MODULE 2 - COMMON MATERIAL USED IN ABE APPLICATIONS

LEARNING OUTCOMES

At the end of this topic the student should be able to:

Identify common materials used in the ABE applications.

Categorize ABE materials into a group.

Recommend material for ABE machine and farm structures.

PRETEST (Omitted)

Enumerate the five common engineering materials used in ABE structures. Group the
below according to their type.
CONTENT

1. METALS

All metals may be classified as ferrous or nonferrous. A ferrous metal has iron as its
main element. Metal is still considered ferrous even if it contains less than 50 percent iron, as long as it
contains more iron than any other metal. A metal is nonferrous it contains less iron than any other
metal. Some ferrous metals are low carbon steel, tool steel, and cast iron. The common nonferrous
metals are aluminum and copper. To change the property of metals it is alloyed and heat treated.

Metal Physical Properties: Metal Chemical Properties:

 Lustrous (shiny)  Have 1-3 electrons in the outer shell of

 Good conductors of heat and electricity
 High melting point
 High density (heavy for their size)
 Malleable (can be hammered)
 Ductile (can be drawn into wires)
 Usually solid at room temperature (an
exception is a mercury)
 Opaque as a thin sheet (can't see through
metals)
 Metals are sonorous or make a bell-like
sound when struck
each metal atom and lose electrons
readily
 Corrode easily (e.g., damaged by
oxidation such as tarnish or rust)
 Lose electrons easily
 Basic form oxides
 Are good reducing agents

Luster: Metals are shiny when cut, scratched, or polished.

Malleability: Metals are strong but malleable, which means that they can be easily bent or shaped.
For centuries, smiths have been able to shape metal objects by heating metal and pounding it with a
hammer. If they tried this with nonmetals, the material would shatter! Most metals are also ductile,
which means they can be drawn out to make wire.

Conductivity: Metals are excellent conductors of electricity and heat. Because they are also ductile,
they are ideal for electrical wiring. (You can test this using some household items.

High melting point: Most metals have high melting points and all except mercury are solid at room
temperature.

Sonorous: Metals often make a ringing sound when hit.

Reactivity: Some metals will undergo a chemical change (reaction), by themselves or with other
elements, and release energy. These metals are never found in a pure form and are difficult to
separate from the minerals they are found in. Potassium and sodium are the most reactive metals.
They react violently with air and water; potassium will ignite on contact with water!
The mechanical properties of a metal are associated with the ability of a metal to resist loads. They
heavily influence the characteristics of a metal.

a. Elasticity - Whenever an external force is applied on metal, it deforms. Elasticity is the

property under which a metal regains its original shape when the external force applied on it is
removed.

b. Plasticity - Plasticity is the property by which a metal retains its deformation permanently
when the external force applied on it is removed.

Examples: forming, forging, hammering

c. Ductility - Ductility is the property by which a metal can be drawn into thin wires. It is
determined by percentage elongation and percentage reduction in the area of metal.

d. Toughness - When a huge external force is applied on metal, the metal will experience a
fracture. Toughness is the ability of a metal to resist fracture.

e. Malleability - It is the property by which a metal can be rolled into thin sheets. Highly
malleable metals (like Mild Steel) are extensively used in making sheet metals.

f. Strength - When external forces are applied on metal, breaking (brittle metal) or yielding
(ductile metal) may occur. Strength is the property of a metal by which it resists external force without
breaking or yielding.

g. Stiffness - When an external force is applied to metal, it develops an internal resistance. The
internal resistance developed per unit area is called stress. Stiffness is the ability of a metal to resist
deformation under stress.

h. Creep - When a metal is subjected to a constant load (below its yield point), at high
temperature, for a prolonged time, it undergoes permanent deformation. This tendency of the metal is
called creep.

i. Resilience - Resilience is the ability of a metal to absorb energy and resist soft and impact load.

j. Hardness - Hardness is the ability of a metal to resist permanent change of shape caused by an
external force.
Stress-Strain Diagram

