CHAPTER 1 A disaster is a result from the combination of hazard, vulnerability and

insufficient capacity or measures to reduce the potential chances of risk.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE AND THEORIES A disaster happens when a hazard impacts on the vulnerable
population and causes damage, casualties and disruption.
Introduction:

Natural Hazards are everywhere in the world and it pose serious

threats all over the world and history seen it all from Earthquake disasters to
Tropical Cyclones and Volcanic Eruptions all of that claimed thousands of
lives that should have been saved If we are only aware and If we are only
implementing the different Mitigation Methods properly and seriously. Climate
change is a very big factor in the drastic changes in our weather, Tropical
Cyclones pack more strong and violent winds which could destroy structures
that were built only of light materials and might destroy some structures which
were not properly built and did not comply to the laws of National Building
codes and Earthquakes become more powerful and could demolish weak
structures which were not built properly and structurally firmed. All of these
disasters and destructions can be reduce and risks can be lessen through the
proper implementations of mitigation methods and countermeasures so many
lives will be save in the future.

VIDEO SUMMARY
Natural Hazards such as Landslides, Earthquakes, Drought, are serious
threats in our lives and they can cause global famine, the video tells us that if
we don’t act right now more lives will be perished. The countries should
invest more to their Mitigation Methods which can save more lives in the
future.
What is a Disaster?
Almost everyday newspapers, radio and television channels carry
reports on disaster striking several parts of the world. But what is a disaster?
The term disaster owes its origin to the French word “Desastre” which is a
combination of two words ‘des’ meaning bad and ‘aster’ meaning star. Thus
the term refers to ‘Bad or Evil star’. A disaster can be defined as “A serious
disruption in the functioning of the community or a society causing wide
spread material, economic, social or environmental losses which exceed the
ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources”.
Any hazard – flood, earthquake or cyclone which is a triggering event
along with greater vulnerability (inadequate access to resources, sick and old
people, lack of awareness etc) would lead to disaster causing greater loss to
life and property. For example; an earthquake in an uninhabited desert
cannot be considered a disaster, no matter how strong the intensities
produced. An earthquake is disastrous only when it affects people, their
properties and activities. Thus, disaster occurs only when hazards and
vulnerability meet. But it is also to be noted that with greater capacity of the
individual/community and environment to face these disasters, the impact of
a hazard reduces. Therefore, we need to understand the three major
components namely hazard, vulnerability and capacity with suitable examples
to have a basic understanding of disaster management.
What is a Hazard? How is it classified?

Hazard may be defined as “a dangerous condition or event, that threat

or have the potential for causing injury to life or damage to property or the
environment.” The word ‘hazard’ owes its origin to the word ‘hasard’ in old
French and ‘az-zahr’ in Arabic meaning ‘chance’ or ‘luck’. Hazards can be
grouped into two broad categories namely natural and manmade.

1. Natural hazards are hazards which are caused because of natural

phenomena (hazards with meteorological, geological or even
biological origin). Examples of natural hazards are cyclones,
tsunamis, earthquake and volcanic eruption which are exclusively of
natural origin. Landslides, floods, drought, fires are socio-natural
hazards since their causes are both natural and man-made. For
example flooding may be caused because of heavy rains, landslide or
blocking of drains with human waste.

2. Manmade hazards are hazards which are due to human

negligence. Manmade hazards are associated with industries or
energy generation facilities and include explosions, leakage of toxic
waste, pollution, dam failure, wars or civil strife etc. The list of hazards
is very long. Many occur frequently while others take place
occasionally. However, on the basis of their genesis, they can be
categorized as follows:

What is vulnerability?

Vulnerability may be defined as “The extent to which a community,

structure, services or geographic area is likely to be damaged or disrupted by
the impact of particular hazard, on account of their nature, construction and
proximity to hazardous terrains or a disaster prone area.”

Vulnerabilities can be categorized into physical and socio-economic

vulnerability.
Physical Vulnerability: It includes notions of who and what may be damaged
or destroyed by natural hazard such as earthquakes or floods. It is based on
the physical condition of people and elements at risk, such as buildings,
infrastructure etc.; and their proximity, location and nature of the hazard. It
also relates to the technical capability of building and structures to resist the
forces acting upon them during a hazard event. Unchecked growth of
settlements in unsafe areas exposes the people to the hazard. In case of an
earthquake or landslide the ground may fail and the houses on the top may
topple or slide and affect the settlements at the lower level even if they are
designed well for earthquake forces.
Socio-economic Vulnerability: The degree to which a population is affected by
a hazard will not merely lie in the physical components of vulnerability but
also on the socioeconomic conditions. The socio-economic condition of the
people also determines the intensity of the impact. For example, people who
are poor and living in the sea coast don’t have the money to construct strong
concrete houses. They are generally at risk and loose their shelters whenever
there is strong wind or cyclone. Because of their poverty they too are not able
to rebuild their houses.
What is capacity?
Capacity can be defined as “resources, means and strengths which
exist in households and communities and which enable them to cope with,
withstand, prepare for, prevent, mitigate or quickly recover from a disaster”.
People’s capacity can also be taken into account. Capacities could be:
Physical Capacity: People whose houses have been destroyed by the
cyclone or crops have been destroyed by the flood can salvage things from
their homes and from their farms. Some family members have skills, which
enable them to find employment if they migrate, either temporarily or
permanently.
Socio-economic Capacity: In most of the disasters, people suffer their
greatest losses in the physical and material realm. Rich people have the
capacity to recover soon because of their wealth. In fact, they are seldom hit
by disasters because they live in safe areas and their houses are built with
stronger materials. However, even when everything is destroyed they have
the capacity to cope up with it.
Hazards are always prevalent, but the hazard becomes a disaster
only when there is greater vulnerability and less of capacity to cope with it. In
other words the frequency or likelihood of a hazard and the vulnerability of
the community increases the risk of being severely affected.
What is risk?
Risk is a “measure of the expected losses due to a hazard event
occurring in a given area over a specific time period. Risk is a function of the
probability of particular hazardous event and the losses each would cause.”
The level of risk depends upon:
 Nature of the hazard
 Vulnerability of the elements which are affected
 Economic value of those elements
A community/locality is said to be at ‘risk’ when it is exposed to hazards
and is likely to be adversely affected by its impact. Whenever we discuss
‘disaster management’ it is basically ‘disaster risk management’. Disaster risk
management includes all measures which reduce disaster related losses of
life, property or assets by either reducing the hazard or vulnerability of the
elements at risk.
Disaster Management Cycle

Disaster Risk Management includes sum total of all activities,

programs and measures which can be taken up before, during and after a
disaster with the purpose to avoid a disaster, reduce its impact or recover
from its losses. The three key stages of activities that are taken up within
disaster risk management are:

1. before a disaster (pre-disaster).

Activities taken to reduce human and property losses caused
by a potential hazard. For example carrying out awareness
campaigns, strengthening the existing weak structures, preparation of
the disaster management plans at household and community level
etc. Such risk reduction measures taken under this stage are termed
as mitigation and preparedness activities.

2. during a disaster (disaster occurrence).

Initiatives taken to ensure that the needs and provisions of
victims are met and suffering is minimized. Activities taken under this
stage are called emergency response activities.

3. after a disaster (post-disaster).

Initiatives taken in response to a disaster with a purpose to
achieve early recovery and rehabilitation of affected communities,
immediately after a disaster strikes. These are called as response and
recovery activities.
 Cause of Earthquake:

The earth’s crust is a rocky layer of varying thickness ranging from a

depth of about 10 kilometers under the sea to 65 kilometers under the
continents. The crust is not one piece but consists of portions called ‘plates’
which vary in size from a few hundred to thousands of kilometers. The ‘theory
of plate tectonics’ holds that the plates ride up on the more mobile mantle,
and are driven by some yet unconfirmed mechanisms, perhaps thermal
convection currents. When these plates contact each other, stress arises in
the crust.

These stresses can be classified according to the type of movement

along the plate’s boundaries:
a) Pulling away from each other,
b) Pushing against one another and
c) Sliding sideways relative to each other.

NATURAL HAZARDS - CAUSES, DISTRIBUTION

PATTERN, CONSEQUENCE, AND MITIGATION
MEASURES

Earthquake

Earthquake is one of the most destructive natural hazard. They may

occur at any time of the year, day or night, with sudden impact and little
warning. They can destroy buildings and infrastructure in seconds, killing or
injuring the inhabitants. Earthquakes not only destroy the entire habitation but
may de-stabilize the government, economy and social structure of the All these movements are associated with earthquakes. The areas of
country. But what is an earthquake? It is the sudden shaking of the earth stress at plate boundaries which release accumulated energy by slipping or
crust. The impact of an earthquake is sudden and there is hardly any rupturing are known as 'faults'. The theory of 'elasticity' says that the crust is
warning, making it impossible to predict. continuously stressed by the movement of the tectonic plates; it eventually
reaches a point of maximum supportable strain. A rupture then occurs along
the fault and the rock rebounds under its own elastic stresses until the strain
is relieved. The fault rupture generates vibration called seismic (from the
Greek 'seismos' meaning shock or earthquake) waves, which radiates from
the focus in all directions. The point of rupture is called the 'focus' and may be
located near the surface or deep below it. The point on the surface directly
above the focus is termed as the 'epicenter' of the earthquake.
General characteristics and below most of the people can feel the shake and there are cracks on the
walls, but with an intensity of XII there is general panic with buildings
Earthquake vibrations occur in a variety of frequencies and velocities. collapsing totally and there is a total disruption in normal life.
The actual rupture process may last for a few seconds to as long as one
minute for a major earthquake. The ground shaking is caused by ‘body Predictability: Although some scientists claim ability to predict earthquakes,
waves’ and ‘surface wave’. the methods are controversial. Accurate and exact predictions of such
sudden incidents are still not possible.
Earthquakes can be of three types based on the focal depth:
Typical adverse effects Physical damage:
Deep:- 300 to 700 kms from the earth surface
Medium:- 60 to 300 kms
Shallow: less than 60 kms

The deep focus earthquakes are rarely destructive because by the

time the waves reach the surface the impact reduces. Shallow focus
earthquakes are more common and are extremely damaging because of their
proximity to the surface.

