GEOLOGICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN DESIGN

PUP+CAFA+DEPARTMENTOFARHITECTURE
PREPARED AND SUBMITTED BY:

Gerilla, Celton M. – 2011-02811-MN-0‐ Leader

Garcia, John Carlo H. – 2011-02070-MN-0
Grana, Nica S. – 2011-01289-MN-0
Porras, Cherry Faith V. – 2011-00603-MN-0
Tuplano, Enaleen D.C. – 2010-03370-MN-0

SUBMITTED TO:

ARCH. RENATO VERGARA SANTOS

ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN 6 ADVISER
 WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
• from the Greek ge “earth" and logia, “study of,
discourse.
• Geology is the study of the Earth, the materials of which it
is made, the structure of those materials, and the processes
acting upon them. It includes the study of organisms that
have inhabited our planet. An important part of geology is
the study of how Earth’s materials, structures, processes and
organisms have changed over time.

A geologist is a scientist who studies the solid and liquid matter

that constitutes the Earth as well as the processes and history
that has shaped it. Geologists usually engage in studying
geology. Geologists, studying more of an applied science than a
theoretical one, must approach Geology using physics,
chemistry and biology as well as other sciences.
 SOIL
• Soil is a thin layer of loose material found on the
surface of the earth. It comes from broken rock
particles and decayed bodies of living things like
plants and animals.
Soil Formation and Soil Horizons
• Soil is formed by the erosion (breakdown by water
and wind) of rocks and bedrock. The deposition of
organic material increases the disintegration of the
rock and allows an environment for microorganisms
and plants to colonise the soil. This process continues
until the soil can be distinguished into several layers
(soil horizons) with different physical and chemical
properties.
Kinds of Soil
Clay is a soil mixture which is made up of very fine rock
particles. It soaks up and holds water easily. It is sticky
when wet. Tiny roots of plants cannot spread out and
grow well in clay. Clay is used for making vases, pots and
jars.
Sand is formed from broken rocks. It is made up of small
grains of rocks. The particles of sand are larger than the
particles of clay. There are more air spaces between the
particles of sand so water runs through easily and dries up
easily. Sand is not good for most plants. It is used for
construction of buildings, roads and bridges.
Humus is a kind of soil that is very rich with decayed
matter, especially dead plants. It is fertile and good for
plants.
Loam is a mixture of sand, clay and humus. It is the best
kind of soil for plants.
Gravel is composed of small pieces of rocks found along
riverbanks or along other bodies of water. The particles
of gravel are larger than the particles of sand. Gravel is
used in building houses, bridges and roads.
Silt is a solid, dust-like sediment that water, ice, and wind
transport and deposit. Silt is made up of rock and mineral
particles that are larger than clay but smaller than sand.
Individual silt particles are so small that they are difficult
to see.
Soil Particles
• Gravel: larger than 2mm; feels
coarse
• Sand: 2 - 0.05mm; feels gritty
• Silt: 0.05 - 0.002mm; feels like
flour
• Clay: smaller than 0.002; feels
sticky when wet
• Every soil type is a mixture of
sand, silt, clay, and organic
matter.
WATER TABLE A WATER TABLE describes the boundary
between water-saturated ground and
unsaturated ground. Below the water table,
rocks and soil are full of water. Pockets of water
existing below the water table are called
AQUIFERS.
An area's water table can fluctuate as water seeps
downward from the surface. It filters through
soil, sediment, and rocks. This water includes
precipitation, such as rain and snow. Irrigation
from crops and other plants may also contribute
to a rising water table. This seeping process is
called saturation. Sediment or rocks that are full
of water are saturated. The water table sits on top
of what experts call the zone of saturation, or
phreatic zone. The area above the water table
is called the VADOSE zone.
 RIVER SOIL TYPES
River soils are types of soil that are carried
and deposited by the action of rivers, as
opposed to ocean, wind and rain-based
soils. While soils typically consist of some
mixture of sand, loam and clay, this is a
general description and does not touch on
the complexities of soil layering and
development. Soil in river areas can be
especially complicated due to the materials
that rivers bring in from other areas.
 Mountain Soil Types
Soil is a naturally occurring substance
that is made up of minerals (calcium,
sodium, magnesium, potassium and
silicon) and organic matter which
support plant growth. It is comprised of
silt, clay and sand and exhibits a diverse
range of colors and textures. Mountain
soil is earth that is typically rich in
moisture, and its texture ranges from
rocky to sandy.
Entisols
Soil is made up of different layers, or soil horizons, each with Inceptisols
different mineral composition and purpose. The outer most Inceptisols are found on mountainous landscapes
soil horizon, for instance, is called the A-Horizon (or throughout all, except arid, regions of the world. These
topsoil). Entisol soils, unlike other types of soils, do not soils are covered with an extensive layer of grasses and
have soil horizons. They are therefore regarded as herbs, and this thick turf stabilizes the lower layers of
immature soils that are minimally developed and exhibit the soil. Once this turf layer is destroyed, however, the soil
properties of their parent materials. Entisols occur in all becomes vulnerable to depletion and erosion. Inceptisols are
climates and are commonly found at the rocky slopes of coarse and gravelly soils.
mountains.

