GEOLOGICAL AND GEOPHYSICAL

INVESTIGATION IN CIVIL
ENGINEERING.
SITE INVESTIGATIONS
 The process of determining the layers of
natural soil deposits that will underlie a
proposed structure and their physical
properties is generally referred to as site
investigation.
PURPOSE OF SITE INVESTIGATIONS
1. Selection of the type and the depth of foundation suitable
for a given structure.
2. Evaluation of the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimation of the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determination of potential foundation problems (for
example, expansive soil, collapsible soil, sanitary landfill,
and so on).
5. Establishment of ground water table.
6. Prediction of lateral earth pressure for structures like
retaining walls, sheet pile bulkheads, and braced cuts.
7. Establishment of construction methods for changing
subsoil conditions.
GEOLOGICAL METHODS
A.    Surface Investigations
◦ These include preparation of topographic maps (if
these are not already available) using the normal
mapping techniques. In fact all field surveys begin
with the preparation (or availability) of topographic
maps showing elevation contours relative to some
datum.
 Aerial surveys and preparation of
photogeological maps are the latest methods
of surface investigations. The entire area
involving an engineering study is
photographed using sophisticated cameras
and controls from low flying aeroplanes.
These maps are then interpreted to provide
sufficiently accurate geological details of the
area surveyed.
 Photogeology is now a branch of geology in
its own right and is fast acquiring an
important place. Its scope is enlarged by
mapping of vast areas of the globe through
satellites. Imageries obtained from satellite
surveys and aerial surveys, when interpreted
properly, provide useful details regarding
rock outcrops on the surface with
possibilities of estimating their subsurface
configuration.
 Hydrogeological surveys to obtain hydrogeological
details of the area are also conducted partly on the
surface with a view of recording following details that are
of immense help in the later studies:

i.                    Drainage pattern of the area and

discharge;

ii.                  Location and discharge details of springs
and other leakage points;

iii.                Location of wells and measurements of

water levels after intervals to note aberrations in
behaviour with time;

iv.                 Precipitation and evaporation details.

