Chapter I

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING

Objectives:
On completion of this module, you should be able to;
 define surveying and be able to discuss the professional skills required for geodetic engineers;
 understand the difference between plane and geodetic surveys;
 understand surveys measurement units
 convert between different systems of survey measurement units; and
 explain the basic principles of survey for defining a spatial position.
 knows the concepts of errors and mistakes.

1.1 Surveying: History and Definitions

Surveying is the art and science of measuring the surface of the earth, and the position of features on, above or below the
earth's surface; and the presentation of these measurements in the form of a map or computer based map, or plan. It also involves
the opposite situation where from known data, the positions of proposed construction or engineering works are set out on the
ground.

In short, if we want to know where existing objects or features are, and if we plan new features such as parks or build
new structures such as roads or buildings exactly where we want them placed. To do this we carry out a survey.

Geodetic engineering is not a high profile profession but it is a time honored profession with a long history. It was
the job of the early surveyors to explore the country before an area was settled and produce the earliest maps for settlement.

Egyptians
The use of chain surveying dates back to the earliest times. Drawing on walls of some Egyptians tombs show the
‘cordmen’ stretching their measuring cords of plaited palm strip, while surveying in a field of corn. The Egyptians could
determine areas and calculate the volumes of objects, and were among the first people to survey land. The flood waters of the Nile
washed away the boundaries of farms every year, and new ones had to be fixed by surveying. The Egyptians measured distances
accurately with equally spaced knots tied in long ropes. They used cubit, the length of a man’s forearm, as a standard of
measurement. The perfect squareness and north-south orientation of the Great Pyramids demonstrated their surveying skills.
Romans
As the Roman Empire became stabilized , great use was made of chain surveying in the fixing of boundaries, setting new
cities, aqueducts, roads, etc. the work was carried out by a trained body of men as the ‘agrimensores’. They fixed mile datum
posts between cities and towns and some bridges built in AD 105 still stand.

In Roman times the ‘gromea’, which consisted of two pairs of plumb lines suspended from the ends of two horizontal
rods placed at right angles to each other, was used to lay out lines at right angles.

90

Sumerians
The ancient Sumerians around 2000 B.C. were astronomers studying the movements of the planets and stars and as
mathematicians established the 360 degree circle. They also had a system of land ownership. In ancient Babylon, moving a
boundary marker placed by a surveyor was punishable by death!

Chinese
Still earlier (as early as 1600 B.C.) it is said that the Chinese knew the value of the lodestone and possessed some form of
magnetic compass

Arabs

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 In 1450 the Arabs were aided by the compass in charting the coastlines of those countries that they visited. When the
Arabs made the use of the astrolabe, nautical surveying can really be said to have begun.

Europeans
Plane tables were in use in Europe in the 16th century, and the principle of graphic triangulation and intersection was
practiced by surveyors in England and elsewhere.

Today 'surveyors' use satellites to image the earth's environment; use different satellites for navigation and precise position fixing;
use computer visualization techniques for mapping; use micro-computer controlled equipment for measuring the earth's surface
and information systems to present and analyze data about land and land usage. But, the underlying core of knowledge for all of
this sophistication is the mathematics of geometry.

1.2. Functions of Geodetic Engineers

What surveyors or ‘geodetic engineers’ do?

“Surveyor”, as perceived by the public is ‘somebody who stands next to the road looking through that telescope thingy
and waves their arms about’. NO! Surveyors (foreign countries term) or Geodetic engineers possess a broad range of professional
skills that may include:

 Conduct horizontal and vertical control surveys and political boundary surveys;

 Perform land surveys to determine their metes and bounds and prepare the plans thereof for titling and for other
purposes;

 Do subdivision, consolidation and/or consolidation-subdivision of titled properties;

 Submit survey plans of subdivided, consolidated and/or consolidated-subdivision titled properties to the
government agencies concerned; hereafter, such plans on surveyed titled properties submitted by geodetic
engineers shall not be subject to verification and approval;

 Prepare and make sketches, lot and location plans;