Elastic Limit The elastic limit is the limit beyond which the material will no longer go back to
its original shape when the load is removed, or it is the maximum stress that may
e developed such that there is no permanent or residual deformation when the
load is entirely removed.
Elastic and Plastic The region in the stress-strain diagram from O to P is called the elastic range. The
Ranges region from P to R is called the plastic range.
Yield Point The yield point is the point at which the material will have an appreciable
elongation or yielding without any increase in load.
Ultimate The maximum ordinate in the stress-strain diagram is the ultimate strength or
Strength tensile strength.
Rapture Strength Rapture strength is the strength of the material at rupture. This is also known as
the breaking strength.
Modulus of Modulus of resilience is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force
Resilience is gradually increased from O to P, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the stress-strain curve from the origin O to up to the elastic limit E (the
shaded area in the figure). The resilience of the material is its ability to absorb
energy without creating a permanent distortion.
Modulus of Modulus of toughness is the work done on a unit volume of material as the force
Toughness is gradually increased from O to R, in N·m/m3. This may be calculated as the area
under the entire stress-strain curve (from O to R). The toughness of a material is
its ability to absorb energy without causing it to break.
Working Stress, Working stress is defined as the actual stress of a material under a given loading.
Allowable Stress, The maximum safe stress that a material can carry is termed as the allowable
and Factor of stress. The allowable stress should be limited to values not exceeding the
Safety proportional limit. However, since the proportional limit is difficult to determine
accurately, the allowable stress is taken as either the yield point or ultimate
strength divided by a factor of safety. The ratio of this strength (ultimate or yield
strength) to allowable strength is called the factor of safety.
Understanding Hardness Test of Metals

a. Brinell Hardness Test

During this test, an accurately controlled force is maintained when an indenter, generally a
carbide ball, is forced into the test model for a specific time. Upon removal, it leaves an encircling
indentation, the measurement of which is taken to calculate material hardness as per the formula.

b. Rockwell Hardness Test

There is also a Superficial Rockwell, along with a Rockwell Hardness Test. For each test, a little load is
forced to either a steel ball or diamond cone indenter located on the surface of the test material to set
up a zero reference point. This is followed by applying the main load for a specific time, with the minor
load applied to release. The hardness number is the variation in deepness between the shift due to the
major load and the zero reference position.

The selection of an indenter depends on the features of the test material. In comparison to Superficial
Rockwell, the Rockwell Test applies bigger load values, although both of them offer three major load
options. Over 30 different scales are employed between Superficial Rockwell and Rockwell testing,
because of various combinations and choices of major loads, indenters, and tests.

c. Knoop Hardness Test

This Micro Hardness Test is employed on a miniature material feature that cannot be put on tests by
other methods. It uses a testing load of 1 Kg or less. Just like the Brinell hardness test, the Knoop is
performed by applying force to an indenter in a rhombus-shape over some time. Meticulous
measurement of the impression is done and is employed alongside the test load for calculation of value
on the scale.

d. Vickers Hardness Test

With a maximum test load of 50 kg, the Vickers Hardness Test can be performed on both the macro and
micro hardness scales. This sort of test is done by putting controlled force to an indenter over a time,
which is a square-shaped diamond pyramid. The test load and impression measurement are employed
with the required formula for calculating Vickers's hardness value. Like Knoop and Brinell, this test has a
scale that takes care of the entire range

Heat Treatment of ferrous metals.