 All surface surveys, however carefully carried
out, can give only superficial details. These
could broadly be classed as preliminary
surveys and have necessarily to be followed
by well-planned subsurface investigations
which would provide fairly accurate idea
about the subsurface geological conditions at
the most critical locations.
B.     Subsurface Explorations
 These are accomplished by following two broad
methods: direct subsurface explorations
and indirect subsurface explorations. The direct
methods involve examination of rocks or materials of
the underground by digging of drill holes, trial pits,
adits, shafts, galleries and exploratory tunnels. In such
explorations, both the underground areas are reached
for direct examination and testing or samples are
obtained which are examined and tested in the
laboratory. The indirect methods of subsurface
explorations are used extensively and involve
application of geophysical techniques for obtaining
fairly accurate idea of subsurface geology.
EXPLORATION
TECHNIQUES
1. Assembly of all available information on
dimensions, column spacing, type and use
of the structure, basement requirements,
and any special architectural considerations
of the proposed building. Foundation
regulations in the local building code should
be consulted for any special requirements.
For bridges the soil engineer should have
access to type and span lengths as well as
pier loadings.
2. Reconnaissance of the area: This may be in
the form of a field trip to the site which can
reveal information on the type and behavior
of adjacent structures such as cracks,
noticeable sags, and possibly sticking doors
and windows. The type of local existing
structure may influence, to a considerable
extent, the exploration program and the
best foundation type for the proposed
adjacent structure.
3. A preliminary site investigation: In this phase
a few borings are made or a test pit is
opened to establish in a general manner the
stratification, types of soil to be expected,
and possibly the location of the groundwater
table. One or more borings should be taken
to rock, or competent strata, if the initial
borings indicate the upper soil is loose or
highly compressible. This amount of
exploration is usually the extent of the site
investigation for small structures.
4. A detailed site investigation: Where the
preliminary site investigation has established
the feasibility of the project, a more detailed
exploration program is undertaken. The
preliminary borings and data are used as a
basis for locating additional borings, which
should be confirmatory in nature, and
determining the additional samples required
GEOPHYSICAL METHODS
 There are many kinds of geophysical methods
of investigation. These method are
• Gravimetric method
• Magnetic method
• Electrical method
• Seismic method
• Radiometric method
• Geothermal method
Gravity Methods
 Gravity method represent a set of geophysical methods which
make use of the natural gravity field of the earth.
• Physical Property
• Density of the material is the controlling physical property.
• Principle
• In gravimetric method, the nature of distribution of gravity g on
the surface is analyzed. The gravity is influenced positively if the
causative body is heavier, larger and occurs at a shallow depth.
• The gravimeter, used in relative gravity measurement is a mass
loaded spring. If the subsurface has a relatively heavier body, the
gravity pull is more there (+g) and the spring extends becoming
longer. If the subsurface has relatively a lighter body there the
gravity pull is less (-g) and the spring contracts and become
shorter.
Magnetic Methods
 Like gravity methods, these investigations also take advantage
of natural magnetic field associated with the earth and its
relation to subsurface geology. Controlling property
• The main controlling physical property in magnetic method is
magnetic susceptibility. Principle
• The magnetic methods are based on the fact that the magnetic
bodies present in the earth’s surface contribute to the magnetic
field of the earth.
• In general, when the magnetic field of the earth or one of its
components is measured on the surface, bodies possessing
magnetic moments different from those of the surrounding
rocks contribute to the deviations in the measured quantities.
From the magnetic anomalies, it is possible to locate anomalous
objects.
 The different parameters measured during
magnetic investigations are total magnetic
field (intensity and direction) and different
space components
• Magnetic surveys have a certain inherit
limitations. Hence for unique and accurate
solutions, magnetic prospecting is often carried
out along with the gravity or other methods.
Electrical Methods
 Among the methods different geophysical
• Methods electrical method are numerous and
more versatile, They are more popular because
they are successful in dealing with a variety of
problems like groundwater studies, subsurface
structure, and many others.
Controlling Properties
• In electromagnetic methods, electrical
conductivity, magmatic permeability and dielectric
constant of subsurface bodies are the relevant
properties.
Seismic Methods
 Controlling Properties
• Elastic property differences in rocks is the controlling
property.
• Principle
• Seismic method of study is based on the principle that
subsurface rock formations bear different elastic properties.
Because of this, the velocities of propagation of seismic waves
through the subsurface layers of earth, suffer reflection or
critical reflection arrive at the surface of the earth where they
are detected by geophones. From the time taken by the waves
to travel through the subsurface formation and from the
seismic wave velocities of the media. It is possible to
determine the depth of various elastic boundaries.
 With the help of geophones fixed at suitable
intervals on the ground, the different seismic
waves reaching the surface are recorded and
from the times of their arrival, time –distance
curves are constructed. The direct waves are
the first to reach the geophones placed
between point and the distance beyond the
point is called the critical distance.
 Depending upon whether reflected waves or
refracted waves are used in the investigation,
there are two types of methods, namely,
seismic reflection method and seismic
refraction method.
• A geophone an amplifier and a galvanometer
are the basic units required for reflected or
refracted wave registrations.
 Seismic refraction studies are effective for
depths more than 100m but are not suitable
for shallow exploration
• Refraction methods are employed for
investigating depths from close to the surface
to several kilometer deep. These methods are
also followed for the investigation of deeper