Measuring Earthquakes

Earthquakes can be described by the use of two distinctively different

scales of measurement demonstrating magnitude and intensity. Earthquake
magnitude or amount of energy released is determined by the use of a
seismograph’ which is an instrument that continuously records ground
vibration. The scale was developed by a seismologist named Charles Richter.
An earthquake with a magnitude 7.5 on the Richter scale releases 30 times
the energy than one with 6.5 magnitudes. An earthquake of magnitude 3 is
the smallest normally felt by humans. The largest earthquake that has been
recorded with this system is 9.25 (Alaska, 1969 and Chile, 1960).
The second type of scale, the earthquake intensity scale measures
the effects of an earthquake where it occurs. The most widely used scale of
this type was developed in 1902 by Mercalli an Italian seismologist. The scale
was extended and modified to suit the modern times. It is called the Modified
Mercalli Scale, which expresses the intensity of earthquake effect on people,
structure and the earth’s surface in values from I to XII. With an intensity of VI
Damage occurs to human settlement, buildings, structures and
infrastructure, especially bridges, elevated roads, railways, water towers,
pipelines, electrical generating facilities. Aftershocks of an earthquake can
cause much greater damage to already weakened structures.
Secondary effects include fires, dam failure and landslides which may
block water ways and also cause flooding. Damage may occur to facilities
using or manufacturing dangerous materials resulting in possible chemical
spills. There may also be a breakdown of communication facilities. The effect
of an earthquake is diverse. There are large number of casualties because of
the poor engineering design of the buildings and close proximity of the
people. About 95 percent of the people who are killed or who are affected by
the earthquake is because of the building collapse. There is also a huge loss
to the public health system, transport and communication and water supply in
the affected areas.

Possible risk reduction measures:

Community preparedness: Community preparedness is vital for mitigating

earthquake impact. The most effective way to save you even in a slightest
shaking is 'DROP, COVER and HOLD'.

Planning: The Bureau of Indian Standards has published building codes and
guidelines for safe construction of buildings against earthquakes. Before the
buildings are constructed the building plans have to be checked by the
Municipality, according to the laid down bylaws. Many existing lifeline
buildings such as hospitals, schools and fire stations may not be built with
earthquake safety measures. Their earthquake safety needs to be upgraded
by retrofitting techniques. Tsunami

Public education is educating the public on causes and characteristics of an
earthquake and preparedness measures. It can be created through
sensitization and training program for community, architects, engineers,
builders, masons, teachers, government functionaries, teachers and
students.
Engineered structures: Buildings need to be designed and constructed as
per the building by laws to withstand ground shaking. Architectural and
engineering inputs need to be put together to improve building design and
construction practices. The soil type needs to be analyzed before
construction. Building structures on soft soil should be avoided. Buildings on
soft soil are more likely to get damaged even if the magnitude of the
earthquake is not strong as shown in Figure 2.1.7. Similar problems persist in
the buildings constructed on the river banks which have alluvial soil.
The term Tsunami has been derived from a Japanese term Tsu
meaning 'harbor' and nami meaning 'waves'. Tsunamis are popularly called
tidal waves but they actually have nothing to do with the tides. These waves
which often affect distantshores, originate by rapid displacement of water
from the lake or the sea either by seismic activity, landslides, volcanic
eruptions or large meteoroid impacts. What ever the cause may be sea water
is displaced with a violent motion and swells up, ultimately surging over land
with great destructive power. The effects of a tsunami can be unnoticeable or
even destructive.
Causes of a Tsunami
The geological movements that cause tsunamis are produced in three
major ways. The most common of these are fault movements on the sea
floor, accompanied by an earth-quake. They release huge amount of energy
and have the capacity to cross oceans. The degree of movement depends on
how fast the earthquake occurs and how much water is displaced. Fig 3.1
shows how an earthquake causes tsunami.

The second most common cause of the tsunami is a landslide either
occurring underwater or originating above the sea and then plunging into the
water. The largest tsunami ever produced by a landslide was in Lituya Bay,
Alaska 1958. The massive rock slide produced a wave that reached a high
water mark of 50 - 150 meters above the shoreline.
The third major cause of tsunami is volcanic activity. The flank of a
volcano located near the shore or under water may be uplifted or depressed
similar to the action of a fault, or, the volcano may actually explode. In 1883,
the violent explosion of the famous volcano, Krakotoa in Indonesia, produced
tsunami measuring 40 meters which crushed upon Java and Sumatra. Over
36,000 people lost their lives in this tyrant waves.
General Characteristics:
Tsunami differs from ordinary ocean waves, which are produced by
wind blowing over water. The tsunamis travel much faster than ordinary
waves. Compared to normal wave speed of 100 kilometers per hour, tsunami
in the deep water of the ocean may travel the speed of a jet airplane – 800
kilometers per hour! And yet, in spite of their speed, tsunami increases the
water height only 30-45cm and often passes unnoticed by ships at sea.
Contrary to the popular belief, the tsunami is not a single giant wave.
It is possible for a tsunami to consist of ten or more waves which is then
termed as 'tsunami wave train'. The waves follow each other 5 to 90 minutes
apart. Tsunami normally causes flooding as
a huge wall of water enters the main land.
Predictability:
There are two distinct types of tsunami warning:
a) International tsunami warning systems
b) Regional warning systems.
Tsunamis have occurred in all the oceans and in the Mediterranean
Sea, but the great majority of them have occurred in the Pacific Ocean. Since
scientists cannot exactly predict earthquakes, they also cannot exactly predict
when a tsunami will be generated.
a) International Tsunami Warning Systems:Shortly after the Hilo
Tsunami (1946), the Pacific Tsunami Warning System (PTWS) was
developed with its operational center at the Pacific Tsunami Warning
Center (PTWC) near Honolulu, Hawaii. The PTWC is able to alert
countries several hours before the tsunami strikes. The warning
includes predicted arrival time at selected coastal communities where
the tsunami could travel in few hours. A tsunami watch is issued with
subsequent arrival time to other geographic areas.
b) Regional Warning Systems usually use seismic data about nearby
earthquakes to determine if there is a possible local threat of a
tsunami. Such systems are capable enough to provide warnings to
the general public in less than 15 minutes.
Typical adverse effects:
Local tsunami events or those less than 30 minutes from the source
cause the majority of damage. The force of the water can raze everything in
its path. It is normally the flooding effect of the tsunami that causes major
destruction to the human settlements, roads and infrastructure thereby
disrupting the normal functioning of the society.
Withdrawal of the tsunami causes major damage. As the waves
withdraw towards the ocean they sweep out the foundations of the buildings,
the beaches get destroyed and the houses carried out to sea. Damage to
ports and airports may prevent importation of needed food and medical
supplies. Apart from the physical damage, there is a huge impact on the
public health system. Deaths mainly occur because of drowning as water
inundates homes. Many people get washed away or crushed by the giant
waves and some are crushed by the debris, causes.
There are very few evidences which show that tsunami flooding has
caused large scale health problem. Availability of drinking water has always
been a major problem in areas affected by a disaster. Sewage pipes may be
damaged causing major sewage disposal problems. Open wells and other
ground water may be contaminated by salt water and debris and sewage.
Flooding in the locality may lead to crop loss, loss of livelihood like boats and
nets, environmental degradation etc.
Possible risk reduction measures:
While it is of course not possible to prevent a tsunami, in certain
tsunami prone countries some measures have been taken to reduce the
damage caused on shore. Japan has implemented an extensive program of
building tsunami walls of up to 4.5m (13.5 ft) high in front of populated coastal
areas. Other localities have built flood gates and channels to redirect the
water from incoming tsunamis. However, their effectiveness has been
questioned, as tsunamis are often higher than the barriers. For instance, the
tsunami which hit the island of Hokkaido on July 12, 1993 created waves as
much as 30m (100 ft) tall - as high as a 10-story building. The port town of
Aonae on Hokkaido was completely surrounded by a tsunami wall, but the
waves washed right over the wall and destroyed all the wood-framed
structures in the area.

