MODULE 1 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO SURVEYING
1.1 INTRODUCTION
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is surveying. From the earliest times it has
always been necessary to mark boundaries and divide tracts of land. Through the centuries,
the use of surveying have expanded such that today it is difficult to undertake any type of
engineering construction that does not involve some type of surveying. Professionals in the
different fields of engineering as well as geologists, architects, foresters, agriculturists, and
geographers are concerned with surveying as a means of planning and executing their
respective projects.
Surveying is defined as the art and science of information gathering about the physical
properties and aspects of the surface of the earth. It includes measuring and locating lines
and angles, measuring of distances, determining relative positions or points on or beneath the
surface of the earth, or establishing such points.

“Surveying is the art of making such measurements of the relative positions of points
on the surface of the earth that, on drawing them to scale, natural and artificial features may
be exhibited in their correct horizontal or vertical relationships.” – Clarke

“Surveying is the science or art of determining the position of points on or near the
earth’s surface by means of measurements in the three elements of space namely: distance,
direction and elevation.” – Rayner and Schmidt

“Surveying is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between objects,
of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines, and of establishing
points by predetermined angular and linear measurements.” – Davis, Foote, Anderson, and
Mikhail

“Surveying is that branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining
the area of any portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of the boundary lines,
the contour of the surface, and of accurately delineating the whole on paper.” – Webster

“Surveying is the science or art of making such measurements as are necessary to

determine the relative position of points above, on, or beneath the surface of the earth, or to
establish such points.” – Breed, Hosmer, and Bone

“Surveying is the science and art of determining relative positions of points above, on,
or beneath the surface of the earth, or establishing such points.” – Brinker and Wolf

Classification of Surveying
Plane Surveying – is type of Surveying which the earth is considered to be a flat
surface and where distance and areas involved are limited of extent that the exact shape of
the Earth is disregarded. With regard to the horizontal distances and directions, a level line is
considered as mathematically straight, the direction of the plumb line is assumed to be the
same at all points within the limits of the survey, and all angles are considered to be plane
angles.
Plane Surveying is of wide scope and application. The different methods of plane
surveying are employed in various surveys undertaken in engineering, scientific, commercial,
architectural, geographic, navigational, and exploratory work. Since it is the required degree
of accuracy which forms the controlling factor in most surveys, no definite limit can be assigned
for the area up to which a survey may be considered as plane. Unless extreme accuracy is
required, plane surveying is applicable to areas of some thousands of square kilometers in
extent.
 Geodetic Surveying – are surveys of wide extent which take into account the
spheroidal shape of the earth. These surveys employ principles of geodesy, are of high
precision, and the related calculations involve the solving of equations derived from advanced
mathematics particularly spherical trigonometry, calculus, and some applications of the theory
of least squares.
Geodetic surveys, which are usually of a national character, are mostly undertaken by
government agencies to serve as a basis for the production of accurate base and topographic
maps. The most refined instruments and methods of observation are employed since these
surveys provide a reference framework covering a large area of the earth’s surface. A number
of points of known location and elevation are established to serve as controls for subordinate
surveys of lesser extent which are performed as plane surveys. Elevations of selected vertical
control points are expressed in terms of vertical distances above or below a reference curved
surface usually mean sea level.

There are variety of purposes of surveys such as determination of areas, fixing of

boundary lines and plotting of maps. Therefore, engineering constructions such as mines,
railroads, bridges, water works and buildings, all demand surveys.
According to The Art of Civil Engineering Volume 1, there are eight (8) types of surveys
depending on the purpose. These are,
1. Cadastral Surveys
These surveys relate to laws of land ownership. This type of survey is generally
performed to subdivide a land into parcels for ownership under a land title and also
involves the establishment or reestablishment of real property boundaries.
These surveys are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and rural
locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and boundaries,
corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the boundaries of municipalities,
towns, and provincial jurisdictions.

2. City Surveys
These are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning
expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and configuration of the land, and preparing maps.

3. Construction Surveys
These surveys are sometimes called “stake-out”, “lay-out”, or “setting- out”. It is a must-
have part of construction that is performed to establish reference points and markers that
will serve as guide for the construction.
These are surveys which are undertaken at a construction site to provide data
regarding grades, reference lines, dimensions, ground configuration, and the location and
elevation of structures which are of concern to engineers, architects, and builders.

4. Forestry Survey
This is a type of survey executed in connection with the forest management and
mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.

5. Hydrographic Surveys
This type of survey includes the mapping of different bodies of water such as lakes,
rivers, etc. It also involves the measurement of features such as discharge, volume, etc.
These surveys are made to map shore lines, chart the shape of areas underlying water
surfaces, and measure the flow of streams. They are of general importance in connection
with navigation, development of water supply and resources, flood control, irrigation,
production of hydroelectric power, subaqueous constructions, and recreation.

6. Industrial Surveys
 This sub-discipline of surveying requires high accuracy and precision. It involves
alignment of machineries and optical tooling.
It is sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of surveying techniques in
ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, layout and installation of heavy and
complex machinery, and in other industries where very accurate dimensional layouts are
required.

7. Mine Surveys
This type of survey refers to the practice of measuring and mapping on-ground or
underground points for the purpose of harnessing and utilizing mineral deposits.
These are surveys which are performed to determine the position of all underground
excavations and surface mine structures, to fix surface boundaries of mining claims,
determine geological formations, to calculate excavated volumes, and establish lines and
grades for other related mining work.

8. Photogrammetric Surveys
This type of survey involves obtaining reliable measurements and spatial information
from photographic images or digital photo imagery to locate features on or above the
surface of the earth.
This is a type of survey which makes use of photographs taken with specially designed
cameras either from airplanes, or ground stations. Measurements are obtained from the
photographs which are used in conjunction with limited ground surveys.

9. Route Surveys
This type of survey supplies the data necessary to determine alignment (horizontal and
vertical), grading and earthwork quantities, and location of natural and artificial objects for
the design and construction of engineering projects such as roads, railways, pipelines and
others.

10. Topographic Surveys

This type of survey obtains data about the elevation of points on a piece of land and is
presented as contour lines on a plot. This survey method is ought to map natural and/ or
man-made features on the ground as well as obtain elevations.
These surveys are made for determining the shape of the ground, and the location and
elevation of natural and artificial features upon it. The features shown include such natural
objects such as hills, mountains, rivers, lakes, relief of the ground surface, and works of
man, such as roads, buildings, ports, towns, municipalities, and bridges.
Types of Surveying Equipment and Their Uses
1. Chains and Tapes – Taking accurate measurements is one of the most important
tasks a land surveyor must complete. There is a variety of tools that can be used to
take measurements including tapes, rulers, chains and laser devices.
2. Compasses and Clinometers – A compass is an essential piece of equipment when
surveying in unfamiliar territory, backcountry, or just orienting your position on a map.
Compasses can be used to measure distances between two points while clinometers
are used to measure the angle or elevation of slopes.
3. Transits and Theodolites – These tools are used to measure both horizontal and
vertical angles. Both tools have a minimum accuracy of one minute of angle, though
the theodolite is generally recognized as the more accurate of the two, measuring
angles to an accuracy of one-tenth of a second angle.
 4. Levels – A level can be used to read an elevation and determine differences in
elevation two points. These tools can be handheld, optical or digital, and are typically
used in conjunction with level rods and tripods.
5. Safety Gear – Land surveyors work in all kinds of conditions and climates, but safety
is always the primary concern. High-visibility gear and safety headwear are a must for
all outdoor work crews.
6. Prisms and Reflectors – prism systems are used to secure control points at a
comfortable and accessible height for pinpoint accuracy. These devices can be
mounted on surveying poles and used in conjunction with electronic distance
measuring (EDM) instruments for improved accuracy.
7. Magnetic Locators – When conducting a land survey, it is necessary to identify the
location of certain features, such as manhole and utility covers, steel and iron pipes,
underground tanks, and survey corner markers. Magnetic locators can be used to
quickly and precisely locate ferrous materials like iron, steel, and rebar.
8. Poles, Tripods, and Mounts – Even the most precise of surveying instruments can
be thrown off by an unstable mount. Poles, tripods, and other mounting accessories
are essential for surveyors to ensure solid, stable readings. These mounts can be used
for all kinds of surveying equipment, including prisms, lasers, and levels.