Heat treatment is a controlled heating and cooling operations used to bring about the desired
change in the physical properties of a metal. Its purpose is to improve the structural and physical
properties for some particular use of for future work of metal.

a. Hardening – a ferrous metal is normally hardened by heating the metal to the required
temperature and then cooling it rapidly by plunging the hot metal into a quenching medium, such as oil,
water, or brine. Steels are cooled rapidly to harden them. The hardening process increases the hardness
and strength of the metal. But also increases its brittleness.

b. Tempering – steel is usually harder than necessary and too brittle for practical use after being
hardened. Severe internal stresses are set up during the rapid cooling of the metal. Steel is tempered
after being hardened to relieve the internal stresses and reduce its brittleness. Tempering consists of
heating the metal to a specified temperature and then permitting the metal to cool. The rate of cooling
usually has no effect on the metal structure during tempering. Therefore, the metal is usually permitted
to cool in still air. Temperatures used for tempering are normally much lower than the hardening
temperatures. The higher the tempering temperature used, the softer the metal becomes. High-speed
steel is one of the few metals that becomes harder instead of softer after it is tempered.

c. Annealing – metals are annealed to relieve internal stresses, soften them, make them more
ductile, and refine their grain structures. Metal is annealed by heating it to a prescribed temperature,
holding it at that temperature for the required time, and then cooling it back to room temperature. The
rate at which metal is cooled from the annealing temperature varies greatly. Steel must be cooled very
slowly to produce maximum softness. This can be done by burying the hot part in sand, ashes, or some
other substance that does not conduct heat readily (packing), or by shutting off the furnace and allowing
the furnace and part to cool together (furnace cooling).

d. Normalizing – ferrous metals are normalized to relieve the internal stresses produced by
machining, forging, or welding. Normalized steels are harder and stronger than annealed steels. Steel is
much tougher in the normalized condition than in any other condition. Parts that will be subjected to
impact and parts that require maximum toughness and resistance to external stresses are usually
normalized. Normalizing before hardening is beneficial in obtaining the desired hardness, provided the
hardening operation is performed correctly. Low carbon steels do not usually require normalizing, but
no harmful effects result if these steels are normalized. Normalizing is achieved by heating the metal to
a specified temperature (which is higher than either the hardening or annealing temperatures), soaking
the metal until it is uniformly heated, and cooling it in still air.

e. Case Hardening – case hardening is an ideal heat treatment for parts that require a wear-
resistant surface and a tough core, such as gears, cams, cylinder sleeves, and so forth. The most
common case-hardening processes are carburizing and nitriding. During the case-hardening process,
low-carbon steel (either straight carbon steel or low-carbon alloy steel) is heated to a specific
temperature in the presence of material (solid, liquid, or gas) which decomposes and deposits more
carbon into the surface of the steel. Then, when the part is cooled rapidly, the outer surface or case
becomes hard, leaving the, inside of the piece soft but very tough.

Heat Treatment of nonferrous metals.

a. Annealing – consists of heating the metal to a specific temperature, soaking, and cooling to room
temperature. The temperature and method of cooling depend on the type of metal. Annealing is often
accomplished after various cold working operations because many nonferrous metals become hard and
brittle after cold working. Also, annealing is used to remove the effects of solution heat treatment so
that machining or working qualities can be improved.
 b. Solution Heat Treatment – the tensile strength of many nonferrous alloys can be increased by
causing the materials within the alloy to go into a solid solution and then controlling the rate and extent
of return to an altered mechanical mixture. This operation is called solution heat treatment. After an
alloy has been heated to a specified temperature, it is quenched or cooled rapidly, which traps the
materials in the solid solution attained during the heating process. From this point, the process varies
greatly depending on the metal. To be sure the materials in the alloy do not revert to their original
configuration after some time, a process of aging or precipitation hardening must follow. In this process,
the materials in the alloy are allowed to change or to precipitate out of the solid solution.