The wall may have succeeded in slowing down and moderating the
height of the tsunami but it did not prevent major destruction and loss of life.
Some other systematic measures to protect coastlines against tsunamis
include:
Site Planning and Land Management
- Within the broader framework of a comprehensive plan, site planning
determines the location, configuration, and density of development on
particular sites and is, therefore, an important tool in reducing tsunami risk.
- The designation and zoning of tsunami hazard areas for such open-space
uses as agriculture, parks and recreation, or natural hazard areas is
recommended as the first land use planning strategy. This strategy is
designed to keep development at a minimum in hazard areas.
- In areas where it is not feasible to restrict land to open-space uses, other
land use planning measures can be used. These include strategically
controlling the type of development and uses allowed in hazard areas, and
avoiding high-value and high occupancy uses to the greatest degree
possible.
Engineering structures – Most of the habitation of the fishing community is
seen in the coastal areas. The houses constructed by them are mainly of
lightweight materials without any engineering inputs. Therefore there is an
urgent need to educate the community about the good construction practices
that they should adopt such as:

Site selection – Avoid building or living in buildings within several
hundred feet of the coastline as these areas are more likely to
experience damage from tsunamis.
Construct the structure on a higher ground level with respect to
mean sea level.
Elevate coastal homes: Most tsunami waves are less than 3 meters
in height. Elevating house will help reduce damage to property from
most tsunamis.
Construction of water breakers to reduce the velocity of waves.
Use of water and corrosion resistant materials for construction.
 Construction of community halls at higher locations, which can act
as shelters at the time of a disaster.

Flood management - Flooding will result from a tsunami. Tsunami waves will
flood the coastal areas. Flood mitigation measures could be incorporated.

CYCLONE

What is a Cyclone?

Cyclone is a region of low atmospheric pressure surrounded by high

atmospheric pressure resulting in swirling atmospheric disturbance
accompanied by powerful winds blowing in anticlockwise direction in the
Northern Hemisphere and in the clockwise direction in the Southern
Hemisphere. They occur mainly in the tropical and temperate regions of the
world. Cyclones are called by various names in different parts of the world as
mentioned in box on the next page.

General Characteristics:

Cyclones are moderate in nature. Some of the general characteristics
of a cyclone are:
1. Strong winds
2. Exceptional rain
3. Storm surge
Cyclones are generally accompanied by strong winds which cause a
lot of destruction. In some cases it is accompanied by heavy downpour and
also the rise in the sea which intrudes inland there by causing floods.
The development of a cyclone covers three stages namely:
a) Formation and initial development state: Four atmospheric/
oceanic conditions are necessary for the formation of a cyclone
namely:

A warm sea temperature in excess of 26 degree centigrade,
to a depth of 60 meters, which provides abundant water vapor
in the air by evaporation.
High relative humidity (degree to which the air is saturated
by water vapor) of the atmosphere to a height of about 7000
meters, facilitates condensation of water vapor into droplets
and clouds, releases heat energy and induces drop in
pressure.
 Atmospheric instability (an above average decrease of
temperature with altitude) encourages considerable vertical
cumulus cloud convection when condensation of rising air
occurs.
A location of at least 4-5 latitude degrees from the Equator
allow the influence of the force due to the earth’s rotation
(Coriolis force) to take effect in inducing cyclonic wind
circulation around low pressure centers.
b) Fully matured: The main feature of a fully mature tropical cyclone
is a spiral pattern of highly turbulent giant cumulus thundercloud
bands. These bands spiral inwards and form a dense highly active
central cloud core which raps around a relatively calm zone. This is
called the “eye” of a cyclone. The eye looks like a black hole or a dot
surrounded by thick clouds. The outer circumference of the thick cloud
is called the ‘eye wall’.
c) Weakening or decay: A tropical cyclone begins to weaken as soon
as its source of warm moist air is abruptly cut off. This is possible
when the cyclone hits the land, on the cyclone moves to a higher
altitude or when there is the interference of another low pressure.
Depending on their track on the warm tropical sea and proximity to
land a cyclone may last for less than 24 hours to more than 3 weeks.
On an average the life cycle of a cyclone (a cyclone to complete these
three stages mentioned above) takes six days. The longest cyclone is
typhoon John which lasted for 31 days (August to September, 1994 in
the north east and north west pacific basins).
Typical Adverse effect:
First, in a sudden, brief onslaught, high winds cause major damage to
infrastructure and housing, in particular fragile constructions. They are
generally followed by heavy rains and floods and, in flat coastal areas by
storm surge riding on tidal waves and inundating the land over long distances
of even up to 15 kilometer inland.
Physical damage – structures will be damaged or destroyed by the wind
force, flooding and storm surge. Light pitched roofs of most structures
especially the ones fitted on to industrial buildings will suffer severe damage.
Casualties and public heath – caused by flooding and flying elements,
contamination of water supplies may lead to viral outbreaks, diarrhea, and
malaria.
Water supplies – Ground and pipe water supply may get contaminated by
flood waters.
Crops and food supplies – high winds and rains ruin the standing crop and
food stock lying in low lying areas. Plantation type crops such as banana and
coconut are extremely vulnerable. Salt from the sea water may get deposited
on the agricultural land and increase the salinity. The loss of the crop may
lead to acute food shortage.
Communication – severe disruption in the communication links as the wind
may bring down the electricity and communication towers, telephone poles,
telephone lines, antennas and satellite disk and broadcasting services.
Transport lines (road and rail) may be curtailed, Lack of proper
communication affects effective distribution of relief materials.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:
Coastal belt plantation - green belt plantation along the coastal line in a
scientific interweaving pattern can reduce the effect of the hazard. Providing
a cover through green belt sustains less damage. Forests act as a wide
buffer zone against strong winds and flash floods. Without the forest the
cyclone travel freely inland. The lack of protective forest cover allows water to
inundate large areas and cause destruction. With the loss of the forest cover
each consecutive cyclone can penetrate further inland.
the uplift or flying off of the objects. For example, avoid large
overhangs of roofs, and the projections should be tied down.
- A row of planted trees will act as a shield. It reduces the energy.
- Buildings should be wind and water resistant.
- Buildings storing food supplies must be protected against the winds
and water.
- Protect river embankments. Communication lines should be installed
underground.
- Provide strong halls for community shelter in vulnerable locations.

Hazard mapping – Meteorological records of the wind speed and the

directions give the probability of the winds in the region. Cyclones can be
predicted several days in advance. The onset is extensive and often very
destructive.

Land use control designed so that least critical activities are placed in
vulnerable areas. Location of settlements in the flood plains is at utmost risk.
Siting of key facilities must be marked in the land use. Policies should be in
place to regulate land use and building codes should be enforced.

Engineered structures – structures need to be built to withstand wind

forces. Good site selection is also important. Majority of the buildings in
coastal areas are built with locally available materials and have no
engineering inputs. Good construction practice should be adopted such as:
Flood management – Torrential rains, strong wind and storm range leads to
- Cyclonic wind storms inundate the coastal areas. It is advised to flooding in the cyclone affected areas. There are possibilities of landslides
construct on stilts or on earth mound. too. Flood mitigation measures could be incorporated.
- Houses can be strengthened to resist wind and flood damage. All
elements holding the structures need to be properly anchored to resist Improving vegetation cover – The roots of the plants and trees keep the
soil intact and prevent erosion and slow runoff to prevent or lessen flooding.
The use of tree planted in rows will act as a windbreak. Coastal shelterbelt
plantations can be developed to break severe wind speeds. It minimizes
devastating effects. The Orissa calamity has also highlighted the need for
urgent measures like shelterbelt plantation along cyclone-prone coastal
areas. Species chosen for this purpose should not only be able to withstand
the impact of strong cyclonic winds, but also check soil erosion.
FLOOD
Flood is a state of high water level along a river channel or on the
coast that leads to inundation of land, which is not usually submerged. Floods
may happen gradually and also may take hours or even happen suddenly
without any warning due to breach in the embankment, spill over, heavy rains
etc.
There are different types of floods namely: flash flood, riverine flood,
urban flood, etc. Flash floods can be defined as floods which occur within six
hours of the beginning of heavy rainfall, and are usually associated with cloud
bursts, storms and cyclones requiring rapid localized warnings and immediate
response to reduce damage. Wireless network and telephone connections
are used to monitor flood conditions. In case of flash floods, warnings for
timely evacuation may not always be possible.
Causes:
There are several causes of floods and differ from region to region.
The causes may vary from a rural area to an urban area. Some of the major
causes are:
a. Heavy rainfall
b. Heavy siltation of the river bed reduces the water carrying
capacity of the rivers/stream.
c. Blockage in the drains lead to flooding of the area.
d. Landslides blocking the flow of the stream.
e. Construction of dams and reservoirs
f. In areas prone to cyclone, strong winds accompanied by
heavy down pour along with storm surge leads to flooding.
Typical Adverse Effects:
The most important consequence of floods is the loss of life and
property. Structures like houses, bridges; roads etc. get damaged by the
gushing water, landslides triggered on account of water getting saturated,
boats and fishing nets get damaged. There is huge loss to life and livestock
caused by drowning. Lack of proper drinking water facilities, contamination of
water (well, ground water, piped water supply) leads to outbreak of
epidemics, diarrhea, viral infection, malaria and many other infectious
diseases.
Flooding also leads to a large area of agricultural land getting
inundated as a result there is a huge crop loss. This results in shortage of
food, and animal fodder. Floods may also affect the soil characteristics. The
land may be rendered infertile due to erosion of top layer or may turn saline if
sea water floods the area.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:
Mapping of the flood prone areas is a primary step involved in reducing the
risk of the region. Historical records give the indication of the flood inundation
areas and the period of occurrence and the extent of the coverage. Warning
can be issued looking into the earlier marked heights of the water levels in
case of potential threat. In the coastal areas the tide levels and the land
characteristics will determine the submergence areas. Flood hazard mapping
will give the proper indication of water flow during floods.
Land use control will reduce danger of life and property when waters
inundate the floodplains and the coastal areas. The number of casualties is
related to the population in the area at risk. In areas where people already
have built their settlements, measures should be taken to relocate to better
sites so as to reduce vulnerability. No major development should be
permitted in the areas which are subjected to high flooding. Important
facilities like hospitals, schools should be built in safe areas. In urban areas,
water holding areas can be created like ponds, lakes or low-lying areas.