The Field Survey Party

The following is a list of persons who may compose a field survey party. Their duties
and responsibilities are given opposite their respective designations. The given composition
is primarily designed for large scale surveys which is expected to undertake field surveys
covering days or weeks using either conventional or sophisticated surveying instruments such
as those for surveys using electronic, inertial, and position systems.
1. Chief of Party – the person who is responsible for the overall direction, supervision
and operational control of the survey party. He is also responsible for its logistical and
technical requirements, and problems of a field survey operation.
2. Assistant Chief of Party – the person whose duty is to assist the chief of party in the
accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey party. He takes over the duties of
the chief of party during the absence of the chief.
3. Instrument man – the person whose duty is to set-up, level, and operate surveying
instruments such as the transits, levels, theodolites, etc. He sees to it that instruments
to be used in a survey operation are in good working condition and in proper
adjustment.
4. Technician – the person who is responsible for use and operation of all electronic
instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to see to it that these
equipment are functioning properly, are regularly calibrated, and are in proper
adjustment.
5. Computer – the person whose duty is to perform all computations of survey data and
works out necessary computational checks required in a field work operation. He is
responsible for the utilization of electronic calculators, pocket or microcomputers, and
assists in the operation of computerized surveying systems or equipment.
6. Recorder – the person whose duty is to keep a record of all sketches, drawings,
measurements and observations taken or needed for a field work operation. He keeps
table of schedules of all phases of work and the employment of the members of the
survey party.
7. Head Tapeman – the person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with tape. He determines and directs the marking of stations to be
occupied by the surveying instruments and directs the clearing out of obstructions
along the line of sight.
8. Rear Tapeman – the person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during taping
operations and in other related work.
9. Flagman – the person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range pole at selected
points as directed by the instrumentman. He helps the tapeman in making
measurements and assists the axeman in cutting down branches and in clearing other
obstructions to line of sight.
10. Rodman – the person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or leveling rod when
sights are to be taken on it.
11. Pacer – the person whose duty is to check all linear measurements made by the
tapeman. He assists the tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and blunders in linear
measurements are either reduced or eliminated.
12. Axeman/Lineman – the person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of trees, brush,
and other obstructions in wooded country. He is also responsible for the security and
safety of the members of the survey party at the survey site.
13. Aidman – the person whose duty is to render first aid treatment to members of the
survey party who are involved in snake and insect bites, accidents, and other cases
involving their health, safety, and well being
14. Utilitymen – the persons whose duties are to render other forms of assistance needed
by the survey party or as directed by the chief of party. Where a survey vehicle is used,
a utilityman is designated as driver. If the survey party has to camp out for days in the
field, utilitymen are responsible for setting up the camp site and its required facilities
1.2 PACING
In measuring distances, there are instances where approximate measurements can
be enough for the data needed. Instances such as getting the rodman in position during a
cross-section survey, or simply measuring a relatively short distance where accuracy is not
that of an issue. One of the simplest methods of measuring distances is called Pacing. It
furnishes a convenient means of obtaining approximate distances.

 PACE
Defined as the length of a step. It is measured either heel-to-heel, or toe-to-toe.
 STRIDE
Defined as a double step. One (1) stride is equal to two (2) paces.
 PACE FACTOR
It is defined as the distance covered by one (1) pace.

How to determine your Pace Factor?

1. Pace a line for nth times. Make sure that the line is provided with its true value
distance (Distance Paced).
2. Record all the number of paces for each time.
3. Solve for the Average No. of Paces to cover the same distance. Use the formula
below,
∑ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 =
𝑛

4. Obtain the Pace Factor (PF) using the formula below,

𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝐹 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒

How to use your Pace Factor?

Your Pace Factor can be used in approximating the distance of a line (D).
1. Pace a line for nth times.
2. Record all the number of paces for each time
3. Solve for the Average number of paces to cover the line. Use the formula below,
∑ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
𝑛

4. Obtain the distance of the line (D). Use the formula below,

𝐷 = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)𝑥 (𝑃𝐹)

SAMPLE PROBLEM

Sample Problem No. 1

A line 125 meters long was paced by a surveyor for five (5) times with the following number of
strides: 79, 80, 76, 78, and 79. Another line was paced four (5) times again with the following
results: 634, 631, 632, 635, and 637.
1. Determine the pace factor.
2. Determine the distance of the new line.

Solution
1. Pace Factor, PF
Convert the date first into number of paces, thus: 158, 160, 152, 156, and 158 are
the number of paces respectively.

Obtain the pace factor PF,

 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝐹 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
125 𝑚
𝑃𝐹 =
158 + 160 + 152 + 156 + 158
𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
5

𝑷𝑭 = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟗𝟕 𝒎/𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆

2. Distance of the New Line

Obtain the average number of paces to cover the new line,
∑ 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
𝑛
634 + 631 + 632 + 635 + 637
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 =
5
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑵𝒐. 𝒐𝒇 𝑷𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒕𝒐 𝒄𝒐𝒗𝒆𝒓 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒆 = 𝟔𝟑𝟑. 𝟖 𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒆𝒔

Distance of the new line,

𝐷 = (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑁𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒)𝑥 (𝑃𝐹)
𝐷 = (633.8 𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠)𝑥 (0.797 𝑚/𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑠)

𝑫 = 𝟓𝟎𝟓. 𝟐𝟔𝟏 𝒎

1.3 MEASUREMENT OF DISTANCES

In the field of surveying, measurements of lengths are horizontal or if not,
measurements of lengths are latterly reduced to horizontal distances. Measurement of
distances are as follows:
 Measurement on level ground with a tape
 Measurement with the chain
 Horizontal measurement on sloping ground with a tape
 Slope measurements with a tape

According to Breed and Hosmer, there are six (6) common sources of error in
measurement of lines. These are either be, instrumental, natural or accidental error;
 Not pulling the tape taut (Tape not stretched straight)
 Tape not horizontal
 Incorrect/ imperfect alignment
 Effect of wind
 Variation in temperature
 Erroneous length of tape (Tape not standard length)
Other sources of errors are as follows;
 Variation in tension
 Imperfection of observation

Also, according to Breed and Hosmer, there are five (5) common mistakes in reading
and recording measurements. These are,
 Failure to observe the position of the zero point of the tape. (In some tapes it is not at
the end of the ring.)
 Omitting a whole chain- or tape-length.
 Reading from wrong end of chain, as 40 ft. for 60 ft., or in the wrong direction from a
tag, as 47 ft. for 53 ft.
 Transposing figures, e.g., 46.24 for 46.42 (mental); or reading tape upside down, e.g.,
6 for 9, or 86 for 98.
 Reading wrong foot-mark, as 48.92 for 47.92.
 CONVERSION TABLE FOR SOME UNITS USED IN SURVEYING
1 acre 4047 m2
1 chain 100 links = 4 rods = 66 ft
1 cubit 18 inches
1 furlong 40 rods
1 knot 6080 ft = 1 nautical mile
1 link 0.66 ft
1 nautical mile 6080 ft= 8 furlongs
1 statute mile 5280 ft
1 military pace 2.5 ft
1 perch 1 pole = 1 rod = 25 links
1 pin 100 links = 1 tape length
1 section 640 acres
1 tally 10 pins
1 township 36 sections
1 vara 33 inches
1 yard 3 ft

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Sample Problem No. 1

A line was measured to have 9 tallies, 7 pins, and 30 links. How long is the line in meters?