2. WOODS

Wood Physical Property

a. Color - white - aspen, spruce to black - ebony. Tannins, resin, and pigments, founded in cell
cavities, make wood more colorful.

b. Lustre - Timber gloss is the ability to reflect light beam pointedly. It depends on wood density,
size, and location of medullary rays, which reflect light rays pointedly, thereby creating the shine on the
radial aspect. Beechwood, maple, oak, elm have the most characteristic luster. Aspen, poplar, and linden
have a matte surface due to very narrow medullar rays, and thin cell walls. the wood gloss surface is
enhanced and preserved for long periods by creating transparent protective - decorative coatings.

c. Texture - is a peculiar pattern formed by the medullary rays, fibers, and yearly layers of wood
in different contexts. Texture saturation is determined by anatomical features of arboreous breeds
structure and the section direction, and by the color of early and latewood, rippling, and by mixed up fiber
arrangement.

d. Macrostructure is characterized by the width of annual rings - the number of annual rings per
1 cm of the segment, measured in the radial direction in cross-section. Softwood has good physical-
mechanical features when the number of layers varies from 3 to 25. The percentage of latewood in timber
is determined by softwood samples. The higher the latewood content in timber, the more the density and
better mechanical wood characteristics.
 e. Essential oils, resins, tannins, and other substances, founded in certain tree species, give them
a smell, agarwood is known for its cosmetic value.

f. Humidity - is the ratio of moisture mass in a given wood volume to the weight of absolutely dry
wood, expressed as a percentage. Moisture, soaking the cell membrane, named the bound or hygroscopic,
and moisture that fills the cavity of the cells and intercellular spaces, named free or capillary.

During wood drying, free water evaporates firstly and connected water - at the end of the drying
process. The condition of timber, when cell walls contain the maximum amount of bound water, and only
air fill the cavities, named the limit of hygroscopicity. There are the following stages of wood humidity:
wet - humidity above 100%, freshly - humidity 50 - 100% air - dry humidity 15 - 20% dry - moisture 8 - 12%
completely dry - humidity near 0%.

Weight and electrical methods are used for humidity estimation. Using the weight method W,%,
humidity is determined by the formula W = 100 (m1 - m2) / m2, where m1 - the mass of the wood sample
before drying; m2 - the mass of the sample in a dry condition. Using the electrical method, humidity is
determined by an electrical moisture gauge. The first method advantage - is accuracy, second - is a
quickness.

f. Shrinkage - is a reduction of linear measurements and wood volume during drying. Shrinkage
occurs only during connected water evaporation. Shrinkage in the tangential direction is 6 - 10% in the
radial 3 - 5% and along with the grain 0.1 - 0.3%. A decrease in wood volume during connected water
evaporation is called volumetric shrinkage. Full volumetric shrinkage of 12 - 15%. During bucking,
allowances for shrinkage are foreseen, because carving wood and procurements have to be of a given
size.2001

g. Internal stresses - are stresses in the wood - round carving wood and sawn timber without an
application of external forces. Its reason - is inequality of moisture distribution along the section of drying
wood. In the majority of wood drying technologies, water evaporates firstly from surface wood layers.
And if it will be less than the hygroscopic limit, that is 30%, shrinkage is happening. At the same time,
internal layers remain more humid, and this makes the process of surface layers’ shrinkage more difficult.
In the issue, internal tension occurs in timber, and this tension stretches the wood out in surface zones
and squeezes in internal. When the wood humidity is decreasing out of the hygroscopic limit in the
internal zone, it will be also dry. In the issue of traction tension on the surface, the zone is decreasing, but
not fully. Because of residual lengthening in surface layers normal shrinkage will be delayed.
01

h. Warping - is a change in the form of the cross-section during the drying or wetting wood.
Warping could be transverse and longitudinal. Lateral buckling is expressed by changing the form of the
board section. Its reason - is different shrinkage in the radial and tangential directions.

i. Swelling - Residual internal stresses in the dried sawn timber could cause changes in linear
dimensions and shape of parts during their machining. The presence of stresses in the wood set with the
cutting of the board's power sections. If immediately after section manufacturing their cogs will remain
parallel, there are no internal stresses in wood, if they will disperse, in the external layers - stretching, and
in the interior - compressive stresses: if cogs sections will be brought together - in the outer layers of
compression, and the interior - the tensile stresses.
 j. Warping - is a change in the form of the cross-section during the drying or wetting wood.
Warping could be transverse and longitudinal. Lateral buckling is expressed by changing the form of the
board section. Its reason - is different shrinkage in the radial and tangential directions.

