and porphyry dikes and veins may intrude
pegmatites and wall rocks adjacent to intrusions, creating
a confused sequence of felsic intrusive apophyses (thin
branches or offshoots of igneous bodies) within the
aureole of some granites.
f. DOLERITE
-Dolerite or microgabbro is a mafic, holocrystalline,
subvolcanic rock equivalent to volcanic basalt or plutonic
gabbro. Diabase dikes and sills are typically shallow
intrusive bodies and often exhibit fine grained to aphanitic
chilled margins which may contain tachylite (dark mafic
glass). Diabase is the preferred name in North America,
while dolerite is the preferred name in the rest of English-
speaking world, where sometimes the name diabase is
applied to altered dolerites and basalts. Some geologists
prefer the name micro gabbro to avoid this confusion.
Properties
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Texture- medium-grained equivalent of a basalt. Ophitic
and porphyritic texture are common among dolerites.
Color- black sometimes with a greenish things.
Composition- dark minerals like olivine iron oxide and
etc. along with plagioclase minerals
Occurrence.
- Sills and dykes of doleritic composition have been
recorded at many places associated with magmatic
activity. In the Singhbhum region of south Bihar, India,
many doleritic dykes traverse the Singhbhum granites.
Distribution
- Diabase is usually found in smaller relatively shallow
intrusive bodies such as dikes and sills. Diabase dikes
occur in regions of crustal extension and often occur in
dike swarms of hundreds of individual dikes or sills
radiating from a single volcanic center.
Engineering importance
- The physical and chemical properties of dolerite make
it highly suitable for a variety of purposes. It is used
mainly as crushed aggregate in concrete production, as
road sub-base and in flush seals, facing stone in
building construction, and as armour stone and rip-rap
g. BASALT
A dark gray to black dense to fine-grained igneous rock
that consist of basic plagioclase, augtite, and usually
magnetite
Properties
- Typically consist of the following chemical
compounds, in order of decreasing abundance: silicon
dioxide, aluminum dioxide, iron, magnesium, oxide,
calcium oxide sodium oxide, titanium oxide, potassium
oxide and minor amounts of manganese oxide and
other substances which basalt composed basalt of sub
oceanic origin may also contain abundant olivine.
Occurrence
- Formed from the rapid cooling of magnesium-rich and
iron-rich lava exposed.
- Most abundant of the earths volcanic rock.
- More than 90% of all volcanic rock on Earth is basalt.
- Near rapidly cooled edges of lava flow or dikes,
escaping gas produces a basalt full of holes, or vesicles,
which may be filled with gemstones such as opal and
chalcedony or with zeolites.
- Low viscosity, due to its low silica content.
- Engineering importance used for a wide variety of
purposes
- most commonly crush for use as an aggregate in
construction projects.
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- for road base, concrete aggregate, asphalt pavement
aggregate, railroad ballast, filter stone in drain fields,
and other purposes
2. SEDIMENTARY
 “queen of all rocks”
 Secondary rocks
 rocks formed from sediments or something that
has been deposited by water, product of
weathering
 Have a layered appearance, feel gritty, and
break easily.
 well exposed on the earth's surface and in water
bodies
TYPES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCK
There are three major types of sedimentary rocks;
CHEMICAL, CLASTIC AND ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY
ROCKS.
 CHEMICAL SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - occur when
components of water evaporate and previously
dissolved minerals are left behind. These types of
sedimentary rocks usually occur in arid areas; like
gypsum and salt deposits. Ex. CHERT, DOLOMITES,
FLINT, ROCK SALT/HALITE, IRON ORE AND SOME
TYPES OF LIMESTONE.
 CLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - occur when there is
buildup of tiny pieces of broken rocks (clastics). These
are deposited due to mechanical weathering and
lithification of the rocks through cementation and
compaction. Ex. BRECCIAS, SHALE, SANDSTONE AND
SILTSTONE.
 ORGANIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS - occur as a result of
the accumulation of any form of animal or plant
remains like bones. Animal and plant debris contain
calcium that piles up on the floor of water bodies over
years to create organic sedimentary rocks. Ex. COAL,
SOME TYPES OF DOLOMITES AND SOME FORMS OF
LIMESTONE.
*SEDIMENTATION
- eroded sediments end up in the water and begin to settle
*COMPACTION
- compaction of the sediments accumulated in lower layers
of a basin due to the pressure exerted by the load of the
overlying sediments.
*CEMENTATION
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- process by which loose grains or sediments in a