Construction of engineered structures in the flood plains and
strengthening of structures to withstand flood forces and seepage. The
buildings should be constructed on an elevated area. If necessary build on
stilts or platform.
Flood Control aims to reduce flood damage. This can be done by
decreasing the amount of runoff with the help of reforestation (to increase
absorption could be a mitigation strategy in certain areas),protection of
vegetation, clearing of debris from streams and other water holding areas,
conservation of ponds and lakes etc. Flood Diversion include levees,
embankments, dams and channel improvement. Dams can store water and
can release water at a manageable rate. But failure of dams in earthquakes
and operation of releasing the water can cause floods in the lower areas.
Flood Proofing reduces the risk of damage. Measures include use of sand
bags to keep flood water away, blocking or sealing of doors and windows of
houses etc. Houses may be elevated by building on raised land. Buildings
should be constructed away from water bodies.
Drought is negative balance between precipitation and water use
(through evaporation, transpiration by plants, domestic and industrial
uses etc) in a geographical region. The effects of drought accumulate
slowly over a considerable period of time.
Causes of Drought
Though drought is basically caused by deficit rainfall, which is a
meteorological phenomenon, it manifests into different spheres because of
various vulnerability factors associated with them (see the box). Some of
these factors are human induced. Though drought is a natural disaster, its
effects are made worst in developing countries by over population, over
grazing, deforestation, soil erosion, excessive use of ground and surface
water for growing crops, loss of biodiversity.

DROUGHT

Drought is either absence or deficiency of rainfall from its normal pattern in a

region for an extended period of time leading to general suffering in the
society. It is interplay between demand that people place on natural supply of
water and natural event that provides the water in a given geographical
region. The more the imbalance in supply the higher is the drought. The
following will help explaining this general definition of the drought further.

It is a slow on-set disaster and it is difficult to demarcate the time of
its onset and the end.
Any unusual dry period which results in a shortage of useful water.
Drought is a normal, recurrent feature of climate. Climate is
expected to show some aberrations and drought is just a part of it.
Drought can occur by improper distribution of rain in time and
space, and not just by its amount.
General Characteristics:
– Types of droughts
Drought proceeds in sequential manner. Its impacts are spread
across different domains as listed below.
– Meteorological drought
Meteorological drought is simple absence/deficit of rainfall from the
normal. It is the least severe form of drought and is often identified by sunny
days and hot weather.
– Hydrological drought
Hydrological drought often leads to reduction of natural stream flows
or ground water levels, plus stored water supplies. The main impact is on
water resource systems.
– Agricultural drought
This form of drought occurs when moisture level in soil is insufficient
to maintain average crop yields. Initial consequences are in the reduced
seasonal output of crops and other related production. An extreme
agricultural drought can lead to a famine, which is a prolonged shortage of
food in a restricted region causing widespread disease and death from
starvation.
Socio-economic drought
Socio-economic drought correlates the supply and demand of goods
and services with the three above-mentioned types of drought. When the
supply of some goods or services such as water and electricity are weather
dependent then drought may cause shortages in supply of these economic
goods.
Measuring Drought:
Elements at Risk
In general, all those elements that are primarily dependent on water
are most affected. It affects the rainfed crops and then slowly creeps into the
irrigated crops. People who are dependent on agriculture and areas where
the other livelihood opportunities are least developed are greatly affected.
The herdsman, landless labourer, subsistence farmers, women, children and
farm animals are the most vulnerable groups.
Typical adverse effects
Drought, different from any other natural disaster, does not cause any
structural damages. As the meteorological drought turns into hydrological
drought, the impacts start appearing first in agriculture which is most
dependent on the soil moisture. Irrigated areas are affected much later than
the rain fed areas. However, regions surrounding perennial rivers tend to
continue normal life even when drought conditions are prevailing around. The
impacts slowly spread into social fabric as the availability of drinking water
diminishes, reduction in energy production, ground water depletion, food
shortage, health reduction and loss of life, increased poverty, reduced quality
of life and social unrest leading to migration.
Possible Risk Reduction Measures:
There are various mitigation strategies to cope up with drought.
1. Public Awareness and education: If the community is aware of the do’s
and don’ts, then half of the problem is solved. This includes awareness on
the availability of safe drinking water, water conservation techniques,
agricultural drought management strategies like crop contingency plans,
construction of rain water harvesting structure. Awareness can be generated
by the print, electronic and folk media.
2. Drought Monitoring: It is continuous observation of the rainfall situation,
availability of water in the reservoirs, lakes, rivers etc and comparing with the
existing water needs in various sectors of the society.

3. Water supply augmentation and conservation through rainwater

harvesting in houses and farmers’ fields increases the content of water
available. Water harvesting by either allowing the runoff water from all the
fields to a common point (e.g. Farm ponds, see the picture) or allowing it to
infiltrate into the soil where it has fallen (in situ) (e.g. contour bunds, contour
cultivation, raised bed planting etc) helps increase water availability for
sustained agricultural production.

4. Expansion of irrigation facilities reduces the drought vulnerability. Land

use based on its capability helps in optimum use of land and water and can
avoid the undue demand created due to their misuse.

5. Livelihood planning identifies those livelihoods which are least affected

bythe drought. Some of such livelihoods include increased off-farm
employment opportunities, collection of non-timber forest produce from the
community forests, raising goats, carpentry etc.

6. Drought planning: the basic goal of drought planning is to improve the

effectiveness of preparedness and response efforts by enhancing monitoring,
mitigation and response measures.

7. Planning would help in effective coordination among state and national

agencies in dealing with the drought. Components of drought plan include
establishing drought taskforce which is a team of specialists who can advise
the government in taking decision to deal with drought situation, establishing
coordination mechanism among various agencies which deal with the
droughts, providing crop insurance schemes to the farmers to cope with the
drought related crop losses, and public awareness generation.
LANDSLIDE
What is a landslide?
The term’ landslide’ includes all varieties of mass movements of hill
slopes and can be defined as the downward and outward movement of slope
forming materials composed of rocks, soils, artificial fills or combination of all
these materials along surfaces of separation by falling, sliding and flowing,
either slowly or quickly from one place to another. Although the landslides are
primarily associated with mountainous terrains, these can also occur in areas
where an activity such as surface excavations for highways, buildings and
open pit mines takes place. They often take place in conjunction with
earthquakes, floods and volcanoes. At times, prolonged rainfall causing
landslide may block the flow of river for quite some time. The formation of
river blocks can cause havoc to the settlements downstream on its bursting.
Causes of Landslide
There are several causes of landslide. Some of the major causes are
as follows:
1. Geological Weak material: Weakness in the composition and
structure of rock or soil may also cause landslides.
2. Erosion: Erosion of slope toe due to cutting down of vegetation,
construction of roads might increase the vulnerability of the terrain to
slide down.
3. Intense rainfall: Storms that produce intense rainfall for periods as
short as several hours or have a more moderate intensity lasting
several days have triggered abundant landslides. Heavy melting of
snow in the hilly terrains also results in landslide.
4. Human Excavation of slope and its toe, loading of slope/toe, draw
down in reservoir, mining, deforestation, irrigation, vibration/blast,
Water leakage from services.
5. Earthquake shaking has triggered landslides in many different
topographic and geologic settings. Rock falls, soil slides and
rockslides from steep slopes involving relatively thin or shallow dis-
aggregated soils or rock, or both have been the most abundant types
of landslides triggered by historical earthquakes.
6. Volcanic eruption Deposition of loose volcanic ash on hillsides
commonly is followed by accelerated erosion and frequent mud or
debris flows triggered by intense rainfall.
Type of Landslides:
The common types of landslides are described below. These
definitions are based mainly on the work of Varnes (Varnes, D.J., 1978).
Falls: Abrupt movements of materials that become detached from
steep slopes or cliffs, moving by free-fall, bouncing, and rolling.
Flows: General term including many types of mass movement, such
as debris flow, debris avalanche, lahar, and mudflow.
 Creep: Slow, steady downslope movement of soil or rock, often
indicated by curved tree trunks, bent fences or retaining walls, tilted
poles or fences.
Debris flow Rapid mass movement in which loose soils, rocks, and
organic matter combine with entrained air and water to form slurry that
then flows down slope, usually associated with steep gullies.
Debris avalanche A variety of very rapid to extremely rapid debris
flow.
Lahar Mudflow or debris flow that originates on the slope of a
volcano, usually triggered by heavy rainfall eroding volcanic deposits,
sudden melting of snow and ice due to heat from volcanic vents, or
the breakout of water from glaciers, crater lakes or lakes dammed by
volcanic eruptions
Mudflow Rapidly flowing mass of wet material that contains at least
50 per cent sand, silt, and clay-sized particles.
Lateral spreads Often occur on very gentle slopes and result in
nearly horizontal movement of earth materials. Lateral spreads
usually are caused by liquefaction, where saturated sediments Possible risk reduction measures:
(usually sands and silts) are transformed from a solid into a liquefied
state, usually triggered by an earthquake. Hazard mapping locates areas prone to slope failures. This will help to avoid
Slides Many types of mass movement are included in the general building settlements in such areas. These maps will also serve as a tool for
term “landslide.” The two major types of landslides are rotational mitigation planning.
slides and translational landslides.
Topple A block of rock that tilts or rotates forward and falls, Land use practices such as:
bounces, or rolls down the slope.  Areas covered by degraded natural vegetation in upper slopes are to
be afforested with suitable species. Existing patches of natural
Adverse Effects: vegetation (forest and natural grass land) in good condition, should be
preserved
The most common elements at risk are the settlements built on the  Any developmental activity initiated in the area should be taken up
steep slopes, built at the toe and those built at the mouth of the streams only after a detailed study of the region has been carried out.
emerging from the mountain valley. All those buildings constructed without  In construction of roads, irrigation canals etc. proper care is to be
appropriate foundation for a given soil and in sloppy areas are also at risk. taken to avoid blockage of natural drainage
Roads, communication lines are vulnerable.
 Total avoidance of settlement in the risk zone should be made
mandatory.
  Relocate settlements and infrastructure that fall in the possible path of Insurance will assist individuals whose homes are likely to be damaged by
the landslide landslides or by any other natural hazards.
 No construction of buildings in areas beyond a certain degree of slope