Solution
From the table,
1 tally = 10 pins 1 pin = 100 links 1 link = 0.66 feet 1 feet = 0.3048 meters

Length of the line, L

𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑚
𝐿 = (9𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑠)(10 )(100 )(0.66 )(0.3048
𝑡𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑦 𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑓𝑡
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑚
+ (7pins) 100 0.66 0.3048
𝑝𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑓𝑡
𝑓𝑡 𝑚
+ (30 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠) 0.66 0.3048
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑓𝑡
𝑳 = 𝟏𝟗𝟓𝟕. 𝟑𝟔𝟓 𝒎𝒆𝒕𝒆𝒓𝒔

Sample Problem No. 2

A distance was measured and was recorded to have a value equivalent to 10 perches, 6 rods,
and 52 varas. Compute the total distance in feet.

Solution
From the table,
1 perch = 25 links 1 rod = 25 links
1 vara = 33 inches 1 link = 0.66 ft
` 1 foot = 12 inches

Distance in feet,
𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘𝑠 𝑓𝑡
𝐷 = 10 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 25 0.66 + 6 𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑠 25 0.66
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐ℎ 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑟𝑜𝑑 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑘
𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠 1 𝑓𝑡
+ 52 𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑠 (33 )( )
𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑎 12 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ𝑒𝑠

𝑫 = 𝟒𝟎𝟕 𝒇𝒆𝒆𝒕
1.4 ERRORS AND MISTAKES
In reality, the true value of a measurement can never be identified thus all
observations/ measurements are assumed to have errors. Surveyors are entrusted to correct
their observations depending on many factors. Such factors are as follows;
 Mechanical equipment used (Instrumental)
 Environmental conditions during the survey (Natural)
 Carefulness of the person during the survey (Personal/ Human)

Errors resulting from the observer, the instrument, and the environment is called
Systematic/ Cumulative errors. This type of error is cumulative meaning it tends to increase
in magnitude so long as the conditions remains constant.
There are also errors that are accidentally and randomly present in observations and
is called Accidental Errors/ Random Errors. These are errors beyond the control of the
surveyor, probabilistic in nature and often tends to cancel out. These errors are still present
even after systematic / cumulative errors and mistakes have been eliminated.

Precision versus Accuracy

The degree of consistency of a group of observations is called Precision. Meanwhile,
Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measurement to its true value. To understand more the
difference of precision and accuracy, study the illustration below.

Low Precision High Precision High Precision

Low Accuracy Low Accuracy High Accuracy

Most Probable Value

As discussed, no observation is completely free from error therefore, the true value of
an observation must be represented by a value assumed to be close to it. This value is called
the most probable value (mpv) and is taken as,
∑𝑥
𝑚𝑝𝑣 =
𝑛

The difference between an observation x and the most probable value mpv is called
error/ residual/ deviation (v).
𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑚𝑝𝑣

Standard Deviation
Standard deviation of any single observation, also called as the root-mean square, is
a measure of spread/ variation/ dispersion/ scatter of a single observation in a distribution and
is taken as,
∑𝑣
𝑆𝑥 = ±
𝑛−1
 In most surveying applications, we use Sample Standard Deviation represented by S x
because most data obtained in surveying are small in size. The number of repetitions
performed is far from the boundary for it to be considered as a population. Hence, the
Population Standard Deviation, represented by σx, will not be used here.

In statistics, the deviation of the sample mean from the actual mean of the population
is called standard error. In order to solve this and measure the accuracy with which a sample
represents a population, a method is used to estimate the standard deviation of a sampling
distribution. This method is called the standard error of the mean, also called the standard
deviation of the mean (Sx) and is taken as,
∑𝑣 𝑆𝑥
𝑆𝑥 = ± =
𝑛(𝑛 − 1) √𝑛

Probable Error
Probability Error is defined as the quantity which when added to or subtracted from the
most probable value, defines a range within there is a 50% chance that the true value of the
measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.

Normal Distribution Curve

z = -0.6745 z = +0.6745 z-score

P (-0.6745 < x < 0.6745) = 50%

Above is the normal distribution curve, which is the basis of the coefficient used in
calculating the probable error.

Probable Error of any Single Observation

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745𝑆𝑥

Probable Error of the Mean

𝑆𝑥
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745 = ±0.6745𝑆𝑥
√𝑛

Relative Error of the Mean

Also called Precision. Refers to the ration of the magnitude of the error to the
magnitude of the measured value.
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑚𝑝𝑣

Interrelationship of Errors
 Probable errors are either added or multiplied. When measurements of known
probable errors are added, the probable error of the sum is given by,
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑚 = ± 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝐸

When measurements of known probable errors are multiplied, the probable error of
the product is given by,
𝑃𝐸𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = ± (𝑄 𝑥𝑃𝐸 ) + (𝑄 𝑥𝑃𝐸 )

Where, Q1 & Q2 = measured quantities

PE1 & PE2 = probable error corresponding to each measured quantity.

Rules for Weighted Measurements

1. The weight is directly proportional to the number of observations or measurements.
2. The weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.
3. The weight is inversely proportional to the distance.
4. The weight is inversely proportional to the number of set-ups.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Sample Problem No. 1

Given the following data in measuring a distance of a certain line.

DISTANCE NO. OF MEASUREMENTS

47.23 3
47.22 3
47.20 4
47.28 2
1. Determine the most probable value of the measurements.
2. Calculate the standard deviation of any single observation.
3. Calculate the standard error of the mean.
4. Calculate the probable error of any single observation
5. Calculate the probable error of the mean
6. Determine the relative error or precision of the mean.

Solution
1. Most Probable Value of the measurements
Note that in this problem, the number of measurements corresponds to the
frequency.
DATA (x) FREQ x•FREQ
47.23 3 141.69
47.22 3 141.66
47.20 4 188.8
47.28 2 94.56
n = 12 ∑x= 566.71

Most probable value of the measurements, mpv

∑ 𝑥 566.71
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = =
𝑛 12

𝒎𝒑𝒗 = 𝟒𝟕. 𝟐𝟐𝟔 𝒎

 2. Standard deviation of any single observation
DATA (x) DEVIATION (v) v2 Freq v2•Freq
47.23 47.23 – 47.226=+0.004 0.0000160 3 0.000048
47.22 47.22 – 47.226 = -0.006 0.0000360 3 0.000108
47.20 47.20 – 47.226 = - 0.026 0.0006760 4 0.002704
47.28 47.28 – 47.226 = +0.054 0.0029200 2 0.005840
n = 12 ∑v2=0.0087

Standard deviation of any single observation, Sx

∑𝑣 0.0087
𝑆𝑥 = ± =± = ±0.0281
𝑛−1 12 − 1

𝑺𝒙 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟖𝟏

3. Standard error of the mean, Sx

𝑆𝑥 ±0.0281
𝑆𝑥 = =
√𝑛 √12

𝑆𝒙 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟖𝟏𝟏𝟏

4. Probable error of any single observation, PEs

𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745𝑆𝑥
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745(0.0281)

𝑷𝑬𝒔 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟏𝟖𝟗𝟓

5. Probable error of the mean, PEm

𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745𝑆𝑥
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745(0.008111)

𝑷𝑬𝒎 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟓𝟒𝟕𝟏

6. Relative Error or Precision of the Mean

𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑚𝑝𝑣
0.005741
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 𝑜𝑟 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
47.226
𝟏
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝑬𝒓𝒓𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒓 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑙𝑦 𝟏: 𝟖𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝟖𝟐𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟗𝟑

Sample Problem No. 2

The following interior angles of a triangular traverse were measured with the same precision.
ANGLE VALUE NO. OF MEASUREMENTS
A 41°30’46” 5
B 77°15’16” 6
C 60°14’15” 2
 1. Determine the most probable value of angle A, in sexagesimal form.
2. Determine the most probable value of angle B, in sexagesimal form.
3. Determine the most probable value of angle C, in sexagesimal form.