k. Sound conductivity - is a material property to conduct sound. It is characterized by the speed

of sound spreading in the material. Along the grain in the wood sound spreads at a speed of 5000 m / s in
the radial direction - 2000 m / s, tangentially - 1500 m / sec. The sound conductivity of wood is different
in longitudinal and transverse directions. This property of wood and its ability to resonate - to amplify
sound without distortion tones is used in the manufacturing of musical instruments. The best material for
them - spruce, fir, Caucasian, and Siberian cedar.

l. Thermal conductivity - is the ability of the material to store heat. Wood has low thermal
conductivity since it has a lot of voids filled with air. Therefore, the thermal conductivity of wood depends
on its humidity: the less the moisture, the lower the thermal conductivity.

Mechanical Properties of Wood

1. Strength - Depending on the strength of the material allowable stress is established, to which
material could be exposed without integrity damages. The value of allowable stress is always much lower
than the tensile strength, i.e. the lowest stress values at which the destruction of the material takes place.

Heterogeneous fibrous wood structure stipulates its unequal in different directions relative to
fibers. It resists the action of forces, tensile or compressive component along the grain, and bending forces
directed across the grain, much lower resistance to compression across the grain of the wood and chipping
along and across the fibers. Thus, resistance to chipping wood along the grain in 1,3.1,5 times greater than
the resistance to chipping across the grain, and in a direction perpendicular to the fibers (end-window) -
in 3.5 times greater.

Impact strength - is the ability of wood to absorb the work without breaking.

2. Toughness- The ability of a material to absurd much energy before fracture.

3. Hardness - is the feature of wood to resist the introduction of the body of a certain form. The
hardness of the end surface is higher tangential and radial hardness to 30% for hardwood and 40% for
softwood. According to the degree of hardness all tree species could be divided into three groups: mild -
mechanical strength 40 MPa or less (spruce, pine, cedar, fir, poplar, linden, aspen, alder); solid -
mechanical hardness 40,1.80 MPa (larch, birch, beech, oak, elm, elm, elm, sycamore, maple, hazel,
walnut, apple, ash) are very solid - mechanical strength over 80 MPa (locust, birch, steel, hornbeam,
dogwood, boxwood, yew).

4. Plasticity - is the feature of wood to change its original shape under the action of applied forces
and keep a new form after the termination of the force. Bending, stamping, etc are based on this feature.
Deciduous wood breeds are better come under the bending (oak, ash, etc.) and absent-mindedly -
vascular. Conifers have a low ability to bend. Wet wood has a higher ability to bend than dry wood.

5. Resilience - is the ability of the timber to restore the original shape after the termination of the
external forces. If these forces exceed a certain amount (the limit of elasticity), wood is either destroyed
or change its shape.
 6. The ability of wood to hold metal fasteners - s a feature, explained by the wood elasticity.
When hammering nail fibers move apart partially, putting pressure on the lateral surface, causing the
mutual friction, that keeps the nail in the wood. The resistance of wood to pulling of screws approximately
2 times greater than the resistance of pulling nails.

The ability of wood to hold metal fasteners - is a feature, explained by the wood elasticity. When
hammering nail fibers move apart partially, putting pressure on the lateral surface, causing the mutual
friction, that keeps the nail in the wood. The resistance of wood to pulling of screws approximately 2 times
greater than the resistance of pulling nails.
7. Durability - is the ability of wood to resist degradation (tension, compression, bending, shear,
etc.) under the action of external forces. Dense wood is generally more durable. Strength decreases
rapidly with increasing wood moisture. Strength reduces rapidly if there are any defects in wood.