settlement basin get held together by a binding material.
STRUCTURE OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
a. Primary (formed during deposition)
-  Examples include bedding or stratification, graded
bedding, and cross-bedding.
b. Secondary (formed after deposition)
- Examples are bioturbation, soft-sediment deformation,
teepee structures, root-traces, and soil mottling
TEXTURES OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS
o Origin of Grains - clastic texture or a non-clastic
texture
o Size of Grains - varies within wide limits
o Shape - rounded, sub rounded, angular and sub
angular.
o Packing - open-packed or porous
o Fabric - may contain many elongate particles.
o Crystallization Trend– crystalline or amorphous
B.) IMPORTANT SEDIMENTARY ROCKS – DESCRIPTION,
DISTRIBUTION, OCCURRENCE AND PROPERTIES
* SANSTONE, LIMESTONE, SHALE, CONGLOMERATE,
BRECCIA*
a. SANDSTONES
- composed of sand-size grains of mineral, rock, or
organic material. It also contains a cementing material
that binds the sand grains together and may contain a
matrix of silt- or clay-size particles that occupy the spaces
between the sand grains.
- is one of the most common types of sedimentary rock
and is found in sedimentary basins throughout the world.
It is often mined for use as a construction material or as a
raw material used in manufacturing
Properties
Water Absorption - the capacity of water absorption is
not more than 1.0%
Texture - Mediumgrained; may range widely in degrees of
grain sorting and shape
Structure - Bedding is often apparent along with
sedimentary structures and fossils
Hardness - Lies between 6 to 7 on Moh's Scale Density
2.32 to 2.42 Kg/m3
Color - available in many colors – red, green, yellow, pink,
gray and white. The reason for the variation in colors being
the change in the percentage of constituent and the
binding material.
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Porosity - almost negligible, almost impermeable.
Compressive Strength - varies from 365 to 460 kg/m2
Occurrence
- Sandstone forms from beds of sand laid down under
the sea or in low-lying areas on the continents. As a
bed of sand subsides into the earth's crust, usually
pressed down by over-lying sediments, it is heated
and compressed. Hot water flows slowly through the
spaces between the sand grains, importing dissolved
minerals such as quartz, calcium carbonate, and iron
oxide. These minerals crystallize around the sand
grains and cement them together into a sandstone.
Spaces remain between the grains, resulting in a
porous, spongelike matrix through which liquids can
flow.
Types
On the basis of their composition and the nature of
the cementing material.
o Siliceous Sandstones
o Calcareous Sandstones.
o Argillaceous Sandstones
o Ferruginous Sandstones
Engineering Importance:
Sandstone- was a popular building material from
ancient times. It is relatively soft, making it easy to carve. It
has been widely used around the world in constructing
temples, homes, and other buildings. It has also been used
for artistic purposes to create ornamental fountains and
statues.
b. LIMESTONES .
composed primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the
form of the mineral calcite. It most commonly forms in
clear, warm, shallow marine waters. It is usually an organic
sedimentary rock that forms from the accumulation of
shell, coral, algal, and fecal debris. It can also be a chemical
sedimentary rock formed by the precipitation of calcium
carbonate from lake or ocean water.
Properties:
Colour: It can be yellow, white, or gray
Chemical Composition: Calcite
Texture – Clastic or Non-Clastic
Grain size – Variable, can consist of clasts of all sizes.
Hardness – Generally hard.
Clasts – if clastic / bioclastic then grains and / or broken
or whole shell fragments visible; if non-clastic / chemical
then crystalline and no clasts visible.
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Major minerals: Calcite, dolomite
Occurrence
 Most limestones form in shallow, calm, warm marine
waters. That type of environment is where organisms
capable of forming calcium carbonate shells and
skeletons can easily extract the needed ingredients
from ocean water. When these animals die, their shell
and skeletal debris accumulate as a sediment that
might be lithified into limestone. Their waste products
can also contribute to the sediment mass. Limestones
formed from this type of sediment are biological
sedimentary rocks. Their biological origin is often
revealed in the rock by the presence of fossils.
 Some limestones can form by direct precipitation of
calcium carbonate from marine or fresh water.
Limestones formed this way are chemical sedimentary
rocks. They are thought to be less abundant than
biological limestones.
Common types of limestones:
(a) Chalk.
(b) Shelly Limestone.
(c) Argillaceous Limestone
(d) Lithographic Limestones