Solution
Sum of the interior angles of a triangle = 180°
Sum of the interior angles of the traverse = 41°30’46” + 77°15’16” + 60°14’15” = 179°0’15”
Total Error = 180° - 179°0’15” = 0°59’45” (Positive, therefore, error must be added)

Note: The total error must be distributed among the interior angles. The angle measured the
most frequent must have the least error.
ANGLE VALUE NO. OF Weight of Error,
MEASUREMENTS W
A 41°30’46” 5 1/5
B 77°15’16” 6 1/6
C 60°14’15” 2 1/2
179°0’15” ∑W = 13/15

True angle = Measured Angle ± (Total Error x Relative Weight)

𝟏/𝟓
𝑨 = 41°30’46” + 𝟎°𝟓𝟗’𝟒𝟓” 𝐱
𝟏𝟑/𝟏𝟓
A = 41°44’33.31”

𝟏/𝟔
𝑩 = 77°15’16” + 𝟎°𝟓𝟗’𝟒𝟓” 𝐱
𝟏𝟑/𝟏𝟓
B =77°26’45.42”

𝟏/𝟐
𝑪 = 60°14’15” + 𝟎°𝟓𝟗’𝟒𝟓” 𝐱
𝟏𝟑/𝟏𝟓
C = 60°48’43.27”

Sample Problem No. 3

The data shown in the table below are the observed elevation of a point by running a line of
levels over four different routes, in meters.
ROUTE ELEVATION PROBABLE ERROR
A 310.16 ± 0.08
B 308.72 ± 0.04
C 310.28 ± 0.02
D 310.24 ± 0.01
1. Using method of least squares, determine the weight of elevation taken from route D.
2. Determine the corresponding relative weight of the elevation taken from route B if the
relative weight of route A is set as 1.0.
3. Determine the most probable value of the elevation of the observed point.

Solution
Using the method of least squares, the weight is inversely proportional to the square of each
probable errors.

Data Weight
310.16 1/ 0.082 = 156.25
308.72 1/0.042 = 625
 310.28 1/0.022 = 2500
310.24 1/0.012 = 10000

1. Weight of elevation taken from route D,

From table,
10,000

2. Corresponding relative weight of the elevation taken from route B if the relative
weight of route A is set to 1.0,
Using the method of least squares, we obtain the relative weight of each elevation by
setting the least weight to 1.0. Divide each weight by 156.25 (least weight),
Data Weight Relative Weight
310.16 1/ 0.082 = 156.25 156.25/156.25 =1.0
308.72 1/0.042 = 625 625/156.25 = 4.0
310.28 1/0.022 = 2500 2500/156.25 = 16.0
310.24 1/0.012 = 10000 10000/156.25 = 64.0
Therefore, the relative weight of the elevation taken from route B is,
4.0

3. Most Probable value of the elevation of a point,

Data (x) Relative Weight (Freq) x•Freq
310.16 1.0 310.16
308.72 4.0 1234.88
310.28 16.0 4964.48
310.24 64.0 19855.36
n= 85 ∑ x•Freq= 26364.88
Most probable value,
∑ 𝐱 • 𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪 26364.88
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = =
𝑛 85

𝒎𝒑𝒗 = 𝟑𝟏𝟎. 𝟏𝟕𝟓𝟏 𝒎

Sample Problem No. 4

The following data are several lines of levels run over different routes from Benchmark-1 to
Benchmark-2.
ROUTE DISTANCE DIFFERENCE OF ELEVATION
A 7 26.012
B 9 25.958
C 11 26.135

1. Determine the most probable value of the difference in elevation between BM1 and
BM2.

Solution
The longer the distance of the route, the higher will be the error in the observation. This is due
to the fact that levelling is performed through series of instrument set-ups, so longer routes
will require more set-ups, thus higher risk of errors.
Therefore, the date in route A is the most reliable (greatest weight), while the data in route C
is the least reliable (least weight).
ROUTE DIFFERENCE OF DISTANCE Weight (Freq) x•Freq
ELEVATION (data, x)
 A 26.012 m 7 1/7 3.716
B 25.958 m 9 1/9 2.8842
C 26.135 m 11 1/11 2.3759
n= 239/693 ∑ x•Freq=
8.9761
Most probable value,
∑ 𝐱 • 𝐅𝐫𝐞𝐪 8.9761
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = =
𝑛 239
693

𝒎𝒑𝒗 = 𝟐𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟕𝟎𝟑 𝒎

Sample Problem No. 5

Assume that a certain line is measured in three sections, with errors in the individual sections
equal to ±0.02, ±0.014 and ± 0.029 feet, respectively. Determine the anticipated error of the
total length.

Solution
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑚 = ± 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸 + 𝑃𝐸
𝑃𝐸𝑠𝑢𝑚 = ± 0.02 + 0.014 + 0.029
𝑷𝑬𝒔𝒖𝒎 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝟕𝟗

Sample Problem No. 6

The two side of a rectangular lot were measured with certain estimated probable errors as
follows:
W= 325.36 ± 0.085 m
L= 569.15 ± 0.075 m
1. Determine the probable error in the area of the rectangular lot.
2. Determine the range where there is a 50% chance that the true area may lie.

Solution
W= 325.36 ± 0.085 m Q1 = 325.36 PE1 = 0.085
L= 569.15 ± 0.075 m Q2 = 569.15 PE2 = 0.075
1. Probable error in the area, PEproduct
𝑃𝐸𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = ± (𝑄 𝑥𝑃𝐸 ) + (𝑄 𝑥𝑃𝐸 )
𝑃𝐸𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡 = ± (325.36𝑥0.075) + (569.15𝑥0.085)
𝑷𝑬𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕 = ±𝟓𝟒. 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟔 𝒎𝟐

2. Range for the true area

Solve for the Area,
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 𝐿 𝑥 𝑊
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 325.36 𝑥 569.15
𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟕𝟖. 𝟔𝟒𝟒 m2

𝑨𝒓𝒆𝒂 = 𝟏𝟖𝟓𝟏𝟕𝟖. 𝟔𝟒𝟒 ± 𝟓𝟒. 𝟏𝟖𝟑𝟔

Therefore, there is a 50% chance that the true area may lie between 185,124.4604 m2
and 185,232.8276 m2.
CORRECTIONS TO TAPE MEASUREMENTS
Surveyors need to consider environmental factors when measuring distances using
measuring tapes. This is because measuring tapes are calibrated at controlled conditions. For
short distances, the errors are relatively small but they accumulate and become significant
when measuring long distances.
Consider two (2) fixed points 15 centimeters apart (true distance). Let’s assume that
the conditions during the observation matches the standard conditions, we should be able to
read an exact 15 cm on the standard-length tape.

From the figure, the following rules when measuring distances are establish,
 When the tape is too long, the error is positive, thus it is to be added from the
measured length.
 When the tape is too short, the error is negative, thus it is to be subtracted from the
measured length.
From this, we can establish the following relation,
𝑇𝐷 = 𝑀𝐷 + 𝐸

Where, TD = True Distance

MD= Measured Distance
E= Total Error (+) Too Long
(-) Too Short

Additional rules when laying out distances,

 When laying out with tape that is too long, the correction/ error is to be subtracted.
 When laying out with tape that is too short, the correction/ error is to be added.
Temperature Correction
(To be added or subtracted)
𝑪𝑻 = 𝜶(𝑻𝟐 − 𝑻𝟏 )𝑳𝟏

Where, CT = Correction due to temperature

α = Coefficient of thermal expansion = 11.6 x 10-6 m/m.C° (for Steel)
= 6.45 x 10-6 m/m.F° (for Steel)
T2 = Temperature during the time of observation
T1 = Standard Temperature/ Temperature during calibration
L1 = Standard length
Pull Correction
To be added or subtracted.
(𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 )(𝑳𝟏 )
𝑪𝒑 =
𝑨𝑬

Where, Cp = Correcction due to pull

P2 = Applied pull
P1 = Standard pull/ pull applied during calibration
A = Cross- sectional area of the tape
E = Modulus of Elasticity = 200 GPa (for steel)

Sag Correction
To be subtracted only.
𝒘𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝟑
𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮 =
𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐 𝟐

Where, CSAG = Correction due to sag

W = linear density

Normal Tension
The necessary pull to compensate the correction due to sag.
𝑪𝑺𝑨𝑮 = 𝑪𝒑

𝒘𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝟑 (𝑷𝟐 − 𝑷𝟏 )(𝑳𝟏 )
𝟐 =
𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐 𝑨𝑬

Slope Correction
To be subtracted only.