Histosols Spodosols
Histosols are soils that are rich in organic matter. Spodosols are commonly found in thick, coniferous
According to S.W. Buol, author of "Soil Genesis and mountainous forests. They are deep, well drained and
Classification," histosols are comprised primarily of organic have distinct soil horizons. The rate of decomposition of
materials (at least 15 inches of the upper 31 inches of soil). organic matter in these soils is slow, owing to their snow
Histosols vary in thickness and are predominantly comprised cover and low temperatures.
of mosses and decomposed remains of plants at their
surface.
Inceptisols
 A beach is a landform along the shoreline of an ocean,
sea, lake, or river. It usually consists of loose particles,
Beach Soil Types which are often composed of rock, such as sand, gravel,
shingle, pebbles, or cobblestones.

Entisols- Soils with little profile development many

different parent materials contribute to varied soil
properties of this order. Often found in very dry or cool
locations geographically extensive, commonly found
with aridisols.

Sand is a naturally occurring granular material

composed of finely divided rock and mineral particles.
The composition of mineral sand is highly variable,
depending on the local rock sources and conditions. The
bright white sands found in tropical and subtropical
coastal settings are eroded limestone and may
contain coral and shell fragments in addition to
other organic or organically derived fragmental material,
suggesting sand formation depends on living organisms,
too.
Common sand is defined by region, developing from
rocks and minerals that break off during erosion. Over
the course of centuries, rocks continue to break and chip,
banging against each other until they form tiny particles
of sand. Quartz, feldspar and mica are common elements
of sand. It is found on beaches and in deserts where lots
of granite rock formations exist. Common sand is used
mainly to improve dense soil conditions