Retaining Walls can be built to stop land from slipping (these walls are
commonly seen along roads in hill stations). These are constructed to prevent
smaller sized and secondary landslides that often occur along the toe portion
of the larger landslides.

Surface Drainage Control Works The surface drainage control works are
implemented to control the movement of landslides accompanied by
infiltration of rain water and spring flows.

Engineered structures with strong foundations can withstand or take the

ground movement forces. Underground installations (pipes, cables, etc.)
should be made flexible to move in order to withstand forces caused by the
landslide.

Increasing vegetation cover is the cheapest and most effective way of

arresting landslides. This helps to bind the top layer of the soil with layers
below, while preventing excessive run-off and soil erosion.
PHILIPPINE GEOGRAPHY 1. EARTHQUAKE
The Philippines is an archipelago comprising 7,107 islands with a total
land area of 300,000 square kilometers (115,831 sq. mi). The 11 largest  TSUNAMI
islands contain 94% of the total land area. The largest of these islands  VOLCANIC ERUPTION
is Luzon at about 105,000 square kilometers (40,541 sq. mi). The next largest  LANDSLIDE
island is Mindanao at about 95,000 square kilometers (36,680 sq. mi). The
archipelago is around 800 kilometers (500 mi) from the Asian mainland and is
located between Taiwan and Borneo.
The islands are divided into three groups: Luzon, Visayas,
and Mindanao. The Luzon islands include Luzon Island itself, Palawan,
Mindoro, Marinduque, Masbate and Batanes Islands. The Visayas is the
group of islands in the central Philippines, the largest of which are:
Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte and Samar. The Mindanao islands
include Mindanao itself, plus the Sulu Archipelago, composed primarily
of Basilan, Sulu Island, and Tawi-Tawi.

NATURAL HAZARDS IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Philippines is susceptible to various types of natural hazards due to
its geographical location and physical environment; being situated in the “Pacific
Ring of Fire”, between two Tectonic plates (Eurasian and Pacific), an area
encircling the Pacific Ocean where frequent earthquakes and volcanic activity
result from the movements of said tectonic plates. In fact, the country
experiences an average of 20 earthquakes per day (most are too weak to be
felt). There are also about 300 volcanoes, of which 22 are active and have been
recorded in history to have erupted; while 5 are considered to be the most active
namely: Taal, Mayon, Bulusan, Kanlaon and Hibok-Hibok. Also, being located
along the typhoon belt/superhighway in the Pacific makes it vulnerable to
extreme weather events. An average of 20-30 typhoons/tropical cyclones visit the
country every year, with 5-7 of them considered the most destructive. Its 36,289
kms. Of coastline is also vulnerable to tsunami, making the country also highly-
susceptible to sea level rise and storm surges. Accompanying or resulting from
these tropical cyclone events are secondary phenomena such as landslides,
 Over the past decades, the Philippines have been labeled as one of the
most disaster-prone countries in the world mainly because of its geographic and
geologic location and physical characteristics. The 1,200-km-long Philippine fault
zone (PFZ) is a major tectonic feature that transects the whole Philippine
archipelago from northwestern Luzon to southeastern Mindanao. This arc-
parallel, left-lateral strike slip fault is divided into several segments and has been
the source of large-magnitude earthquakes in recent years, such as the 1973
Ragay Gulf earthquake (M 7.0), 1990 Luzon earthquake (Mw 7.7) and 2003
Masbate earthquake.
2. TROPICAL CYCLONE
In the Philippines, tropical cyclones (typhoons) are called bagyo.
Tropical cyclones entering the Philippine Area of Responsibility are given a
local name by the Philippine Atmospheric, Geophysical and Astronomical
Services Administration (PAGASA), which also raises public storm signal
warnings as deemed necessary. Around 19 tropical cyclones or storms enter
the Philippine Area of Responsibility in a typical year and of these usually 6 to
9 make landfall.