𝑆 =𝐻 +ℎ
𝑆 = (𝑆 − 𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒) + ℎ
𝑆 = 𝑆 − 2𝑆𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 + 𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 + ℎ
0 = −2𝑆𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 + ℎ
ℎ
𝐶𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 =
2𝑆

NOTE: Cslope becomes very small for gentle slopes, making Cslope2 negligible.

Thus, for gentle slopes, usually less than 20%,

𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 =
𝟐𝑺

However, for steep slopes, usually between 20% and 30%,

𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟒
𝑪𝒔𝒍𝒐𝒑𝒆 = + 𝟑
𝟐𝑺 𝟖𝑺

For very steep slopes, usually greater than 30%, the horizontal distance ‘H’ can be solved
using trigonometry,
𝐻 = 𝑆 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃

And the correction is,

 𝑪𝑺𝑳𝑶𝑷𝑬 = 𝑺 − 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽 = 𝑺(𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽)

Where, h = difference in elevation between the ends of the measurement

S = sloping distance
H = horizontal distance
Ø = angle between S and H

Mean Sea Level Correction

𝐿′ 𝐿
=
𝑅−ℎ 𝑅
𝐿(𝑅 − ℎ)
𝐿 =
𝑅
ℎ
𝐿 = 𝐿 1−
𝑅

L’ = Length at mean sea level.

L = Length measured at the specified
elevation
R = Distance from the earth’s core to the
specified location
Rearth = Distance from the earth’s core to the mean sea level
h = Elevation of the place where the length is measured.

Hence, the mean-sea level correction is,

𝑳𝒉
𝑪𝒎𝒔𝒍 =
𝑹

Take note that this correction is subtracted if the line measured is above sea level and
added if the line is measured below sea level.

𝐿 = 𝐿 − 𝐶𝑚𝑠𝑙
𝐿ℎ
𝐿 =𝐿−
𝑅
Length at mean sea level,
𝒉
𝑳 =𝑳 𝟏−
𝑹

Note: From the figure, it is shown that Rearth = R – h, but since ‘h’ is very small relative to ‘R’,
it is common practice that we set R = Rearth. Rearth is approximately 6,400 kilometers or
6,400,000 meters.

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

Sample Problem No. 1

The length of line AB measured with a 50m tape is 465.285m. When the tape is compared
with standard invartape, it is found to be 0.016m too long in almost the same horizontal
conditions of support, tension, temperature that existed during measurement of the line.
Determine the correct length of line AB.

Solution
Since the 50m tape used to measure the line AB is 0.016m too long, the total correction will
be:

𝐶 =𝐶𝑥
.
𝐶 = 0.016 𝑥
𝐶 = 0.15𝑚

The tape is too long and it used for measurement. Therefore, the total correction will be
added to the observed length:
Corrected Length AB = 465.285 + 0.15
= 465.435 m

Sample Problem No. 2

A civil engineer used a 30m tape in measuring an inclined distance. The measured length on
the slope was recorded to be 459.20m long. The difference in elevation between the initial
point and the end of the point was found to be 1.25m. The 30m tape is standard length at a
temperature of 10°C and a pull of 50N. During measurement the temperature reading was
15°C and the tape was supported at its ends with an applied pill of 75N. The cross-sectional
area of the tape is 6.60sq.mm and E = 200GPa. The tape has a mass of 0.075 kg/m.
Determine the true horizontal distance if K = 0.0000116/°C.

Solution

Let H be the true horizontal distance

𝐻 = 𝑆 −𝐶 1
Where S’ is the corrected slope distance and 𝐶 is the correction due to slope.
𝑆 =𝑆±𝐶 ±𝐶 −𝐶 2
For the total correction due to temperature
𝐶 = 𝐾(𝑇 −𝑇 )𝐿
𝐶 = 0.0000116(15 − 10)459.20
𝑪𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟑𝒎
For the total correction due to pull
( ` )
𝐶 =
𝐴 = 6.60𝑚𝑚 𝐸 = 200𝐺𝑃𝑎 = 200 𝑥 10 𝑀𝑃𝑎
( )( . )
𝐶 =( . )( / )
𝑪𝒑 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝒎
For the total correction due to sag
𝐶 =
𝑊 = . 075 9.81 = .736
( . ) ( )
𝐶 = ( )
𝑪𝒔𝟑𝟎 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟎𝟖𝒎
(. ) ( . )
𝐶 = 0.108 + ( )
𝑪𝒔𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 = 𝟏. 𝟔𝟐𝟑𝒎
For the total correction due to slope
𝑆′ = 459.2 + 0.027 + .0009 − 1.623
𝑆′ = 457.613𝑚
𝐶 =
 ( . )
𝐶 = = 0.002𝑚
( . )
𝐻 = 457.613 − .002
𝑯 = 𝟒𝟓𝟕. 𝟔𝟏𝟏𝒎

1.5 CURVATURE AND REFRACTION CORRECTION

Effect of Earth’s Curvature

The amount by which the horizontal line (see figure) departs from the surface of the earth
(which is a level surface) is the effect of the earth’s curvature.

Considering the right triangle,

𝐾 +𝑅 = (𝑅 +ℎ )
𝐾 +𝑅 =𝑅 + 2𝑅 ℎ +ℎ
𝐾 = 2𝑅 ℎ +ℎ

Since hc is very small for practical values of K, ℎ can be considered negligible,

𝐾 = 2𝑅 ℎ

Subtituting the value of Rearth = 6,731 km,

𝐾 = 2(6,371)ℎ

1
ℎ = 𝐾
2 × 6,371
ℎ = 0.0000785𝐾

Expressing hc in meters,
𝒉𝒄 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟕𝟖𝟓𝑲𝟐

Where, hc = curvature correction, in meters

K = horizontal distance or level surface distance, in kilometres

Refraction Correction
Rays of light passing through the earth’s atmosphere in any direction other than vertical
are refracted or bent from a straight path. This bending usually takes place in a direction
toward the earth’s surface under normal conditions of temperature and pressure gradients.

Such bent rays of light tend to diminish the effect of curvature for a slight amount, normally
about 14% (or 1/7) of the curvature effect.

Horizontal Line – a straight line tangent to a level surface

Level Surface – a curved surface every element of which is normal to the plumb line.
Level Line – a line in a level surface

ℎ
=ℎ −ℎ
1
ℎ =ℎ − ℎ
7
6
ℎ = ℎ
7
6
ℎ = (0.0785𝐾 )
7
6
ℎ = (0.0785𝐾 )
7
ℎ ≈ 0.06729𝐾

We often round up the coefficient to 0.0675, hence the formula,

𝒉𝒄𝒓 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟔𝟕𝟓𝑲𝟐
SAMPLE PROBLEMS
Sample Problem No. 1
A woman standing in a beach can just see the top of a lighthouse 24.14km away. If her eye
height above the sea level is 1.738m, determine the height of the lighthouse.

Solution

Let hw the height of the woman

ℎ = 0.0675 𝐷1 ①

Let h2 the height of the lighthouse

ℎ = 0.0675 𝐷2 ②

① ℎ = 0.0675 𝐷1
1.738 = 0.0675𝐷1
𝐷1 = 5.074 𝑘𝑚
𝐷2 = 24 − 𝐷1 = 24 − (5.074) = 18.926 𝑘𝑚

② ℎ = 0.0675𝐷2 = 0.0675(18.926)

𝒉𝟐 = 𝟐𝟒. 𝟏𝟕𝟕 𝒎 answer

Sample Problem No. 2

A man’s eyes 1.75m above sea level can barely see the top of the lighthouse which is at a
certain distance away from the man.
1. What is the elevation of the top of the lighthouse above sea level if the lighthouse is
20km away from the man?
2. How far is the lighthouse from the man in meters if the top of the lighthouse is 14.86m
above sea level?
3. What is the height of the lighthouse at a distance 20km away from the man that will just
be visible without the line of sight approaching nearer than 1.75m to the water?