(e) Kankar
(f) Calc-Sinter.
Engineering Importance:
one of the most durable of all-natural building materials.
Limestone is exceptionally weather-resistant and while it
does naturally corrode over time, the corrosion is
superficial and won't impact the structural integrity of the
structure.
c. SHALE
any of a group of fine-grained, laminated sedimentary
rocks consisting of silt- and clay-sized particles. Shale is
the most abundant of the sedimentary rocks, accounting
for roughly 70 percent of this rock type in the crust of
the Earth.
Shales are generally characterized with a distinct fissility
(parting) parallel to the bedding planes and are made up of
very fine particles of silt grade and to some extent of clay.
Besides fissility, some shales show the laminated structure.
Properties of Shale:
Origin: Detrital/Clastic
Colour: Black, Grey
Group: Clastic Sedimentary Rock
Texture:     Clastic; Very fine-grained (< 0.004 mm) Silty
shale . Clay shale . Sandy shale
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Mineralogical Composition: Feldspathic Shale, Quartzose
Shale, Micaceous Shale
Minerals: Clay minerals, Quartz
Cementing Materials. Calcareous shale . Ferruginous
shale. Siliceous shale
Occurrence:
- Shales are often found with layers
of sandstone or limestone. They typically form
in environments where muds, silts, and other sediments
were deposited by gentle transporting currents and
became compacted, as, for example, the deep-ocean floor,
basins of shallow seas, river floodplains, and playas. Most
shales occur in extensive sheets several metres thick,
though some develop in lenticular formations.
Types
Residual Shales: These are formed from decay and
decomposition of pre-existing rocks followed by
compaction and consolidation of the particles in
adjoining basins without much mixing;
Transported Shales: These are deposits of clastic
materials of finer dimensions transported over wide
distances before final settlement in basins of deposition.
Hybird Shales - In such shales, materials derived both
from clastic sources and non-clastic especially those from
organic sources make up the rock.
Engineering Importance:
-Shale is an excellent rock to build a foundation on because
it's so strong. Plus, it's compact enough to endure a
structural piling without cracking, unlike clay.
-It is a source material in the ceramics industry to make
brick, tile, and pottery.
d. CONGLOMERATES
- Conglomerate is a clastic sedimentary rock that contains
large (greater than two millimeters in diameter) rounded
clasts. The space between the clasts is generally filled with
smaller particles and/or a calcite or quartz cement that
binds the rock together.
- They consist mostly of rounded fragments of various
sizes but generally above 2mm. cemented together in
clayey or ferruginous or mixed matrix.
- The roundness of gravels making the rock is a useful
characteristic to differentiate it from breccia in which the
fragments are essentially angular.
-The roundness indicates that the constituent gravels have
been transported to considerable distances before their
deposition and transformation into conglomerate
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Properties
Texture: Clastic (coarse-grained).
Grain size: > 2mm; Clasts easily visible to the naked eye,
should be identifiable.
Hardness: Soft to hard, dependent on clast composition
and strength of cement.
Colour: variable, dependent on clast and matrix
composition.
Clasts: variable, but generally harder rock types and / or
minerals dominate.
Other features: Clasts generally smooth to touch, matrix
variable.
Occurrence:
 Conglomerate forms where sediments of rounded
clasts at least two millimeters in diameter
accumulate. It takes a strong water current to
transport and produce a rounded shape on particles
this large. So, the environment of deposition might be
along a swiftly flowing stream or a beach with strong
waves. These conditions might only be met during
times of extreme flow or wave action. However, it is
during these times that much of the Earth's
sediments are moved and deposited.
 To form a conglomerate, there must also be a source
of large-size sediment particles somewhere up
current. The rounded shape of the clasts reveals that
they were tumbled for some distance by running
water or moving waves. These conditions are found
in streams and standing water bodies in many parts
of the Earth.
Types
Boulder-Conglomerates (gravels>256mm)
Cobble-Conglomerate (gravels: 64-256 mm)
Pebble-Conglomerate (gravels: 2-64 mm)
On the basis of source of the gravels, as
Basal-conglomerates
-Having gravels derived from advancing sea-waves over
subsiding land masses;
Glacial-conglomerates
-In which gravel making the conglomerates are
distinctly of glacial origin;
Volcanic-conglomerates
-In which gravels are of distinct volcanic origin but have
subsequently been subjected to lot of transport