The Philippines is the most-exposed large country in the world

to tropical cyclones, and it has even affected settlement patterns in the
northern islands; for example, the eastern coast of Luzon is very sparsely
populated.
 PHILIPPINES COUNTRY REPORT ON
DISASTER RESPONSE MANAGEMENT
Millions of people are affected every year by natural disasters like
typhoons, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and their resultant effects like
floods, flash floods, landslides and tsunami. Global warming, environmental
degradation, high population density and poverty make the impact of natural
disasters worse. The past years have shown us that natural disasters can
affect anyone and anywhere. The Philippines, because of its geographical
location, is vulnerable to many types of natural disasters. It is located at the
western part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a most active part of the earth
characterized by an ocean encircling belt of active volcanoes and earthquake
generators. The country has 220 volcanoes, of which more than 20 are
known to be currently active. It is also in the path of turbulent typhoons, with
about an average of 20 crossing annually the Philippine area of responsibility.
The archipelagic nature of the Philippine coastal areas increases
susceptibility to storm surges, tsunamis and sea level changes. Floods are
also common due to rains brought by typhoons and the monsoon. The
Philippines is also vulnerable to the El Niño phenomenon that induces
drought and delays the onset of monsoon, which results to scarcity in drinking
water in urban areas and shortfalls in hydro-electricity generation because of
reduced water levels in major dams.
LEGISLATIVE INITIATIVES ON DISASTER RISK REDUCTION
Republic Act No. 10121 – “Philippine Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Act of 2010”
Disaster risk reduction management gained legal and
institutional foundation with the passage of Republic Act No.
10121. The law provided for the development of policies, plans and
the implementation of actions and measures pertaining to all
aspects of disaster risk reduction and management, including good
governance, risk assessment and early warning, knowledge
building and awareness raising, reducing underlying risk factors,
and preparedness for effective response and early recovery.
The law seeks to develop resiliency in the face of natural and
manmade disasters and to lessen the vulnerability of the grassroots
by establishing a full range of programs in disaster preparedness,
including education, training and organizing. It shifted the focus
from disaster response and recovery towards disaster risk
reduction, preparedness and mitigation.
With the enactment of the RA 10121, the then National
Disaster Coordinating Council is now known as the National Risk
Reduction Management Council (NDRRMC). One of the
responsibilities of the NDRRMC is the development of a National
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Framework (NDRRMF).
The NDRRMF serves as the principal guide in the formulation of a
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan. The
NDRRMF shall be reviewed every five years or as may deemed
necessary in order to ensure its relevance to the times.
Republic Act No. 9729 – “Climate Change Act of 2009”
Republic Act No. 9729 was passed to ensure that national
and local government policies, plans, programs and projects are
founded upon sound environmental considerations and the principle
of sustainable development. The Climate Change Act
systematically integrates the concept of climate change in policy
formulation, development plans, and poverty reduction strategies,
among others by all government agencies.
Republic Act 9729 establishes a Climate Change Commission
which is now the sole policy-making body of the government tasked
to coordinate, monitor and evaluate the programs and action plans
of the government relating to climate change. The law mandates
the Commission to coordinate and establish a close partnership
with the National Disaster Coordinating Council in order to
increase efficiency and effectiveness in reducing the people’s
vulnerability to climate-related disasters.
The Commission is also mandated to formulate a framework
strategy on Climate Change to serve as the basis for a program for
climate change planning, research and development, extension, and
monitoring of activities on climate change. Last year, the Climate
Change Commission submitted the National Framework Strategy
on Climate Change 2010 – 2022. The National Framework Strategy
is committed towards ensuring and strengthening the adaptation of
our natural ecosystems and human communities to climate change.
In the process, the framework aspires to chart a cleaner
development path for the Philippines highlighting the mutually
beneficial relationship between climate change mitigation and
adaptation.
Develop a Common Understanding of DRRM
A national DRRM framework will help us develop a common
understanding of the different aspects of DRRM and related elements
and/or factors which need to be considered in developing national and
local plans and programs .Through the framework we hope to have the
same levels of understanding that DRRM is (a) about lessening the
vulnerability and increasing capacities of men and women in communities
and governments; (b) about mainstreaming efforts in national and local
development plans; (c) achieved through multi-stakeholder partnerships ;
and (d) linked to climate change adaptation. In the context of post-disaster
recovery process, building back better using a DRRM perspective can be
achieved if the processes are improved, stakeholders learn from good
practices and building institutional capacities is continually done.
Criteria for Benchmarking and Tool for Evaluating Process
The NDRRM Framework will both serve as a set of criteria for
benchmarking the effectiveness of disaster risk reduction measures and as
a tool for monitoring and evaluating the progress. In particular, the
Framework serves to provide a basis for political advocacy as well as
practical action and implementation. It also highlights the areas where
capacities need to be developed and provide a basis for setting goals,
objectives, and targets adapted to various circumstances, against which
progress can be measured and gaps identified.
Disaster Risk Profile
Over the past decades,the Philippines have been labeled as one of
the most disaster-prone countries in the world mainly because of its
geographic and geologic location and physical characteristics. The country
lies along several active fault lines and have active, inactive and potentially
active volcanoes all over the country. We record an average of 20
earthquakes per day and around 100-150 earthquakes felt per year. Also,
the country lies within the Western Pacific Basin (a generator of climatic
conditions such as monsoons, thunderstorms, inter-tropical convergence
zone (ITCZ), typhoons, among others) making it a path of an average of 20
tropical cyclones annually, nine of which makes a landfall. Climate risks bring
with it exposure to super typhoons, El Nino-related droughts, projected
rainfall change and projected temperature increase. In addition, flooding is
another hazard facing the country due to rains brought about by typhoons
and the monsoon.
 National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Plan (NDRRMP) 2011‐2028
The National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan
(NDRRMP) fulfills the requirement of RA No. 10121 of 2010, which provides
the legal basis for policies, plans and programs to deal with disasters.
The NDRRMP covers four thematic areas, namely, (1) Disaster Prevention
and Mitigation; (2) Disaster Preparedness; (3) Disaster Response; and (4)
Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery, which correspond to the structure of
the National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Council (NDRRMC).
By law, the Office of Civil Defense formulates and implements the NDRRMP
and ensures that the physical framework, social, economic and
environmental plans of communities, cities, municipalities and provinces are
consistent with such plan.
The NDRRMP is consistent with the National Disaster Risk
Reduction and Management Framework (NDRRMF), which serves as “the
principal guide to disaster risk reduction and management (DRRM) efforts
to the country….” The Framework envisions a country of “safer, adaptive
and disaster- resilient Filipino communities toward sustainable
development.” It conveys a paradigm shift from reactive to proactive DRRM
wherein men and women have increased their awareness and Design Prevention and Mitigation
understanding of DRRM, with the end in view of increasing people’s  Conduct of several risk assessment.
resilience and decreasing their vulnerabilities.  Development and establishment of several earl warnings
National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan 2011-2028.  Development of tools in risk assessment.
The NDRRMP sets down the expected outcomes, outputs, key activities,  Increasing involvement of communities and LGU’s in disaster risk
indicators, lead agencies, implementing partners and timelines under each management.
of the four distinct yet mutually reinforcing thematic areas. The goals of each  Mainstreaming of DRRM into the national planning systems.
thematic area lead to the attainment of the country’s overall DRRM vision,  National institutional and legal framework of DRR.
as graphically shown below.
 Presence of functional multi-sectoral platform.
 Resource allocation.

Disaster Preparedness
 Conduct of DRR researches.
 Conduct of multi-stakeholders dialogues.
 Conduct of various capacity building activities.
  Development and regular review of contingency plans.
 Development of IEC materials.
 Development of information and database generation.
 Development of school curricula to include DRR.
 Existence of procedures on disaster communication.

Disaster Response
 Establish institutional mechanisms for disaster response operations.
 Improved skills on search and rescue and retrieval operation.

Disaster Rehabilitation and Recovery

 Mainstreaming of DRR in social, economic, and human settlement
development plans.
 Conduct of post disaster assessment.
 Integration of DRR into post-disaster recovery and rehabilitation
processes.
 Incorporating DRR elements in planning and management of human
settlements.
 DPWH DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
The DPWH as a member of the National Disaster Risk Reduction and
Management Council (NDRRMC) must be proactive in its role on disaster
preparedness and response. As the engineering and construction arm of the
government, the DPWH must provide infrastructure that would pass the test
of time especially during calamities and disasters, Disaster risk reduction
strategies must be institutionalized and should be part of the overall policies
on infrastructure development.

DPWH CHALLENGES
1. Promote earthquake-resistant buildings, public facilities, infrastructures and
lifelines
2. Strengthen institutional capacity for implementing preparedness and
mitigation measure
3. Strengthen disaster response capability
4. Establish emergency transportation system
5. Establish debris clearance and management system

Mitigation- the action of reducing the severity, seriousness, or painfulness of

something.
Structural Mitigation
1. Earthquakes

ASSESSMENT OF STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY OF BUILDINGS

Required for old (important) buildings – long years of existence –
degradation of strength/aging of materials, wear and tear, exposure to
elements Need to be maintained – usage, durability, serviceability, avoid
deterioration.

Objectives:
Assure safety of the structure & fixtures Protect occupants/public
Protect adjacent properties Provide continuous flow of economic activities
Assure unhampered disaster response activities.
 What are the available methods use in the conduct of assessment?
- Physical examinations of the building’s structural condition
 Visual
 Detailed
 Analytical
Visual = physical observation – looking for readily visible problems >>>
ocular
- usual procedure
- first level (less effort/cost)
- Recommendations based on general physical condition i.e. building
configurations, age, and height.
Detailed Assessment = physical observation, looking for and
identifying visible defects/ potential problems, verifying as-built
condition (if available), includes results of visual observation >>>
ocular in nature
Detailed Assessment = detailed evaluation -
- Second level (less cost but may need much effort i.e. locating as-built
data or documents)
- Recommendations based on obvious/ potential problems i.e., lack of
building data to validate existing condition
Analytical = in-depth assessment= ocular, sampling, testing, measurements
(as-building), numerical analysis for code compliance (satisfy current
code provisions)
>>> Structural integrity assessment
Retrofitting – a method of mitigating the risk of structural failure by
strengthening. It is done for structures that require increase capacity to
resist additional loadings. Retrofitting is necessary due to (1) provision
of additional capacity for structure that were designed base on old code
provisions or specification and therefore are inadequate to resist current
seismic load requirement, (2) structures are vulnerable to
collapse/failure when subjected to large displacement (3) inadequate
design or design construction defects, (4) foundation failure.
Methods of strengthening
Depending on the required capacity, the following are the standard on
retrofitting methods for building/bridges
A. Column jacketing to increase column stiffness/strength. Jacketing can
either be by providing additional column section using concrete or steel,
fiber materials.
B. Provision of shear wall, for buildings, at strategic locations to resist the
design seismic forces.
C. Improvement of foundation supports by injection or provision of micro
piles or increasing footing dimensions.
D. Provision of restrainers for simply supported bridge girders to prevent
spans for falling off their support.
Note that retrofitting works are economically feasible if the cost of
retrofitting is less that about 60% of the cost of new construction.
Otherwise replacement of structure is recommended.
Carbon Fiber Reinforced Sheet
The structure of concrete building is generally perceived as being
constantly stable over a span of time. But in some earthquake zone it is easy
to cause the building damage by the high frequent earthquake. If the building
has not been designed to withstand this forces, they can accumulatively
reduce the strength of the concrete and steel. As well the erosion of air or
water can increase the initial damage caused by earthquake, and ultimately
the bending resistance and shear resistance of the structure are
compromised.
 When the building is in the design stage, external forces and pressure Advantage of carbon fiber sheet
are not always taken into consideration. These shortcomings can be  High strength
addressed with the application of carbon fiber reinforced sheets to improve High strength and flexibility are more effective that steel
The structural integrity of a existing building. reinforcement
The benefit of carbon fiber reinforced sheets is that the more materials  Light weight
added, the greater the strength and durability presented. So is the At the same design strength, only 1/60 of steel, the light weight will
hydrochloric acid resistance unlike other material, CFRS only increase a little not add load to the building
weight to the structure and the original shape of this structure remains the  Durability
same. CFRS will not corrode by rust, salt, moisture, acid or alkaline
materials.
 Easy and quick to construct.
CFRS is easy to move due to light weight and compact properties.