Solution
1. Let hm be the height of the man’s eye above sea level
ℎ = 0.0675𝐷1 ①

Let h2 be the elevation of the top of the lighthouse above sea level
ℎ = 0.0675𝐷2 ②

① ℎ = 0.0675𝐷1
1.75 = 0.0675(𝐷1)
𝐷1 = 5.0918 𝑘𝑚
𝐷2 = 20 − 𝐷1 = 20 − 5.0918 = 14.908 𝑘𝑚

② ℎ = 0.0675𝐷2 = 0.0675(14.908)

𝒉𝟐 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟎𝟎𝟐 𝒎 answer

2. Let D be the distance between the man and the lighthouse

𝐷 = 𝐷1 + 𝐷2 ①
𝐷1 = 5.0918 𝑘𝑚 = 5, 091.8 𝑚
ℎ = 0.0675𝐷2
14.86 = 0.0675𝐷2
𝐷2 = 14, 837 𝑚
① 𝐷 = 𝐷1 + 𝐷2
 𝐷 = 5, 091.8 + 14, 837

𝑫 = 𝟏𝟗, 𝟗𝟐𝟗. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎 answer

3. Let h2 be the height of the lighthouse and h be the height from the man’s line of sight
to the top of the lighthouse
ℎ = 1.75 + ℎ ①
ℎ = 0.0675𝐷 ②

② ℎ = 0.0675𝐷
ℎ = 0.0675(20) = 27 𝑚

① ℎ = 1.75 + 27

𝒉𝟐 = 𝟐𝟖. 𝟕𝟓 𝒎 answer

Sample Problem No. 3

Two hills A and C have elevations of 600m and 800m respectively. In between A and C is
another hill B which has an elevation of 705m and is located at 12km away from A and 10km
from C.
1. Determine the clearance/obstruction of the line of sight at hill B if the observer is at A so
that C will be visible from A.
2. If C is not visible from A, what height of tower must be constructed at C so that it could
be visible from A with the line having a clearance of 2m above hill B.
3. What height of equal towers at A and C must be constructed in order that A, B, and C
will be inter-visible?
Solution
1. Let x be the clearance/obstruction of the line of sight
ℎ= ℎ + (ℎ − ℎ ) − 0.0675𝐷1𝐷2

ℎ = 800 + (600 − 800) − 0.0675(12)(10) = 700.991 m

𝑥 = 705 − ℎ

𝒙 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟗 𝒎 answer

2. Let y be the height of the tower

ℎ = 800 + 𝑦 ①

ℎ = 705 + 2 = 707 𝑚
 ℎ = ①+ ℎ − ① − 0.0675𝐷1𝐷2

707 = 800 + 𝑦 + (600 − 800 − 𝑦) − 0.0675(10)(12)

𝒚 = 𝟏𝟏. 𝟎𝟏𝟔𝟕 𝒎 answer

3. Let y1 be the height of equal towers at A and C

ℎ = 600 + 𝑦 ①

ℎ = 800 + 𝑦 ②

ℎ = ②+ ① − ② − 0.0675𝐷1𝐷2

705 = 800 + 𝑦 + (600 + 𝑦 − 800 − 𝑦 ) − 0.0675(10)(12)

𝒚𝟏 = 𝟒. 𝟎𝟎𝟗𝟏 𝒎 answer

1.6 DIFFERENTIAL AND PROFILE LEVELLING

DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

Differential levelling is the process of measuring vertical distances from a known

or assumed elevation point to determine elevations of unknown points.

TERMS USED IN DIFFERENTIAL LEVELING

1. Benchmark (BM)
- It is a permanent point with known or assumed elevation
2. Temporary Benchmark (TBM)
- A point of known elevation
3. Turning point (TP)
– An intervening point with unknown elevation where backsight and foresight
are taken.
4. Backsight (BS)
– Rod reading to benchmark or to a point with known elevation
5. Foresight (FS)
– Rod reading to a point with unknown elevation
6. Height of Instrument (HI)
– It is the elevation of the line of sight in the telescope of the level. Sum of
elevation and backsight

𝑯𝑰 = 𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑽 + 𝑩𝑺

𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑽 = 𝑯𝑰 − 𝑭𝑺
 COMMON MISTAKES IN LEVELING

1. Faulty reading of the rod

2. Not fully extending the rod for high readings
3. Touching the tripod during reading
4. Confusion between recording BS and FS entries in the field book

Example Problem
In the given differential level note below, find the difference in elevation between BM1
and BM2.

STATION BS(M) FS(M) HI(M) ELEVATION (M)

BM1 1.25 100
TP1 1.13 0.63
TP2 0.5 1.55
TP3 0.65 2.27
TP4 1.52 1.32
TP5 1.31 2.52
TP6 2.39 2.34
TP7 1.77 0.86
TP8 1.48 0.35
BM2 1.79

Sol’n:
Using the formula:
 𝑯𝑰 = 𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑽 + 𝑩𝑺

𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑽 = 𝑯𝑰 − 𝑭𝑺

STATION BS(M) FS(M) HI(M) ELEVATION (M)

Difference between BM1 and
BM1 1.25 100
BM2 = 100 – 98.37
TP1 1.13 0.63 101.25 100.62
TP2 0.5 1.55 101.75 100.2 = 1.63 m
TP3 0.65 2.27 100.7 98.43
TP4 1.52 1.32 99.08 97.76
TP5 1.31 2.52 99.28 96.76
TP6 2.39 2.34 98.07 95.73
TP7 1.77 0.86 98.12 97.26
TP8 1.48 0.35 99.03 98.68
BM2 1.79 100.16 98.37

PROFILE LEVELING

 Profile levelling is the process of determining the elevations of a series of points

at measured intervals along a line such as the centreline of a proposed road or
the centreline of a natural feature such as stream bed.
 It provides data which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted.
 Necessary fo r the design and construction of roads, railroads, canals, culverts,
bridges, sewer lines etc.

TERMS USED IN PROFILE LEVELING

1. Benchmark (BM)
- It is a permanent point with known or assumed elevation
2. Turning point (TP)
- An intervening point with unknown elevation where backsight and foresight are
taken.
3. Backsight (BS)
- Rod reading to benchmark or to a point with known elevation
4. Foresight (FS)
- Rod reading to a point with unknown elevation
5. Intermediate Foresight (IFS)
- Also known as ground rod readings taken along the centreline of the proposed
project to provide an accurate representation of the ground surface.
6. Full Station
- Points along the level route at uniformly measured distance (multiples of 100, 50,
30, 20, 10 meters).
 7. Plus Station
- Any point along the level route not designated as full station
8. Height of Instrument (HI)
- It is the elevation of the line of sight in the telescope of the level. Sum of elevation
and backsight

𝑯𝑰 = 𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑽 + 𝑩𝑺

𝑬𝑳𝑬𝑽 = 𝑯𝑰 − 𝑭𝑺

Example Problem
1. The figure shows a schematic arrangement of a profile level route from BM1 to
BM2. The values indicated represent BS, FS and IFS reading along the route
elevation of BM1=328.70m.

a. Find the difference in elevation between 5 and 9.

b. Find the elevation of TP2
 c. Find the elevation of BM2

Sol’n:

STA BS FS IFS HI ELEV

BM1 2.32 331.02 328.70
1 1.7 329.32
2 2.2 329.82
3 2.1 329.82
4 0.91 330.12
TP1 2.77 3.43 330.36 327.59
5 2.2 328.16
6 3.7 326.66
7 1.6 328.76
TP2 2.22 3.06 329.52 327.30
8 2.8 326.72
9 3.6 325.92
10 2 327.52
11 1.1 328.42
BM2 327.07
 a. 𝑫𝒊𝒇𝒇𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝒃𝒆𝒕𝒘𝒆𝒆𝒏 𝟓 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝟗 = 𝟑𝟐𝟖. 𝟏𝟔 − 𝟑𝟐𝟓. 𝟗𝟐 = 𝟐. 𝟐𝟓 𝒎 answer
b. 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑻𝑷𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐𝟕. 𝟑 𝒎 answer
c. 𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒗𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝒐𝒇 𝑩𝑴𝟐 = 𝟑𝟐𝟕. 𝟎𝟕 𝒎 answer