crust under seismic studies.
• Shallow seismic refraction have found
effective application in investigating the
suitability of foundation sites for civil
engineering structures.
Radiometric Methods
 Controlling property
• Natural radioactivity of rocks and ores
• Principle
• The normal radioactivity is different in different types
of rocks. In igneous rocks, it decreases with decreasing
acidity. If rock contains radioactivity ore bodies, such
areas will exhibit very high radioactivity, giving rise to
anomalies during surveys. Thus based on the study of
radioactivity. It is not only possible to distinguish
different rock types but also to detect radioactive ore
bodies. The profile drawn clearly brings out the
subsurface lithology, structure and ore body.
 Instruments used in radiometric prospecting are
called radiometer. A radiometer consist of three
basic components
• (I) a detector
• (ii) an amplifier or recording unit.
• (iii) a power supply unit.
• Radiometric methods of investigation are useful in
many ways
• Exploration of radioactive substances such as
uranium and thorium
• Location of some rare minerals
• Geological mapping
• Exploration of oil & gas
• Ground water studies
 For the measurement of the temperature on
the surface of the earth, in shallow holes or in
deep bore holes, thermistors thermometers
are used. Other instruments such as crystal
detectors and radiometers are used.
• The geothermal methods find application in
deep structural studies, ore deposits,
groundwater studies, for delineation of salt-
water fresh water interfaces. Etc.
DIRECT PENETRATION
 Corrections are normally applied to the SPT
blow count to account for differences in:
• energy imparted during the test (60% hammer
efficiency)
• the stress level at the test depth The
following equation is used to compensate for
the testing factors (Skempton, 1986):
CORE BORING
 Core boring is a sampling technique used to research
mineral resources in the subsoil by boring wells in order
to analyze the ground, and for other digging activities
for civil engineering purposes. In core boring a cylinder
shaped sample of rock or ice is extracted, which is
known as a core.  From these cores it is possible to
obtain a large amount of information on the climate
variations of the past,  thanks to what remains
imprisoned in the ice, such as: gas bubbles, chemical
elements that form the ice, sediments, fossils and many
other elements. These traces are true witnesses of past
periods, and are useful in order to reconstruct the
climatic history of the Earth.
LOGGING OF CORE
 The purpose of the core log is to enable the
person reading the log to visualize the cores
(as seen by the compiler of the log) and
hence to draw inferences on the likely
behaviour of the actual rock mass. Only those
parameters which are significant to the rock
mass behaviour or which enable correlations
between boreholes to be made or give a
better understanding of the general geology
of the site are recorded.
 GEOLOGICAL CONDITION
NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION
OF DAMS
Types of Dams
 Gravity dams
 Buttress dams
 Arch dams
 Earth dams
Gravity dam
 A solid concrete or masonry structures, that
withstands the water pressure, by virtue of its
weight
• All forces acting on the dam are assumed to
be directly transmitted to the foundation rocks
• They are generally of triangular profile and
are among the safest
Buttress dam
 They have a continuous upstream face,
supported at regular intervals, by buttress
walls on the downstream side
• They are lighter than solid dams
• Likely to induce greater stresses at the
foundation, since most of the load passes
through the buttress walls and is not spread
uniformly over the foundation
Arch dam
 Arch-shaped, convex at the upstream side
• Major portion of the thrust forces acting on
the dam are transmitted by arch action, onto
the abutment rocks
• Structural efficiency is higher than that of
gravity dams, the presence of sound abutments
is a prime necessity
• Uses less amount of concrete
Earth dam
 Non-rigid structures, built with naturally
available materials such as earth and rock
• Ideal, where the dam site is weak to support
concrete dams, or where competent rocks are
found at great depths
GEOLOGICAL CONDITIONS
 Narrow river valley
• Occurrence of bedrock at shallow depth
• Competent rocks to offer stable foundation
• Proper geologic structures
Narrow river valley
 Narrow valley means smaller dam is required,
and hence, lower costs Defective valleys
include:
o Deceptive narrowing due to thick superficial
deposits
o Narrowing due to rock outcrops
o Presence of soluble material like gypsum,
renders the rocks unsuitable
Occurrence of bedrock at shallow
depth
 The presence of strong bedrock near the
surface, reduces the cost of the foundation
• The site should be explore using electrical
resistivity or seismic refraction methods, to
assess the nature of the bedrock
• The presence of buried river valleys, huge
boulders gives rise to problems, as they are
composed of lose material
Competent rocks for stable
foundation
 Igneous rocks are safer than sedimentary
ones Suitability of site depends on:
– The existing rock type
– The extent of weathering undergone
– The extent of fracturing
– The occurrence of geological structures
– The mode and number of rock types
Proper geologic structures
 Undisturbed strata
• Disturbed strata
– Tilted beds
– Folded strata
– Faulted strata
– Jointed strata
 GEOLOGICAL CONDITION
NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION
OF TUNNELS
 Types of rocks
• Geological structures
• Ground water conditions
• Overbreak
Types of rocks
 Igneous rocks
– Competent, but difficult to work with
– Do not require lining
• Sedimentary rocks
– Less competent, compared to igneous
– Sandstones, shales etc. are soft, easy to work
– Requires lining
• Metamorphic rocks
– Gneisses are similar to granites
Geological structures
 Effect of joints
• Effect of faults
• Effect of folds
• Effect of undisturbed or tilted strata
Ground water conditions
 Tunnel axis passing entirely through
impervious formations
• Tunnel axis mostly above the water table
• Tunnel axis below the water table
Overbreak
 Tunneling through hard rocks requires the
removal of some rocks outside the proposed
perimeter
• This excess quantity of rock removed, is
called the ‘overbreak’
• Geological factors governing the amount of
overbreak are:
– The nature of the rocks
– Orientation of the joints
– Orientation of bedding planes
 GEOLOGICAL CONDITION
NECESSARY FOR CONSTRUCTION
OF ROADS
 Topography
• Lithological characters
– Consolidated hard rock
– Unconsolidated material
• Geological structures
• Weathering
• Groundwater conditions
END!!