Earthquake Retrofitting: House Bolting,

Foundation Bolting & Cripple Wall Bracing
The primary purpose of earthquake retrofitting is to keep your home
from being displaced from its concrete foundation — making the building
safer and less prone to major structural damage during an earthquake.
Existing homes need to be retrofitted because our understanding of the
effects of earthquakes as well as construction techniques have improved
after the homes were built.

Carbon Fiber Reinforced Sheet

Foundation Bolting

Foundation bolting typically means that bolts are added to improve the
connections between the wooden framing members of a building and its
concrete foundation. Usually this means adding bolts through the piece of
wood that lies flat on top of the foundation, referred to as the sill or mudsill,
into the concrete. There may be no existing bolts, or the existing bolts may be
either weakened or too far apart to be strong enough for earthquake
resistance.
Careful planning, placement and installation of foundation bolts are
critical for good bolting strength. It is important to use the proper type of bolt
corresponding to the existing conditions of the home and its foundation. The
expected type of bolt load or stress is another important consideration for bolt
selection
2. TROPICAL CYCLONE
Flood Risk Management Challenges
•Increasing protection of communities and properties under threat
•Improving watershed/river basin management
•Strengthening institutional and local capacities for flood mitigation
•Good governance and improved enforcement of laws
•Establishing a proper management system of data/information (reliable
hydrological, meteorological and hydraulic information for planners and
forecasters)
•Increasing public and private sector awareness and participation
•Addressing climate change impacts

Flood Risk Management Issues

 Flood risks are increased with potential impacts of climate change
 Relocation of populations from high risk areas
VIDEO SUMMARY

1. Japan Flood Control

The video is all about how japan prevent flooding through its large
underground drainage system located at the farm land of Tokyo. This is a 1
path of massive water discharge and serves as big water cistern that directly
releases water into the river.

2 .DPWH completed its Flood control project in Region 3 which could prevent
overflowing of water in Chico River in Pampanga, The projects covered 6
municipalities of Pampanga and cost 147Million pesos. The said Flood
Control Projects is composed of Dredging, Desalting, Channeling and diking
measures of the river to prevent flooding beside in the said areas.
Definition of Terms
Acceptable risk
The level of potential losses that a society or community considers
acceptable given existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical and
environmental conditions.
Adaptation
The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or
expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits
beneficial opportunities.
Biological hazard
Process or phenomenon of organic origin or conveyed by biological vectors,
including exposure to pathogenic micro-organisms, toxins and bioactive
substances that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts,
property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.
Building code
A set of ordinances or regulations and associated standards intended to
control aspects of the design, construction, materials, alteration and
occupancy of structures that are necessary to ensure human safety and
welfare, including resistance to collapse and damage.
Capacity
The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within
a community, society or organization that can be used to achieve agreed
goals.
Capacity development
The process by which people, organizations and society systematically
stimulate and develop their capacities over time to achieve social and
economic goals, including through improvement of knowledge, skills,
systems, and institutions.
Climate change
(a) The Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) defines climate
change as: “a change in the state of the climate that can be identified (e.g.,
by using statistical tests) by changes in the mean and/or the variability of its
properties, and that persists for an extended period, typically decades or
longer. Climate change may be due to natural internal processes or external
forcing, or to persistent anthropogenic changes in the composition of the
atmosphere or in land use”.
(b) The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) defines climate change as “a change of climate which is attributed
directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global
atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed
over comparable time periods”.
Contingency planning
A management process that analyses specific potential events or emerging
situations that might threaten society or the environment and establishes
arrangements in advance to enable timely, effective and appropriate
responses to such events and situations.
Coping capacity
The ability of people, organizations and systems, using available skills and
resources, to face and manage adverse conditions, emergencies or
disasters.
Corrective disaster risk management
Management activities that address and seek to correct or reduce disaster
risks which are already present.
Critical facilities
The primary physical structures, technical facilities and systems which are
socially, economically or operationally essential to the functioning of a society
or community, both in routine circumstances and in the extreme
circumstances of an emergency.
Disaster
A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving
widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts,
which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using
its own resources.
Disaster risk
The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and
services, which could occur to a particular community or a society over some
specified future time period.
Disaster risk management
The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and
operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and
improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards
and the possibility of disaster.
Disaster risk reduction
The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts
to analyses and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through
reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property,
wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness
for adverse events.
Disaster risk reduction plan
A document prepared by an authority, sector, organization or enterprise that
sets out goals and specific objectives for reducing disaster risks together with
related actions to accomplish these objectives.
Early warning system
The set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and
meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities and
organizations threatened by a hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and
in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss.
Ecosystem services
The benefits that people and communities obtain from ecosystems.
Ecosystem services
The benefits that people and communities obtain from ecosystems.
El Niño-southern oscillation
A complex interaction of the tropical Pacific Ocean and the global
atmosphere that results in irregularly occurring episodes of changed ocean
and weather patterns in many parts of the world, often with significant
impacts over many months, such as altered marine habitats, rainfall changes,
floods, droughts, and changes in storm patterns.
Emergency management
The organization and management of resources and responsibilities for
addressing all aspects of emergencies, in particular preparedness, response
and initial recovery steps.
Emergency services
The set of specialized agencies that have specific responsibilities and
objectives in serving and protecting people and property in emergency
situations.
Environmental degradation
The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and
ecological objectives and needs.
Environmental impact assessment
Process by which the environmental consequences of a proposed project or
programme are evaluated, undertaken as an integral part of planning and
decision-making processes with a view to limiting or reducing the adverse
impacts of the project or programme.
Exposure
People, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard zones that
are thereby subject to potential losses.
Extensive risk
The widespread risk associated with the exposure of dispersed populations to
repeated or persistent hazard conditions of low or moderate intensity, often of
a highly localized nature, which can lead to debilitating cumulative disaster
impacts.
Forecast
Definite statement or statistical estimate of the likely occurrence of a future
event or conditions for a specific area.
Geological hazard
Geological process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other
health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage.
Greenhouse gases
Gaseous constituents of the atmosphere, both natural and anthropogenic,
that absorb and emit radiation of thermal infrared radiation emitted by the
Earth’s surface, the atmosphere itself, and by clouds.
Hazard
A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may
cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of
livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental
damage.
Hydro meteorological hazard
Process or phenomenon of atmospheric, hydrological or oceanographic
nature that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property
damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or
environmental damage.
Intensive risk
The risk associated with the exposure of large concentrations of people and
economic activities to intense hazard events, which can lead to potentially
catastrophic disaster impacts involving high mortality and asset loss.
Land-use planning
The process undertaken by public authorities to identify, evaluate and decide
on different options for the use of land, including consideration of long term
economic, social and environmental objectives and the implications for
different communities and interest groups, and the subsequent formulation
and promulgation of plans that describe the permitted or acceptable uses.
Mitigation
The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related
disasters.
National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction
A generic term for national mechanisms for coordination and policy guidance
on disaster risk reduction that are multi-sectoral and inter-disciplinary in
nature, with public, private and civil society participation involving all
concerned entities within a country.
Natural hazard
Natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other
health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and
economic disruption, or environmental damage.
Preparedness
The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional
response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to
effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the impacts of likely,
imminent or current hazard events or conditions.
Prevention
The outright avoidance of adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters.
Prospective disaster risk management
Management activities that address and seek to avoid the development of
new or increased disaster risks.
Public awareness
The extent of common knowledge about disaster risks, the factors that lead to
disasters and the actions that can be taken individually and collectively to
reduce exposure and vulnerability to hazards.
Recovery
The restoration, and improvement where appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods
and living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to
reduce disaster risk factors.
Residual risk
The risk that remains in unmanaged form, even when effective disaster risk
reduction measures are in place, and for which emergency response and
recovery capacities must be maintained.
Resilience
The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist,
absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely
and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its
essential basic structures and functions.
Response
The provision of emergency services and public assistance during or
immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts,
ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people
affected.
Retrofitting
Reinforcement or upgrading of existing structures to become more resistant
and resilient to the damaging effects of hazards.
Risk assessment
A methodology to determine the nature and extent of risk by analysing
potential hazards and evaluating existing conditions of vulnerability that
together could potentially harm exposed people, property, services,
livelihoods and the environment on which they depend.
Risk management
The systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainty to minimize
potential harm and loss.
Risk transfer
The process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences of
particular risks from one party to another whereby a household, community,
enterprise or state authority will obtain resources from the other party after a
disaster occurs, in exchange for ongoing or compensatory social or financial
benefits provided to that other party.
Socio-natural hazard
The phenomenon of increased occurrence of certain geophysical and hydro
meteorological hazard events, such as landslides, flooding, land subsidence
and drought that arise from the interaction of natural hazards with
overexploited or degraded land and environmental resources.
Structural and non-structural measures
Structural measures: Any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible
impacts of hazards, or application of engineering techniques to achieve
hazard-resistance and resilience in structures or systems;
Non-structural measures: Any measure not involving physical construction
that uses knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce risks and impacts, in
particular through policies and laws, public awareness raising, training and
education.
Sustainable development
Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet their own needs.
Technological hazards
A hazard originating from technological or industrial conditions, including
accidents, dangerous procedures, infrastructure failures or specific human
activities, that may cause loss of life, injury, illness or other health impacts,
property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic
disruption, or environmental damage.
Vulnerability
The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that
make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.
http://www.unisdr.org/we/inform/terminology
PHILIPPINE GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical Astronomical
Services Administration (PAGASA)
PAGASA is an agency under the Department of
Science and Technology (DOST). It provides real-time
updates about the weather and typhoon alerts.
Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology
(PHIVOLCS)
PHIVOLCS is a service institute of the DOST. The
agency is tasked to mitigate disasters that may arise
from volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, tsunami and
other related geotectonic phenomena.
National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council
(NDRRMC)
The NDRRMC was established to pursue disaster
prevention and risk reduction. It reports updates on the
effects and preparedness measures of disaster situations
such as typhoons, earthquakes, etc.
Philippine Coast Guard
Philippine Coast Guard is an agency under the Department
of Transportation and Communications that enforces
maritime safety, security, and search and rescue
operations. It provides sea travel advisories and updates on
sea port operations.
Philippine Information Agency
Issues updates on relief and rescue efforts in areas affected by
a Natural Calamity
National Grid Corporation of the Philippines (NGCP)
National Grid Corporation of the Philippines is an entity that
ensures the delivery of safe and reliable electricity
throughout the Philippine archipelago. It provides advisories
on electricity supply.
Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA)
Provides real-time reports on road travel conditions in
Metro Manila; aids in flood control in Metro Manila
Association of Structural Engineers of the Philippines
(ASEP)
One of the aims of the Association of Structural
Engineers of the Philippines (ASEP) is to acquaint the
public with the fact that, while all structural engineers in
the country are civil engineers, very few engineers are
competent in the specialty of structural engineering. Only
the latter can truly represent themselves as structural
engineers who can design a structure to satisfy the three
major criteria of safety, adequacy, and economy.
National Mapping and Resource Information
Authority (NAMRIA)
The Philippines' National Mapping and Resource
Information Authority is an agency of the Philippine
government under the Department of Environment and
Natural Resources responsible for providing the public
with mapmaking services and acting as the central
mapping agency, depository, and distribution facility of
natural resources data in the form of maps, charts,
texts, and statistics.