 Conduct engineering surveys and prepare technical engineering survey plans such as topographic,
hydrographic, tidal, profile, cross-section, construction and boundary surveys;

 Parcellary surveys of lands traversed by infrastructure projects; and the preparation of subdivision plans;

 Conduction of gravimetric and photogrammetric survey and the technical preparation of such survey plans;

 Survey and mapping works such as the preparation of geographic and/or land information system;

 Survey to determine and establish line and grade for the construction of buildings and other structures and its
attachments;

 Construction of as-staked and as-built surveys for infrastructures;

 Conduction of mineral and mining surveys;

 Installation of machineries requiring the use of precision instruments; and

 Engagement in the transfer of the knowledge and technology of geodetic engineering in any institution of
learning.

2.3 Types of Surveys

Geodetic Surveys - are surveys, which take into account the true shape of the earth, and require corrections for curvature.
Geodetic surveys are typically carried out with great precision, often over long distances, and are used not only to determine the
size, shape and gravity field of the earth (the science of Geodesy ) but also to establish highly accurate Control Networks.
Plane surveys are the most commonly practiced method of surveying and treat the earth as a flat or "plane" surface. Good enough
for small-scale surveys in limited areas, the curvature of the earth has no effect on the results, thus the computations and results
can be referenced to a plane or flat surface, correction for correction is not necessary.
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Plane surveys are used for the determination of legal boundaries, for engineering surveys for the construction of buildings and
roads and for small-scale topographic surveys.
Plane surveys may also be used to establish small control networks for construction sites and subdivisions or for open-pit mines or
even to add control, called "densification", to larger Geodetic Networks.
With in the field of plane surveying, surveys carried out for various purposes can be categorized as follows:

 Topographic surveys – these are carried out for the purpose of mapping land forms. Both plan and height detail is
recorded including both natural and artificial features.
 Mining surveys – these laying out of shaft and drives, the estimation of earthwork quantities and stockpile volumes
plus surveys for general construction work.
 Hydrographic surveys – involve the mapping of underwater surfaces (sea beds and river bottoms) and the location
of marine structures.
 Engineering surveys – cover a wide range of duties, and are necessary for the control of any construction projects
such as; rail and road construction, transmission lines alignment, etc.

Photogrammetric Surveys

Taking an aerial photograph Photographs taken from aerial photography

Photogrammetry can be defined as the science of extracting data from photographs to indirectly measure objects on the ground
and then calculate point coordinates and height differences. Stereographic pairs of photographs are used which are taken from an
aircraft (aerial surveys), or from the ground (terrestrial surveys) in some cases.
This process of taking aerial photography for map production is also known as aerial surveying. This is the only
economic method of producing topographic maps of large areas, and it is used throughout the world for national mapping
programmes. Aside from map production, photogrammetric surveys can be used for:
 Densification of survey control,
 Cadastral surveys,
 Topographic Surveys,
 Terrain Analysis,
 Stockpile, gravel pit or land fill monitoring and volume surveys, and
 Route location and planning of utilities, pipelines and transmission lines.


1.4. Basic Principles of Surveying.

The aim in carrying out survey is to determine the relative positions of various points, e.g. how far apart two power poles
and what are is the position of a tall tree relative to the power line. Sufficient measurements are required such that a point can be
positioned in space with respect to another point.
Although the equipment used in carrying out the survey can vary enormously the basic principles involved are quite
simple.
It is always possible to find two points in the field and measure between them. These two points can be used to locate
other data. In the following instances, A and B are two known points and C is the unknown point that is to be plotted.
For the most basic situation where the relative positions of three different points are required the various methods which
can be used are listed below. In defining the spatial position of a third point with respect to two points then there are four methods.

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 Triangulation
To determine the position of C angles BAC
B and ABC are measured. This data is sufficient
to either plot or compute the position of C.

The position of C is uniquely defined by

intersecting the lines at the measured angles.
C
Triangulation is suitable for determining the
position of inaccessible points as shown in fig
1.
A
Fig. 1

Radiation
The position of C is determined by measuring
the distance BC and angle ABC.
B

C The position of C is uniquely defined by

turning off the measured angle for the
measured distance.