Black sand gets its color from minerals and natural phenomena
like volcanoes. Some black sand is magnetic because of a mineral
called magnetite. Black sand gets it color from mixtures of black
minerals and chemicals. Volcanic sand is created when lava breaks
down and forms tiny crystals of black sand. Black sand darkens
soil. Specific mineral composition should be considered when
using it as soil. Albay’s black sand beaches stretch across the
province’s eastern seafront with the best ones found in the towns
of Bacacay, Tiwi, Sto. Domingo, and the city of Legazpi.
Coral and Shell Sand
Coral and shell sand vary in color. It is made when different
types of coral and seashells break down in the ocean
waves. There are many species of shellfish, each with unique
coloring and texture. Coral also has a wide range of colors
and textures. Coral and shell sand are aesthetically pleasing,
but they have sharp edges. They brighten the color of
ordinary soil, making them an appealing landscaping choice.
This definitely unique sand color can only be seen in the
Philippines. The hue of the sand is more likely the same as
the cherry blossom type of color which is different from that
of the Pink Sands Beach of Harbour Island, part of the
Out Islands of the Bahamas that is more on the soft-rosy-
hue-type-of-sand. Accordingly, the pink sand beach of the
Great Santa Cruz Island is "a coloration effect of pulverized
rare Red Organ-pipe Coral (Tubipora Musica) from eons of
surf erosion mixed in with the white sand".
MAJOR SOIL
TYPES IN
THE
PHILIPPINES
There are six soil orders that are grouped, as mentioned by Badayos (1994), which are based on the
interpretation of the Soil Map of the Philippines (Mariano and Valmidiano, 1972):
Ultisols are soils in humid areas which formed by fairly
intense weathering and leaching processes that result in a clay-
enriched subsoil dominated by minerals, such as quartz,
kaolinite, and iron oxides.
Alfisols are in semiarid to moist areas. These soils result from weathering
processes that leach clay minerals and other constituents out of the
surface layer and into the subsoil, where they can hold and supply
moisture and nutrients to the plants. They formed primarily under forest or
mixed vegetable cover and are productive for most crops.
Inceptisols are soils of semiarid to humid environments that generally exhibit
only moderate degrees of soil weathering and development. Inceptisols have
a wide range in characteristics and occur in a wide variety of climates.
Vertisols have a high content of expanding clay minerals. They undergo
pronounced changes in volume with changes in moisture. They have cracks that
open and close periodically, and show evidence of soil movement in the
profile. Because they swell when wet, vertisols transmit water very slowly and
have undergone little leaching. They tend to be fairly high in natural fertility.
 Oxisols are highly weathered soils of tropical and subtropical
regions. They are dominated by low activity minerals, such as quartz,
kaolinite and iron oxides. They tend to have distinct horizons.
Oxisols characteristically occur on land surfaces that have been stable
for a long time. They have low natural fertility as well as a low capacity
to retain additions of lime and fertilizers.
 What is foundation?
Foundation: The structure that
transmits the load of the building to
the soil
Load bearing soil (strata):
The soil layer that has the sufficient
load bearing capacity in relation to the
chosen foundation type
The primary design concerns are
settlement (total settlement and
differential settlement) and loadbearing
capacity.
Choosing a kind of foundation depends on:
the ground conditions
the groundwater conditions
the site, the environment (the buildings nearby)
the structure of our building
Requirements:
structural requirements: safe, be able to carry the load of the building
constructional requirements: schedule, minimal resources, minimal cost
The specialties:
It is expensive and difficult to repair
usually it is constructed under the ground, so it is out of sight
an bad/ misapplied foundation could demolish the building
The mistakes:
construction technology mistakes
planning mistakes: the type of foundation is inadequate for the ground layers / for
the building
When is it applicable? Spread (shallow) foundation
The load-bearing layer is
near to bottom floor level
The loads of the
building are light-
medium
Types
-Strip foundations
-Pad foundations –
Bucket foundations
-Beam foundations
-Mat (slab) foundations
-Large, open-ended compartments – shell or box with cutting edge at the
bottom
-Sunk into the ground by digging the soil out of the center and loading
the walls
-Filled with concrete (and compacted gravel)
LOCAL CASE STUDY
Bay City, Metro Manila
Bay City is the name for the reclamation area located west of Roxas Boulevard on Manila Bay in Metro
Manila. The plan was to reclaim 3,000 hectares of land in Manila Bay. The project was begun by Imelda
Marcos in 1977, with the creation of the Public Estate Authority to manage the project. By the end of the
Marcos rule in 1986, 660 hectares had been reclaimed.
Bay City Manila is the site of the SM Mall of Asia, one of Asia's largest shopping malls. It is also the
site of the country's newest convention center, the SMX Convention Center, which has recently cemented its
position as one of the premiere exhibitions and meeting halls in the Philippines. Another one is the ambitious
PAGCOR Entertainment City, officially dubbed 'The Bagong Nayong Pilipino-Manila Bay'. This complex is
envisioned to become an integrated city that will initially cover about 85 hectares. It will be a fully integrated
tourism zone that features posh luxury hotels, convention centers, theaters, sports stadiums, restaurants, shopping
centers, cultural complexes and museums, and amusement parks. Its centerpiece will be the Pagcor Tower, an
observation tower that is said become among the tallest structures of its kind in the world.
On the Bay City’s location consists of two terrain unit, an eastern undulation section and a
western alluvial portion, which extends into the Manila Bay. The undulating to gently skoping terrain is
underlain by abgently dipping sequence of pyrovlastic rocks essentialy made up og tuffs, tuffaceous sandstones
and conglomerates belongingto the Guadalupe formation. Based on the Geologic Map of Pasay, there are two
major geologic formations: Quarternary Alluvial and Guadalupe formation. The Quarternary Alluvial is
compromised of detrital deposits mostly silt, sand and gravel while the Guadalupe formation of which the upper
member (Diliman Tuff) is thin to medium bedded, fine-grained, vitric tuffs and welded volcanic breccias with
subordinate amounts of tuffaceous, fine to medium grained sandstone.
LAND AND SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