resulting in their smoothening and polishing by river
PREPARED BY: ACAL, CERENO, DAGDAG, BERNAL, DIME, , OCAMPO, ROJO
transport before their deposition and compaction or
cementation.
Engineering Importance:
- It is used in the construction industry mostly because of
the variable hardness that it has.
-When the matrix is soft, conglomerate may be crushed for
use as a fill material in the construction and transportation
industries. Hard conglomerate may be cut and polished to
make dimension stone for interesting-looking walls and
floors.
e. BRECCIA
-Breccia is a term most often used for clastic sedimentary
rocks that are composed of large angular fragments (over
two millimeters in diameter). The spaces between the
large angular fragments are filled with a matrix of smaller
particles and a mineral cement that binds the rock
together.
Occurrence:
-Breccia forms where broken, angular fragments of rock or
mineral debris accumulate. One of the most common
locations for breccia formation is at the base of an outcrop
where mechanical weathering debris accumulates.
Another is in stream deposits a short distance from the
outcrop or on an alluvial fan.
Properties
Texture: clastic (coarse-grained).
Grain size: > 2mm; clasts easily visible to the naked eye,
should be identifiable.
Hardness: Soft to hard, dependent on clast composition
and strength of cement.
Colour: Dependent on clast and matrix composition.
Clasts: variable, but generally harder rock types and / or
minerals dominate.
Other features: Rough to touch due to angular clasts.
Types
Basal Breccia. This rock is formed by the sea waters
advancing over a coastal region covered with fragments of
chert and other similar rocks
Fault Breccia. This rock is also called crush-breccia. Such
rocks are so named because they are made up of angular
fragments that have been produced during the process of
faulting.
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Agglomeratic Breccia. It is a specific type of breccia
containing angular and sub angular fragments derived
from volcanic eruptions.
Engineering Importance:
The Minoan palace of Knossos on Crete, constructed
around 1800 B.C., includes columns made of breccia. The
ancient Egyptians used breccia to make statues. The
Romans regarded breccia as a precious stone and used it to
construct public buildings, columns, and walls. In modern
culture, breccia is used for decorative elements, jewelry,
and sometimes as a fill material for roads.
3. METAMORPHIC
 an igneous or sedimentary rock that has been
subjected by pressure, heat, water, or contact
with hot lava.
 Very hard, more crystal than igneous
CLASSIFICATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCK
(a) Foliated Rocks – when pressure squeezes the flat
or elongate minerals within rock so they become
aligned. Platy or sheet-like structure ex. Slate,
schist and gneiss.
(b) Non-Foliated Rocks – formed around igneous
intrusions where the temperatures are high but
the pressures are relatively low and equal in all
directions. Ex. Marble
*METAMORPHISM
- process responsible for all the changes that take
place in an original rock under the influence of changes in
the surrounding conditions of temperature, pressure and
chemically active fluids.
There are two main types of metamorphism:
(1) contact metamorphism, in which changes induced
largely by increase in temperature are localized at the
contacts of igneous intrusions; and
(2) regional metamorphism, in which increased pressure
and temperature have caused recrystallization over
extensive regions in mountain belts. 
MINERALOGICAL COMPOSITION Metamorphic rocks
exhibit a great variation in their mineralogical composition
that depends in most cases on
(i) the composition of the parent rock;
(ii) the type and degree of metamorphism undergone
by the rock. Two broad groups of minerals formed
during metamorphism are:
PREPARED BY: ACAL, CERENO, DAGDAG, BERNAL, DIME, , OCAMPO, ROJO
o Stress minerals - under the stress factor
(flaky, platy, lamellar, flattened and elongated
forms)
o Anti-stress minerals - influence of
temperature factor
TEXTURES OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS
(a) Crystalloblastic - all those textures that have
been newly imposed upon the rock during the
process of metamorphism
(b) Palimpsest (Relict) - present in the parent rock
and have been retained by the rock despite
metamorphic changes
C.) IMPORTANT METAMORPHIC ROCKS –
DESCRIPTION, DISTRIBUTION, OCCURRENCE AND
PROPERTIES
*GNEISS, SCHIST. SLATE, QUARTZITE, MARBLE*
a. QUARTZITE
- Quartzite is a non-foliated metamorphic rock composed
almost entirely of quartz. It forms when a quartz-
rich sandstone is altered by the heat, pressure, and
chemical activity of metamorphism.
- Quartz is 7 on Mohs hardness scale. That means it’s
harder than glass and harder than a knife blade
- Metamorphic quartzites result from the recrystallisation