Sufficient data has been obtained to plot or

A compute the relative positions of A, B, and C.

Fig. 2

Trilateration The position of C is determined

by measuring the distances BC
B and AC.

Sufficient data has been

obtained to plot or compute the
relative positions of A, B, and
C.
C
The position of C is uniquely
defined by the intersection of
A
two arcs from A and B at the
measured distances.
Fig. 3

By measuring the side of the

building and the distance from 4
each corner of the lamp-post,
its position relative to the
Perpendicular offset
Here the distance AB is first measured
B and then the point D is selected on line
AB such BDC is a right angle. Distances
AD and DC are then measured to
determine the position of C.

D This method is normally used in detail

C surveys where the position of a large
number of minor points is required.

The position of C is uniquely defined by

1.5 Surveying Units/Measurements. the measurements along the known line
and the point. Sufficient data has been
obtained to plot or compute the relative
Fig.
A4 positions of A, B, and C.

Measurement is the process of determining the extent, size or dimensions of a particular quantity in comparison to a
given standard. In surveying, measurement is concentrated on angles, elevations, times, lines, areas and volumes.

Types of Measurement

 Direct measurement
 Indirect measurement

NOTE: One should bear in mind that surveying measurement is always subject to the imperfections of the instrument used and
the different errors inherent in the process. No matter how careful it is done, still there is no exact or true measurement and the
true value of a measured quantity is never known.

In any measurement, it is always important to observe consistency in the units of measurement and the numerical
answers should always be rounded off to simplify calculations. The following are some conversion (English-Metric) factors that
are commonly used:

1 foot (‘) = 0.3048 m

1 inch (“) = 0.0254 m
1 acre (ac.) = 0.40468 ha
1 hectare (ha.) = 2.4710538 acres

The common metric measurements in surveying are:

Linear:
10 millimeters (mm) = 1 centimeter (cm)
100 centimeters (cm) = 1 meter (m)
1000 meters (m) = 1 kilometer (km)

Area:
1 hectare (ha) = 10,000 sq.m.
10,000 sq.m = 100 ares
1 are = 100 sq.m.
1 sq.km. = 1,000,000 sq.m.

 Meter is the international unit of linear measurement. It is 1/10,000,000 of the earth’s meridional quadrant.

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Significant Figures

 Unless otherwise asked only give distances to 3 decimal places i.e. to the nearest millimeter (mm), although you should
use 4 decimal places for any intermediate calculations

 Be sure to ‘round off’ number correctly. If the digit to be dropped is either 1,2,3, or 4, round down; for 6, 7, 8, or 9,
round up.
o 24.24 to the nearest tenth = 24.2
o 226.276 to the nearest tenth = 226.3
o 226.276 to the nearest hundredth = 226.28
 if the digit to be dropped is equal to five (5), the number can be round up or round down; this is, if the preceding number
is odd, round down; if even, round up.
o 218.275 to the nearest hundredth = 218.28
o 234.265 to the nearest hundredth = 234.26

 When using sin, cos, or tan, use least 7 (seven) significant places (e.g. 0.1234568) as small errors will affect distances at
the cm and mm level.

Angular Units

The international system of metric angle measurement adopted the radian as the metric supplementary unit for plane
angle measurement.
A radian is defined as equal to an angle subtended at the center of circle by an arc equal to the radius. Such that 2∏
radians equals a circle where ∏ = 3.141592654
There are two angular units systems; centesimal and sexagesimal system, but surveyors adopted the sexagesimal system.
For computation purposes using calculators and certain formulae the sexagesimal system of angular measurement requires
conversion either to radians or to decimal degrees.
The conversion is fundamental to surveying and this course.