Active Tidal Flats (Coastal Landscape) This system has very poor drainage characteristics
and waterlogged areas may pose a corrosion problem to underground uncoated steel pipes or
structural reinforcement and may up bring possible flood during seasonal high water table. The
soil texture are clay, silty clay, and sandy clay loam.
Former Tidal Flats (Coastal Landscape) these consists of more inland and slightly higher
that the active tidal flats in which they occupy almost flat plains, back swamps and depression of
the coastal landscape formed form marine and flovio-marine deposits.

GEOLOGIC AND OTHER NATURAL HAZARDS

No traced earthquake fault line traverses the city of Pasay. However the city is not spared from
the other geologic hazards such as tsunamis, ground shaking and liquefaction.
Strengths
• Provide more
space for
development
• Greatly
contribute to
the Philippines
revenue
• Provide more
employment
 Weaknesses

• Sea-level rise imposing

a weakness because of
Climate Change
• Sedimentation
• Siltation
• Erosion
 Opportunities
• Serve as tourist
attraction and a
landmark
Easy access to
seaports that
provide passenger
and cargo
services
 Threats
The combination of surges and storm waves driven
against our coasts by passing typhoons
Reclaimed areas in Manila Bay would not require an
earthquake to occur nearby to suffer serious
damage since the Philippine earthquake fault
traverses Luzon from north to south and the
Marikina Valley System strikes through the
Metropolitan Manila area (DENR-III, 1999).
In all its possible earthquake scenarios, the coastal
areas would suffer most, because of liquefaction
Land subsidence
Flooding is frequently caused by heavy rainfall in
low-lying areas and as a consequence of poor
drainage systems or blockage of drainage systems.
FOREIGN CASE STUDY
Building/Structure: BURJ AL ARAB
Location: Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Architect: Tom Wright of WKK Architects
Construction period: Construction began 1994 with
planning and was completed in 1999

It was built to resemble the sail of a “dhow”, a type of

Arabian vessel. "The client wanted a building that would
become an iconic or symbolic statement for Dubai; this is
very similar to Sydney with its Opera House, London with
Big Ben, or Paris with the Eiffel Tower. It needed to be a
building that would become synonymous with the name of
the country”, said Wright.
After the completion of the island, comes a
new challenge: the foundations. Having
drilled 180 meter down, the drilling team
haven’t found the solid sea bed. Again, the
design team lead by Wright solved the
problem. They used 250 steel reinforced
concrete foundation piles buried 6 and a
half mile deep into the ground, almost 35
times the height of the structure itself.
The architects relied on a method called skin
friction the Burj was ready to resist
earthquakes and avoid sinking. Skin friction
is all about the contact between the sand
and the surface of the pile. And the
longer the pile, the further deep in the
ground it is, the greater the effect of skin
friction is.
The hotel rests on an artificial island
constructed 280 m (920 ft)
offshore. Engineers created a
ground/surface layer of large rocks,
which is circled with a concrete
honeycomb pattern, which serves to
protect the foundation from erosion.
It took three years to reclaim the land
from the sea, while it took fewer than
three years to construct the building
itself.
Liquefaction is associated with
the phenomenon of quick-
condition failure which is
generally obtained when pore
water in a liquefied layer rises
into overlying near-surface
sediments that results in a
condition resembling
quicksand. Areas that are prone
to liquefaction are those underlain
by water-saturated, thick fine to
coarse sand layers.
 Conclusion
In conclusion, the types of soil in the Philippines are important geological consideration in Philippine
architecture.
• An architect must be able to know and understand well the characteristics of such types of soil. This will be
the basis of how you can start on planning and constructing a building.
• An architect considers the soil of the site before planning and construction.
• Lastly, geology is an important consideration on architecture for one can learn the structure of Earth which
one can start building.