PROFILE OF THE ROUTE FROM BM1 TO BM2

1.7 COMPASS SURVEYING

 UNITS OF ANGULAR MEASUREMENTS

1. Degree (Sexagesimal Units)
– Circumference of a circle is divided into 360 parts called Degrees.
2. Grad (Centesimal System)
– Circumference is divided into 400 equal parts called Grad
3. Mils
- Circumference is divided into 6400 parts called Mils. 1600 Mils = 90°
4. Radian
– One radian is the angle subtended at the center of a circle by an arc length
equal the radius

𝟏𝟖𝟎
1 rad x 𝝅
= 57.2958°
𝝅
1 °x 𝟏𝟖𝟎
= 0.174533 rad

Direction of Line - Is defined by the horizontal angle it makes with a fixed reference line or
direction called Meridian.
FOUR TYPES OF MERIDIAN
 1. True Meridian (Astronomic/Geographic)
2. Magnetic Meridian – Lies parallel to the magnetic lines of force of the earth
3. Grid Meridian
4. Assumed

KINDS OF ANGLE TO DESCRIBE DIRECTION

1. Interior Angles
2. Exterior Angles
3. Deflection Angles
4. Angles to the right
5. Bearings
6. Azimuths

Exterior Angles
Interior Angles

Deflection Angles
Angles to the Right
Azimuth

a) Reckoned from NORTH

b) Reckoned from SOUTH

*Note: If not stated, reckoned from SOUTH

Bearing
Magnetic Declination – The angle that a magnetic meridian makes w/ the true meridian.

42°= East Declination 42°= West Declination

Example Problems:
1. At a given place, the magnetic bearings of the lines radiating from a common point
are:
a. AB – N 43°24’ E
b. AC – N 78°53’ W
c. AD – S 64°42’ E

Determine the true bearing of each line if the magnetic declination was 3°25’ West

Sol’n:
a. ϴ = 3°25’
 𝑇𝐵 = 43°24 − ∅ = 43°24 − 3°25

𝑻𝑩𝑨𝑩 =
𝑵 𝟑𝟗°𝟓𝟗′ 𝑬

answer

b. ϴ=
3°25’

𝑇𝐵 = 78°53 + ∅ = 78°53′ + 3°25

𝑻𝑩𝑨𝑪 = 𝑵 𝟖𝟐°𝟏𝟖′ 𝑾 answer

c. ϴ = 3°25’

𝑇𝐵 = 64°42 + ∅ = 64°42′ + 3°25

𝑻𝑩𝑨𝑪 = 𝑺 𝟔𝟖°𝟎𝟕′ 𝑬 answer

 2. In a compass survey made fifty years ago, the observed magnetic bearing of a line XY
was S50°18’E with magnetic declination of 8°15’ east. Lately, in 1986, a new survey
was made and the declination in the same survey site changed to 12°10’ west.
Determine the following descriptions of the
line XY.
a. Its true bearing
b. Its true Azimuth
c. Its new magnetic bearing
d. The magnetic azimuth from south in
1986.

Sol’n:
a. 𝑇𝐵 = 50°18 − ∅ = 43°24 − 8°15′

𝑻𝑩𝑿𝒀 = 𝑺 𝟒𝟐°𝟎𝟑′ 𝑬
answer

b. 𝐴𝑍𝐼𝑀 = 360° − 𝑇𝐵 = 360 − 42°03′

𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑿𝒀 = 𝟑𝟏𝟕°𝟓𝟕′ answer

c. 𝑀𝐵 = 𝑇𝐵 − 𝛼 = 42°03′ + 12°10′

𝑴𝑩𝑿𝒀 = 𝑺 𝟐𝟗°𝟓𝟑′ 𝑬 answer

d. 𝑀𝐴𝑍𝐼𝑀 = 360° − 𝑀𝐵 = 360° − 29°53′

𝑴𝑨𝒁𝑰𝑴𝑿𝒀 = 𝟑𝟑𝟎°𝟎𝟕′ 𝑬 answer

1.8 TRANSIT SURVEYING

 Traverse – a series of lines connecting successive points whose lengths and

directions have been determined from field measurement
 Traverse Stations – only temporary or permanent point of reference over which the
instrument is set up
 Traverse Lines – are lines connecting traverse station and whose length and
directions are determined

TYPES OF TRAVERSE:
1. Open Compass Traverse
2. Close Compass Traverse

FOR ANY CLOSED TRAVERSE

 Check if the observed angles fulfil the geometric figures.
 If there is an angular error of closure, it must be corrected to give a series of
preliminary adjusted direction.
 All linear distances should then be corrected since errors in the measured
lengths will alter the shape of the traverse.

COMPUTATION AND ADJUSTMENTS REQUIRED FOR A CLOSED TRAVERSE

1. Determine the latitudes and departures and their respective algebraic sums.
2. Calculate the total error of closure.
3. Balance the survey.
4. Determine the adjusted position of each traverse station.
5. Compute the area.
6. In same instances, dividing a surveyed track into smaller parts.

LATITUDES AND DEPARTURES

 LATITUDE OF A LINE
- Is its projection onto the north or south lines
- Referred to as northings or southings
- N = (+) S = (-)

 DEPARTURE OF A LINE
- Is its projection onto the east or west lines
- Referred to as eastings or westings
- E = (+) W = (-)
 LINEAR ERROR OF CLOSURE (LEC)

𝐿𝐸𝐶 = (𝐶𝐿) + (𝐶𝐷)

𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ =

Where: CL= Closure in latitude of the algebraic sum of N and S latitude

CD= Closure in departure of the algebraic sum of E and W departure
∅ = Bearing of the side of error

Example Problem:
1. For a given data from a survey, determine the following:
a. Latitude and departures
b. Linear error of closure
c. Direction of the side of error
d. Precision of measurement made

Sol’n:
a.
LATITUDE DEPARTURE

LINE LENGTH BEARINGS N (+) S (-) E (+) W (-)

1-2 445.66 S 6°35’ W 442.72 51.09

2-3 326.73 N 17°48’ W 311.09 99.88
3-4 434.50 N 70°59’ W 141.58 410.79
4-5 427.00 N 59°33’ E 216.40 368.10
5-1 381.95 S 39°18’ E 295.57 241.92
TOTAL 2015.84 669.07 738.29 610.02 561.76
b. 𝐶𝐿 = Ʃ𝑁 + Ʃ𝑆 = 669.07 + (−738.29)

𝐶𝐿 = −69.22
𝐶𝐷 = Ʃ𝐸 + Ʃ𝑊 = 610.02 + (−561.76)
𝐶𝐷 = 48.26

𝐿𝐸𝐶 = (𝐶𝐿) + (𝐶𝐷)

𝐿𝐸𝐶 = (−69.22) + (48.26)

𝑳𝑬𝑪 = 𝟖𝟒. 𝟑𝟖 answer

c. 𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ =
.
𝑡𝑎𝑛∅ = ( . )
∅ = 𝑵 𝟑𝟒°𝟓𝟑. 𝟎𝟓 𝑾 answer

d. 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
.
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = .
𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟒𝟐 answer
 I. BALANCING OF SURVEY

I. USING COMPASS RULE

𝑑 𝑑
𝐶 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑥 𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑥
𝐷 𝐷

WHERE : 𝐶 = Correction in Latitude

𝐶 = Correction in Departure
CL = Closure in Latitude
CD = Closure in Departure
d = Length of course
D = Sum of distances or Perimeter of the traverse

II. USING TRANSIT RULE

𝐿𝑎𝑡 𝐿𝑎𝑡
𝐶 = 𝐶𝐿 𝑥 𝐶 = 𝐶𝐷 𝑥
∑𝑁 − ∑𝑆 ∑𝐸 − ∑𝑊

WHERE : 𝐶 = Correction in Latitude

𝐶 = Correction in Departure
CL = Closure in Latitude
CD = Closure in Departure

Example Problem:
1. Balance the given survey and determine the adjusted length and bearings of the
lines.