8. Cleavability - is the ability of wood to break down along the grain during penetration a wedge-
shaped body into it. Wedge or hatchet, embedded into the wood, moves fiber apart, bends them to
different sides, and separates one part of fiber from another, forming a crack that goes in front of the
blade of the wedge. It is easy to break up all the conifers and from hardwoods - beech, aspen, basswood,
oak.

9. Fragility - is the ability of wood to break down suddenly without significantly shape-changing
under the action of mechanical forces.

10. Severability - is a feature of wood to divide into parts of wood under the action of forces.
machining of wood with the removal of chips is based on this feature - sawing, milling, turning, grinding,
and without removing material - cutting materials on shears, punching, chopping or bundling of wood -
wood for logs, wood chips on the needle-shaped shaving, a big chip on the micro - and fibrous.

3. CERAMICS

A ceramic is an inorganic non-metallic solid made up of either metal or non-

metal compounds that have been shaped and then hardened by heating to high temperatures. In general,
they are hard, corrosion-resistant, and brittle.

4. POLYMER

It can be an organic compound, natural or synthetic, with high molecular weight made of
repetitive structural units. Its size chains are large it formed from the covalent union of various monomer
units or macromolecule. In plastics, PVC materials are a good example of polymers.
5. COMPOSITE

The composite material is a combination of two materials with different physical and
chemical properties. When they are combined they create a material that is specialized to do a certain
job, for instance, to become stronger, lighter, or resistant to electricity. They can also improve strength
and stiffness. The reason for their use over traditional materials is because they improve the properties
of their material and are applicable in many situations. Weight saving is one of the main reasons for using
composite materials rather than conventional materials for components. While composites are lighter
they can also be stronger than other materials, for example, reinforced carbon-fiber can be up to five
times stronger than 1020 grade steel and only one-fifth of the weight, making it perfect for structural
purposes.

LEARNING ACTIVITIES (Omitted)

ASSESSMENT (Answers will be Discussed During Lecture)

1. Which of the following is not a non-ferrous metal?

a) Aluminum
b) Lead
c) Zinc
d) Iron

2. What are alloys with two components called?

a) Binary alloy
b) Ternary alloy
c) Quaternary alloy
d) There is no name given to an alloy with two components

3. What physical property of a metal is preferred when making musical instruments?

a) Ductile
b) Malleable
c) Sonorous
d) Lustrous

4. What is the greatest electric conductor?

a) gold necklace
b) AWG # 12 copper wire
c) 24K diamond ring
d) Laminated bamboo

5. the standard unit measurement for solid lumber is _____.

6. A board foot (B.F) is equal to a volume of _____ cubic inches.

7. when the length of the board is in inches, what is the formula used for B.F? _____

8. When the length of the board is in feet, what is the formula used for G.F? _____
9. Do you need a device that needs to absorb a lot of energy which material would you choose, 1 or 2?

10 Which material is more ductile, or less brittle, or tougher? 1 or 2

REFERENCES

Internet sources:

1. (https://learning-center.homesciencetools.com/article/metals-101/)

2. ( http://mechteacher.com/mechanical-properties-of-metal/)

3. https://www.mathalino.com/reviewer/mechanics-and-strength-of-materials/stress-strain-diagram

4. (https://www.americanmachinetools.com/properties_of_metal.htm)

5. (https://willrich.com/understanding-different-types-hardness-tests/)
Pretest ANSWER KEY (Omitted)

Answer Key Learning Activities (Omitted)

.Answer Key Assessment

1. Ferrous metals are metals or alloys which contain iron as an element in it. Therefore, cast iron is the
only ferrous metal among the given options.

2. Alloys with two components are called a binary alloy, while those with three components are called
ternary alloys, and alloys with 4 components are called a quaternary alloy.

3. Sonorous

4. Gold necklace

5. Board feet

6. 144
𝑇 " ∗𝑊"∗𝐿"
7. 144
= 𝐵. 𝐺.
𝑇*W"∗𝐿"
8. 12
= 𝐵. 𝐺

9. (1)

10 (2)