of rather pure sandstones under the influence of contact
and dynamic metamorphism.
Properties
Texture - Granular
Grain size - medium grained; can see crystals with the
naked eye.
Hardness - hard
Colour - Pure quartzite is white but quartzite exists in a
wide variety of colours.
Mineralogy - Quartz
Other features - generally gritty to touch.
Engineering Importance and Uses
- In architecture, marble and granite have been the
favorite materials for thousands of years. Quartzite, with
a Mohs hardness of seven along with greater toughness, is
superior to both in many uses. It stands up better to
abrasion in stair treads, floor tiles, and countertops.
- Quartzite is an extremely durable crushed stone that is
suitable for use in the most demanding applications. Its
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soundness and abrasion resistance are superior to most
other materials.
b. MARBLE
- Marble is a metamorphic rock formed when limestone is
exposed to high temperatures and pressures. Marble forms
under such conditions because the calcite forming the
limestone recrystallises forming a denser rock consisting
of roughly equigranular calcite crystals.
- The name "marble" is used in a different way in the
dimension stone trade. Any crystalline carbonate rock that
has an ability to accept a polish is called "marble." The
name is sometimes used for other soft rocks such as
travertine, verd antique, serpentine, and some limestones.
Composition
- Small amounts of many other granular minerals like
olivine, serpentine, garnet and some amphiboles are
also present in many varieties, which are derived from
the impurities present in the original limestone during
the process of metamorphic recrystallisation.
Varieties
- Various types of marble are distinguished on the basis
of their colour, composition and structure. White
marble, pink marble and black marble are known on
the basis of their colours, which is basically due to fine
dispersion of some impurity.
Texture - Granular
Grain Size - medium grained; can see interlocking calcite
crystals with the naked eye.
Hardness - hard, although component mineral is soft
(calcite is 3 on Moh's scale of hardness).
Colour - Marble is usually a light-colored rock. When it is
formed from a limestone with very few impurities, it will
be white in color. Marble that contains impurities such as
clay minerals, iron oxides, or bituminous material can be
bluish, gray, pink, yellow, or black in color.
Mineralogy – Calcite
Other Features – Generally gritty to touch
Engineering Importance and Uses
- Marble is commonly used in the construction of palatial
and monumental buildings in the form of blocks, slabs,
arches and in the crushed form as chips for flooring.
- Because of its restricted occurrence and transport costs,
it is mostly used as ornamental stone in costly
construction.
PREPARED BY: ACAL, CERENO, DAGDAG, BERNAL, DIME, , OCAMPO, ROJO
c. SLATE
Slate is a fine-grained, foliated metamorphic rock that is
created by the alteration of shale or mudstone by low-
grade regional metamorphism.
-Mineralogically, slate is made up of very fine flakes of
mica, chlorite and microscopic grains of quartz, felspar,
oxides of iron and many other minerals, all of which cannot
be easily identified even under microscope because of
their fine grain size.
- composed mainly of clay minerals or micas, depending
upon the degree of metamorphism to which it has been
subjected.
- The tectonic environment for producing slate is usually a
former sedimentary basin that becomes involved in a
convergent plate boundary.
Properties
Texture - Foliated Metamorphic Rock, Foliation on a mm
Scale.
Grain size - Very fine-grained; crystals not visible to the
naked eye.
Hardness - Hard and brittle.
Colour - Variable colour – black, blue, green, red, brown
and buff.
Other features - smooth to touch.
Engineering Importance
Slate’s foliation allows it to be broken into sheets of any
desired thickness. Therefore, for centuries it has been used
for roofing and for pavement stones around homes,
buildings and gardens.
d. GNEISS
- (pronounced 'nice') is a globally common type of
metamorphic rock that can easily be identified by its
alternating layers of minerals known as gneissic banding.
It forms as a result of high-grade, regional metamorphism.
-Gneiss usually forms by regional metamorphism at
convergent plate boundaries.
-It also forms as a result of high-grade, regional
metamorphism. Metamorphism is the process by which all
metamorphic rocks form.
Properties
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Texture - foliated, (foliation on a scale of cm or more. Mineralogy - mica minerals (biotite, chlorite, muscovite),
quartz and plagioclase often present as monomineralic
Grain size - medium to coarse grained; can see crystals
bands, garnet (porphyroblasts common.
with the naked eye.
Other features - generally smoothish to touch.
Hardness – Hard