Sexagesimal system
360degrees (o) = 1 revolution
60 minutes (‘) = 1 degree
60 seconds (“) = 1 minute
 Converting radians to decimal degrees and (vice versa)

o
If 2  radians  360
o o
360 180
Then, 1 radian  
2 

2  o
Similarly, radians  radians  1
360 180

Examples:

o
Convert 15 30 ' 45 ' ' to radians and to degree decimal (and back) manually.

Solutions:
Convert first DMS to degree decimal:
1'
45 " x  0 . 75 '
60 "
o
1 o
30 . 75 ' x  0 . 51
60 '

o
Therefore: 15 30 ' 45 ' ' = 15.51o

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Converting degree to radians:


radians
o 180 o  1
15 . 51 x o
 15 . 51 x  o
radians  0 . 086  radians
1 180 1

Converting radians to degree:

o
180
0
 180 1 o
0 . 086  radians x  0 . 086  radians x   15 . 51
1 radian  1 radian

Converting degree decimal to DMS:

o 60 '
0 . 51 x o
 30 . 6 '
1
60 "
0 .6 ' x  36 "
1'

therefore: 15.51o = 15o 30’ 36” the discrepancy in seconds is due to rounding off of numbers.

1.6. Concepts of Errors and Mistakes, Accuracy and Precision

In undertaking precise field measurements of distances, it is important to know what errors and mistakes could be
committed and how to apply the different corrections caused by the various conditions in order to obtain a high degree of
precision. This lesson will stress on the common errors and mistakes committed and will explain how to reduce or eliminate these
errors and mistakes.
Error is the difference between the true value and the measured value. It refers to the disagreement between a
measurement and the true or accepted value. On the other hand, mistake arises because of misunderstanding the problem,
carelessness, lack of foresight and lack of skill, etc. Whenever a mistake occurs, the survey work has got to be re-run or repeated.
Likewise, errors are of different kinds, that is, it maybe personal- because of our limitation of our senses of sight and of
hearing that we tend to read the wrong calibration or hear the wrong dictation. Error may also be instrumental because of factory
defect or it being not standardized and it may be natural or environmental because of the phenomena of nature, like the effect of
wind during taping operations, the variation in temperature which causes the tape to expand and contract as the temperature rises
and as it falls, etc. Being able to identify the various sources of errors that could have affected our measurement, we should be
able to apply the correction formula corresponding to the identified source of error.

NOTE: Since the true value of a quantity cannot be ascertain by measurement, therefore, the exact value of errors cannot be
determined. Blunders and mistakes are not classified as errors since they are usually so large in magnitude when compared to
error.

Accuracy and Precision

Accuracy refers to the agreement between a measurement and the true or correct value and does not tell you about the quality of
the instrument. The instrument may be of high quality and still disagree with the true value.

Precision refers to the repeatability of measurement. It does not require us to know the correct or true value.

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Most Probable Value

The most probable value (mpv) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions is the arithmetic
mean or the average. It refers to a quantity which, based on available data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.
To determine the most probable value (mpv) the following formula is used:

mvp 
 X
where:
n
mpv – most probable value
 X - the sum of individual measurements
n – total number of observations made

Problems:

1. Line AB was measured four times with recorded values: 106.87m, 106.90m, 106.93m, and 106.85m. Find the most probable
value of line AB.
2. The six angles of a hexagon were measured by the surveyors and recorded as follows:
120o 18’, 139o 45’, 110o 37’, 98o 35’, 149o 20’, and 101o 55’. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
3. Two angles AOB and BOC and a single angle AOC are measured at the same point O.
o o o
AOB  33 46 ' 00 " , BOC  63 14 ' 00 " , andAOC  97 00 ' 30 ". Determine the most probable value of each
angle.

Residual , (V)
It is defined as the difference between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value.