LINE LENGTH BEARINGS LATITUDE DEPARTURE

AB 49.35 N 49°30’ E 32.05 37.53

BC 37.26 S 43°25’ E -27.06 25.61
CD 73.67 S 10°55’ W -72.34 -13.95
DE 31.22 DUE WEST 0 -31.22
EA 63.11 N 30°10’ W 54.56 -34.71
TOTAL 254.61 CL=-12.79 CD= -13.74

𝐿𝐸𝐶 = (𝐶𝐿) + (𝐶𝐷)

𝐿𝐸𝐶 = (−12.79) + (13.74)

𝑳𝑬𝑪 = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟕 𝒎

LATITUDE CORRECTIONS
 .
𝐶𝐿 = 12.79 .
= 2.48

.
𝐶𝐿 = 12.79 .
= 1.87

.
𝐶𝐿 = 12.79 = 3.70
.

.
𝐶𝐿 = 12.79 .
= 1.57

.
𝐶𝐿 = 12.79 .
= 3.17

DEPARTURE CORRECTIONS

.
𝐶𝐷 = 13.74 .
= 2.66

.
𝐶𝐷 = 13.74 .
= 2.01

.
𝐶𝐷 = 13.74 .
= 3.98

.
𝐶𝐷 = 13.74 .
= 1.68

.
𝐶𝐷 = 13.74 = 3.41
.

ADJUSTED LATITUDES

𝐿𝐴𝑇 = 32.05 + 2.49 = 34.58

𝐿𝐴𝑇 = −27.06 + 1.87 = −25.19

𝐿𝐴𝑇 = −72.34 + 3.70 = −68.64

𝐿𝐴𝑇 = 0 + 1.57 = −1.57

𝐿𝐴𝑇 = 54.56 + 3.17 = 67.73

ADJUSTED DEPARTURES

𝐷𝐸𝑃 = 37.53 + 2.66 = 40.19

𝐷𝐸𝑃 = 25.61 + 2.01 = 27.62

𝐷𝐸𝑃 = −13.95 + 3.98 = −9.97

𝐷𝐸𝑃 = −31.22 + 7.68 = −29.54

𝐷𝐸𝑃 = −31.71 + 3.41 = −28.30

ADJUSTED LENGTHS
 𝐴𝐵 = (34.53) + (40.19) = 52.99

𝐵𝐶 = (−25.19) + (27.62) = 37.38

𝐶𝐷 = (−68.64) + (−9.97) = 69.36

𝐷𝐸 = (−1.57) + (−29.54) = 29.58

𝐸𝐴 = (57.73) + (−28.30) = 64.29

ADJUSTED BEARING

.
∝ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 .
= 𝑁 49°19.91 𝐸

.
∝ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 .
= 𝑆 47°38.07 𝐸

.
∝ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 = 𝑆 8°15.87 𝑊
.

.
∝ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 .
= 𝑁 86°57.46 𝑊

.
∝ = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 .
= 𝑁 26°6.88 𝑊

Evaluation: PROBLEM SOLVING

PROBLEM 1

BALANCE THE GIVEN SURVEY USING COMPASS RULE.

____________ A.) COMPUTE THE LEC

____________B.) COMPUTE THE DIRECTION OF THE SIDE OF ERROR
____________C.) COMPUTE THE PRECISION OF THE MEASUREMENTS MADE
____________ D.) COMPLETE THE TABLE

ADJUSTED ADJUSTED ADJUSTED ADJUSTED

LENGTH
LINE BEARING LATITUDE DEPARTURE LENGTH BEARING
(m)
(m) (m) (m)
AB 220.58 N 5⁰30’ E
BC 133.87 N 35⁰7.7’ W
CD 364.19 S 59⁰55.75’ E
DE 303.46 S 8⁰38.55’ E
EA 378.47 N 61⁰4.33’ W
II. AREA OF CLOSED TRAVERSE

I. AREA USING DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE (DMD) METHOD

1
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = (𝐷𝐴 + 𝐷𝐴 )
2

WHERE: 𝐷𝐴 = North Double Area

𝐷𝐴 = South Double Area

DA = DMD x ADJUSTED LATITUDE

DETERMINING DMD
1. The DMD of the first course is equal to the departure of the first course
itself.
2. The DMD of any other course is equal to DMD of the preceding course plus
the departure of the preceding course plus the departure of the course
itself.
3. The DMD of the last course is numerically equal to its departure but with
opposite sign.

II. AREA USING DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE (DPD) METHOD

1
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = (𝐷𝐴 + 𝐷𝐴 )
2

WHERE: 𝐷𝐴 = East Double Area

𝐷𝐴 = West Double Area

DA = DPD x ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

DETERMINING DPD
1. The DPD of the first course is equal to the latitude of the first course itself.
2. The DPD of any other course is equal to DPD of the preceding course plus
the latitude of the preceding course plus the latitude of the course itself.
3. The DPD of the last course is numerically equal to its latitude but with
opposite sign.

III. AREA BY TRIANGLE

1 1 𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = 𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐)

𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = 𝑏ℎ 𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = 𝑎𝑏 sin ∅
2 2

IV. AREA BY COORDINATES

 1 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = ……
2 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦 𝑦

Example Problems:
1. Find the area of the given traverse using DMD & DPD method and by coordinates.

COURSE LATITUDE DEPARTURE DMD DA

AB 34.53 40.19 40.19 1387.761
BC -25.19 27.62 108 -2720.52
CD -68.64 -9.97 125.65 -8624.62
DE 1.57 -29.54 86.14 135.24
EA 57.73 -28.30 28.3 1633.76
Ʃ𝑫𝑨 = −𝟖𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟖
1
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = (𝐷𝐴 )
2
1
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = (8188.38)
2
𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨 = 𝟒𝟎𝟗𝟒. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝟐 answer

COURSE LATITUDE DEPARTURE DPD DA

AB 34.53 40.19 34.53 1387.761
BC -25.19 27.62 43.87 1211.689
CD -68.64 -9.97 -49.96 498.101
DE 1.57 -29.54 -117.03 3457.066
EA 57.73 -28.30 -57.73 1633.76
Ʃ𝑫𝑨 = 𝟖𝟏𝟖𝟖. 𝟑𝟕𝟕
1
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = (𝐷𝐴 )
2
1
𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = (8188.377)
2
𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨 = 𝟒𝟎𝟗𝟒. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝟐 answer

Area by coordinates

LATITUDE, Y DEPARTURE, X
STA. A 0 0
Lat AB +34.53 Dep AB +40.19
STA. B 34.53 40.19
Lat BC -25.19 Dep BC +27.62
STA. C 9.34 67.81
Lat CD -68.64 Dep CD -9.97
STA. D -59.3 57.84
Lat DE +1.57 Dep DE -29.54
STA. E -57.73 28.3
Lat EA +57.73 Dep EA -28.30
STA. A 0 0
 STA. A STA.B STA.C STA.D STA.E STA.A
Y 0 34.53 9.34 -59.3 -57.73 0
X 0 40.19 67.81 57.84 28.3 0

DOUBLE AREA = (DOWNWARD PRODUCT) - (UPWARD DIRECTION)

= (0𝑥40.19) + (34.53𝑥67.81) + (9.34𝑥57.84) + (−59.3𝑥28.3) +
(−57.73𝑥0) − (0𝑥34.53) + (40.19𝑥9.34) + (67.81𝑥(−59.3)) +
(57.84𝑥(−57.73)) + (28.3𝑥0)
= (1203.5149) − (−6894.8616)
= 8188.377

𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = |𝐷𝑂𝑈𝐵𝐿𝐸 𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴|

𝐴𝑅𝐸𝐴 = |8188.377|

𝑨𝑹𝑬𝑨 = 𝟒𝟎𝟗𝟒. 𝟏𝟗 𝒎𝟐 answer

Prepared by:

SALVADOR R. CARAS, CE
Faculty, Civil Engineering Department

Modified by:

JEDRIC AMRON E. HIÑOLA, CE

Faculty, Civil Engineering Department