Monitoring house design and construction will enable you to correct poor practices as they happen so
that your house will better protect your family and belongings in an emergency. The expense involved in building
a stronger house is little compared to the added security and protection it gives to you and your family.
• The ground under the building has to bear the
weight of a house. If it is a weak soil, the
foundations must be made stronger. If the
building has more than one floor the foundation
must also be made stronger. Foundations are best
when continuous under the house.
• Soil for a good foundation that can carry the
weight of a house must be well drained so that it
is dry and not waterlogged.
• Waterlogged soil can become liquefied in an
earthquake—turn to a semi-liquid—so that
structures sink into the ground.

Example of bad foundations. This building is being built in a swampy, waterlogged area. As the
foundations and the foundation trench was dug, it filled with water so the builders dropped dry
sand and cement into it and then the first row of blocks were located on top of this mixture.
These foundations in permanently wet soil are inadequate and will also be weak when impacted
by any external hazard.
Example of bad location. This
house is located on a river bed, close
to running water, where it is very
vulnerable to flooding. Not only the
house, but also its contents are
vulnerable to destruction due to heavy
rains. Houses should not be built in
such obviously vulnerable locations, or
if they are, they should be designed to
resist the hazards of their location.
 Good House Elevation.
• The building floor should be elevated
above the surrounding ground level,
and extra height is needed in
vulnerable situations such as locations
close to floodable waterway or a
swampy area, or in a tsunami or wave
prone area near the sea. Extra height is
best provided through stilts.
• Structures must be located away from
places subject to landslides where soil
may move down a steep slope, debris
• This house is being built in a low lying area flows where soil gravel and rocks
vulnerable to flooding. Concrete stilts are being maybe washed rapidly down by heavy
cast on pad footings to raise the floor level of the rainfall, and flash floods.
house so that it will not be flooded or subject to
dampness.
Guidelines on where to
build.
These illustrate the principles
for locating houses in safer
places so that the house and
contents will be less likely to
suffer disaster.
Where not to build.
Examples of places where it is
dangerous to build and where
building may easily be destroyed.
Foundations must be founded on
solid ground. Only broken rock
should be used in foundations, not
unbroken rounded river stone or
rounded seashore stone. River
stone can be used if broken.
Sufficient mortar is needed to join
stones used in the foundation into
one solid foundation that will not
subside unequally.
Good material for
foundations—broken rock.
This material is of a harder
rock, of sufficiently large size
so that rocks will not slip
between each other. If it is
properly laid and properly
cemented, with column starters
concreted into it, it will make a
good foundation.
Poor material for foundations.
Rounded river or beach rocks do
not make good foundations unless
they are broken, because they are
liable to slip between each other.
They need to be broken to avoid
slipping, and they need to be
carefully cemented between each
other. Too many rounded stones,
not properly laid and are not
adequately bonded together with
cement, give a weak foundation.
The result is often that the floor
and walls will crack as the
foundations settle or move
unequally.
Bad example of
concrete using coral
sand. Example of the
disintegration of concrete
due to the use of coral
sand. This concrete is
returning to powder. The
only action possible at this
point is to dig it out and to
start again, wasting time,
money and resources.
Example of good quality sand.
This sand is all of about the same
coarse texture and does not have
larger stones in it or a lot of dust.
Sand can be tested by lifting up a
handful and letting it fall back to
the ground. If a significant
portion of it blows away instead
of falling straight down, it has
too much dust and needs to be
sieved.
Example of poorly graded
sand. This sand is mixed with
larger stones so that it is already
a sand/gravel mixture. If gravel
is now added to this mixture, it
will not be suitable for making
concrete because there will be
too little fine material in it to
bind it together.
• Good gravel made of
crushed rock, with no larger
stones. Gravel should have
maximum size 20mm in
order for it to fit within and
around reinforcement and to
strengthen concrete and
have few smaller stones.