V  X  mvp where:
v –residual
x – measurement of a particular quantity
Probable Errors
It is a quantity which, when added to or subtracted from the most probable value, defines a range within which there is
50 percent chance that the true value of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set. The value of the probable
error can be calculated with the following formulae which are derived from method of least squares:

V
2

E s   0 . 6745
n 1


2
V Es
E m   0 . 6745 OR 
n n  1  n

where:
Es – probable error of any single measurement of a series
Em – probable error of the mean

2
V - summation of the squares of the residuals
n – number of observations
The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to give an indication of the precision of a
particular measurement. To express the probable limits of precision:
Final expression = mvp  E m

Relative (Error) Precision, (RP)

It is used to define the degree of refinement obtained in measurement. It is the ratio of the error to the measured quantity,
and is necessary to express both quantities in same units, and the numerator is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy
comparison with other measurements. For example, the most probable value of the measurement is 235.50m, and the probable
error of the mean is .10m, the relative precision (RP) would be expressed as:

8
 0 . 10 1
RP   or 1 : 2565
256 . 50 2565

Examples:

The following values were determined in a series of tape measurements of a line: 1000.40, 1000.38, 1000.48, 1000.40, and
1000.46 meters. Determine the following:
a. most probable value of the measured length
b. probable error of a single measurement and probable error of the mean
c. final expression for the most probable length
d. relative precision of the measurement
Solutions:
a.
n=6

 x  x1  x2  x3  x 4  x5  x6

 1000 . 58  1000 . 40  1000 . 38  1000 . 48  1000 . 40  1000 . 46

 6002 . 70 m

mpv 
 x

6002 . 70 m
 1000 . 45 m
n 6

b.
Observations Most Probable Value Residual
(mpv) (v) v2
1000.58 + 0.13 0.0169
1000.40 - 0.05 0.0025
1000.45 m
1000.38 - 0.07 0.0049
1000.48 + 0.03 0.0009
1000.40 - 0.05 0.0025
1000.46 + 0.01 0.0001

 v v
2
x  6002 . 70  0 . 00  0 . 0278


2
v 0 . 0278
PE s
  0 . 6745   0 . 6745
( n  1) ( 6  1)

PE s
  0 . 05 m (probable error of every single measurement)


2
v 0 . 0278
PE m
  0 . 6745   0 . 6745
n ( n  1) 6 ( 6  1)

PE m
  0 . 02 m (probable error of the mean)

c. therefore the length of the measured line may be expressed as 1000 . 45  0 . 02 m

PE 0 . 05 1
d. RP s
   (relative precision of the single measurement)
mpv 1000 . 45 20 ,000

PE 0 . 02 1
RP m
   (relative precision of the mean)
mpv 1000 . 45 50 ,000

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1.7 Weighted Observations

1. The weights are inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.
1 k 2
W 2
;W  2
; k  WE
E E

2 2 2
k 1  W 1E 1 ; k 2  W 2 E 2 ; k 3  W 3E 3

k1 = k2 = k3, then,

2 2 2
 W 1E 1  W 2 E 2  W 3E 3

2. The weights are also proportional to the number of observations.

3. Errors are proportional to the square root of distance.

E L
2 2
E k L

2 k
but : E 
W

k 2 1
 k L ,,,, as  WL
W k
k1 = k2 = k3, then,

 W 1L 1  W 2
L 2
 W 3
L 3

Examples:

1. Determine the most probable value of the measurements having different values based on the number of measurements as
tabulated in the table shown below.

VALUES NO. OF
MEASUREMENTS
520.14 1
520.20 3
520.18 6
520.24 8

Solution. (The weights are also proportional to the number of observations.)

VALUES NO. OF WEIGHTED VALUES

MEASUREMENTS
520.14 1 520.14
520.20 3 1560.60
520.18 6 3121.08
520.24 8 4161.92

SUM 18 9363.74

9363 . 74
mpv   520 . 208
18

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 2. The following data are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of levels over different routes. It is required to
determine the most probable value of the elevation.