Colour - variable - generally alternating lighter and darker

sub-parallel discontinuous bands. Engineering Importance

Mineralogy - (felsic minerals such as feldspar (orthoclase, f. generally used as a decorative rock, e.g. walls, gardens
plagioclase) and quartz generally form the light coloured
etc; high percentage of mica group minerals precludes its
bands; (mafic minerals such as biotite, pyroxene (augite)
use in the construction and roading industries.
and amphibole (hornblende) generally form the dark
coloured bands; garnet (porphyroblasts common.

Other features - generally rough to touch. Low-grade schists

Uses - dimension stone for building facings, paving etc..
Compact, dense and massive varieties of gneisses find
applications as road stones and in some cases as building
stones.
Formed under conditions of
regional metamorphism at low temperature.
These are rich in minerals like albite, muscovite and
chlorite that are unstable at high temperature.

Important Types: Examples: Mica-schist, chlorite-schist and talc-schist are a

few from this group.
Orthogneiss - formed as a result of metamorphism of
granites and other igneous rocks. High-grade schists

Paragneiss - these are formed from the metamorphism of
sedimentary rocks like sandstones;
Banded gneiss - typical gneiss in which the tabular and
flaky minerals are segregated in very
conspicuous pands of alternating dark and light colours.
These are formed under conditions of regional
metamorphism and are rich in minerals that are stable at
high temperatures such as andalusite, cordierite, gamet,
staurolite and sillimanite etc.
Gamet-schists, cordierite-schists and sta1'rolite-schists are
common examples.

Distribution
e. SCHIST Schists are mostly the precambrian ages rocks. It usually
occurs the regional metamorphism of existing rock. These
- is a foliated metamorphic rock made up of plate-shaped
are usually sedimentary or sometimes igneous rocks. It
mineral grains that are large enough to see with an
could therefore be found where eroded mountains reveal
unaided eye.
the rock, or in areas of glacial deposition of eroded schist.
- It usually forms on a continental side of a convergent
plate boundary where sedimentary rocks, such as shales
and mudstones, have been subjected to compressive
forces, heat, and chemical activity.
CLAP* CLAP* CLAP*
Properties
HAPPY TO LEARN!
Texture- foliated, (foliation on mm to cm scale.

Grain size - fine to medium grained; can often see crystals

with the

naked eye.

Hardness - generally hard.

Colour - variable - often alternating lighter and darker

bands, often shiny.

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PREPARED BY: ACAL, CERENO, DAGDAG, BERNAL, DIME, , OCAMPO, ROJO Group 3 BSCE 1C
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