ROUTE ELEVATIONS PROBABLE ERROR

1 340.22  02
2 340.30  04
3 340.26  06
4 340.32  08

Solutions:
The weights are inversely proportional to the square of the corresponding probable errors.

let: W1 = 1
2 2
W 1E 1  W 2E 2

2 2
W 1E 1 1(. 02 )
W 2
 2
 2
 0 . 25
E2 (. 04 )

Tabulated Solution:
ROUTE ELEVATIONS PROBABLE WEIGHT WEIGHTED
ERROR OBSERVATION
1 340.22  02 1 340.220
2 340.30  04 0.25 85.075
3 340.26  06 0.111 37.803
4 340.32  08 0.0625 21.270
SUM 1.4236 484.368

2 2
W1E1 1 ( 0 . 02 )
W3  2
 2
 0 . 111
E3 ( 0 . 06 )

2 2
W1E1 1 (. 02 )
W4   2
 0 . 0625
E4 ( 0 . 08 )

484 . 368
mpv   340 . 242
1 . 4236

3. Three independent line of levels are run from BM 1 to BM2. Route A is 6km long, route B is 4 km long and route C is 8
km long. By route A, BM2 is 82.27 m above BM1, by route B, BM2 is 82.40 m above BM1 and by route C, BM2 is 82.10
m above BM1. If the elevation of BM1 is 30.69 m., compute the elevation of BM2 by weighted mean.

Solution:

Errors are proportional to the square root of distance.

W 1L 1  W 2 L 2  W 3 L 3

let : WA = 1

W AL 1( 6 )
WB    1 .5
A

LB 4

11
 W AL 1( 6 )
   0 . 75
A
W C
LC 8

ROUTE DISTANCE DIFF. IN WEIGHT WEIGHTED

ELEVATION OBSERVATION
A 6 km 82.27 1 82.27
B 4 km 82.40 1.5 123.6
C 8 km 82.10 0.75 61.575
SUM 3.25 267.445

267 . 445
mpv   82 . 29 m
3 . 25

therefore,

elevation of BM 2
 30 . 69  82 . 29  112 . 98 m

Review Problems

1. Define surveying. What is the purpose of surveying?

2. Explain the main classifications of surveying.
3. Explain in detail the basic principles of surveying.
4. What do you understand by the term “Geodetic Surveying”
5. Differentiate between plane and geodetic surveys.
6. Convert 120o 38’ 20” to decimal degrees (and back), both manually and by calculator.
7. How many millimeters are there in a meter? Show your solution.
8. The measured length of airport runways in five major cities in the Philippines are: 1250.00, 1375.50, 1410.75, 1550.25,
and 1750.00 meters. Determine the equivalent length of each runway in kilometers, decimeters, and centimeters. Round
off your answer to the nearest hundredth.
9. Given the dimensions of the following tracts of land, compute the area of each tract in square meters, square kilometers,
ares and hectares.
a. 108.75m x 76.82m
b. 940.08m x 1296.73 m
c. 13.36m x 50.08 m
d. 8476.55m x 121.79m
10. Given the area and width of the following regular rectangular-shaped pieces of property, determine the length of each
tract of property.
a. 2.755 ha and 195.42m
b. 125.42 sq.m. and 545.0 cm
c. 0.85 sq.km. and 925.09 m
d. 50.0 ares and 100.0 m
e. 42545.19 sq.m. and 346.72m
11. Identify the significant figures and sate the number of significant figures of the following: 0.333333, 0.41234, 50.2155,
48.5455, 7.00, 9.5 x 106, 4.00 x 107, 2.604 x 1018, and 3.00 x 10-6.
12. The three angles of a triangle were measured with the following results: A = 42 o 05’ B = 115o 38’, and C = 22o08’.
Determine the most probable value of the three angles.
13. The angles about a point have the following values : 87o07’50”, 125o 17’ 20”, and 147o35’20”. Determine the mpv of the
three angles.
14. A quantity was measured ten times with the following results: 34.630, 34.758, 34.625, 34.627, 34.629, 34,630, 34.624,
34.633, 34.626, and 34.624 meters. Determine the probable error of the mean and the relative precision of the mean.
15. An angle ABC is measured at different times using various instruments and procedures. The results, which are assigned
certain weights, are as follows: 75o09’26”, 75o09’25”, and 75o09’27”; of weights 4, 3 and 1 respectively. Determine the
mpv of the angle measured.

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