Department of Environment and Natural Resources

(DENR)
The Department of Environment and Natural Resources
is the executive department of the Philippine government
responsible for governing and supervising the exploration,
development, utilization, and conservation of the country's
natural resources.

Department of Public Works and Highways (DPWH)

The Philippines’ Department of Public Works and
Highways is the executive department of the Philippine
government responsible for all safety of projects in the
field of public works. It is also responsible for the
maintenance of the Philippine road network and irrigation
system.
 CHAPTER 2
CASE STUDIES/PROJECT APPLICATIONS
LOCAL CASE STUDY

The Ormoc Tragedy

On November 5, 1991, Typhoon Uring brought torrential rains corresponding
to 1/50 year flood that resulted to flashfloods in the City of Ormoc, Leyte.

Floodwaters swept Ormoc City’s core area at depths of 1.5m - 2.5m.

Ormoc City Tragedy 1991 Flashfloods

Anilao Slit Dam

Malbasag River Slope Protection Works

Anilao River Hydraulic Structure
Malbasag River Improvement
The Test: Typhoon Gilas, July 2003
After Typhoon Gilas (Anilao River Channel)
Anilao River Channel (Now)

Lessons Learnt:

1. Mechanism of Ormoc City Disaster:

 High intensity rainfall inundated the city
 Cut logs and uprooted trees blocked the bridge resulting to artificial dam,
hence upon collapse of bridge, flash flood occurred
2. High casualties were attributed to:
 Dense population settling in high risk areas
 Absence of monitoring, warning and evacuation system
 Lack of infrastructures to address flooding
 Inadequate relief and recovery system
3. Construction of comprehensive infrastructures can mitigate flood disaster and
protect community
4. Aid from international organizations is critical for flood management
 Technology for flood control projects
5. Non-structural High casualties were attributed to:
 Dense population settling in high risk areas
 Absence of monitoring, warning and evacuation system
  Lack of infrastructures to address flooding
 Inadequate relief and recovery system
Opportunities
 Master Plan Study provided by World Bank-AusAID establishing the road
map/vision for sustainable and effective Flood Risk Management (FRM) in
Metro Manila and Surrounding Areas.
 Grant-Aid Programs provided by other Development Partners (JICA, ADB,
etc.) in light of the different disasters that struck the country.
 High-prioritization of the government on flood mitigation projects as
emphasized in the Philippine Development Plan (2011-2016)
Risks
 Delayed implementation due to right-of-way problems/issues.
 Political interventions that might affect the project as envisioned.
 Social and environmental issues that has to be considered.
 Lack of financing assistance that will sustain implementation of projects as
planned.
Disaster Management at the Mt. Pinatubo Eruption
Before the Eruption: Cultural Influences on Information Collection
Before a disaster, the goal of disaster management consists of developing
measures, such as earthquake-resistant architecture, to mitigate the possible
negative effects of the coming disaster. Traditional houses with low ceilings to reduce
the impact of typhoons or houses made out of light material to minimize earthquake
damage are examples of adaptive architecture in the Philippines, in an environment
prone to natural disasters. The severity of the expected disaster could also be reduced
through certain actions, following the maxim that proactive measures are better and
less expensive than reactive measures. Immediately after seeing signs of an
impending disaster, disaster managers have to make quick and critical decisions
whether to warn or evacuate people when a disaster, such as a volcanic eruption,
seems imminent. Accuracy of forecast as to the possible date and magnitude of
eruption is crucial for successful action planning and decision-making. Methods that
help to predict volcanic eruptions have advanced in the last century; however,
PHIVOLCS had to focus its limited resources on five volcanoes known to be active.
Only after a missionary who worked with the Aetas in Zambales, reported volcanic
activity on August 4, 1990, ten months before the eruption, did PHIVOLCS start to
observe Mt. Pinatubo. PHIVOLCS sent a helicopter to the volcano.
During the Eruption: Intercultural and Intracultural Communication and Hierarchies
During a disaster, communication between all concerned people and
organizations is crucial. Communication problems are not only a result of the collapse
of information channels (e.g. telephone or television) but also because of unclear
competencies and responsibilities and—in the case of the Mt. Pinatubo disaster—the
different cultural backgrounds of the disaster managers. We will discuss three
examples of miscommunication to show the influence of culture on communication
and disaster management.
Communication in Low- and High-context Cultures
Communication patterns differ between cultures and one cross-cultural
dimension distinguishes between communication in low and high-context cultures.
Direct and explicit communication is predominant in low-context cultures such as the
United States. In low-context cultures, the message intended is largely conveyed by
the words spoken. Messages are more consistent and stable across contexts. High-
context cultures, however, place little value on consistency across contexts. In high-
context cultures, such as the Philippines, communication and behavior differ
according to context. Communication is often more indirect, holistic, and subtle. The
listener often has to infer what the speaker really means. Small non-verbal signs have
to be observed carefully.
Shortly After the Eruption: Cultural Influences on Post Disaster
Rehabilitation: The Aetas
 After the disaster, the emergency response phase is the next stage of disaster To summarize the effectiveness we can state that millions were spent on
management. The goals are to save lives and property, and to guarantee security. dikes and dams, ignoring moral, scientific, and common sense. Political and money-
Basic needs for food, water, shelter, and medical care have to be provided. making considerations sometimes seemed to overweigh morality, ethics, and human
Psychological assistance is often necessary, as many victims suffer from post- welfare.
traumatic stress disorder. The goals and measures shortly before and shortly after the
disaster are often short-term oriented. For some people disasters are opportunities
for making profit. The Mt. Pinatubo eruption occurred in 1991, and elections were to
be held in 1992. This prodded many politicians to come to the disaster area.

The people who suffered most from the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo and the
lahars were the Aetas, a local indigenous tribe who have lived for centuries on Mt.
Pinatubo, pushed into the mountains by foreign colonizers and lowlanders. The Aetas
suffered in the evacuation sites. They were not used to living in limited space sharing
it with many other Filipinos from different ethnicities. The tents were hot and the
food provided was sometimes inedible.

After the eruption: The Building of Dikes

The last stage of disaster management is the reconstruction phase, during

which infrastructure is rebuilt and basic services return to normal, if it is ever possible
to talk about normalcy in the midst of such disasters. The experiences throughout the
different phases of disaster management from preparedness over emergency
response to recovery and reconstruction can now be used for preparations for future
disasters.

One of the measures during the reconstruction phase was to build dikes.
These dikes were intended to protect towns from possible approaching lahars. The
usefulness and efficacy of this measure was controversial. For example, in 1997,
PHIVOLCS scientist Perla de los Reyes warned the population, that the mega-dike had
not yet been tested by lahars. The mega-dike is a 59-kilometer long dike along the
Pasig-Potrero River and cost 1.4 billion Pesos. Building and maintaining such dikes
along nine river systems in the region cost the Philippines 12 Billion Pesos through
1997 alone.
Summary

We described several disaster management steps in relation to Mt. Pinatubo

in 1991, the problems related to disaster management, and their psycho-cultural
causes. We showed how the scarce resources of PHIVOLCS limited the gathering of
information. We also described, as one critical cultural attitude, the neglect of field-
research.

Furthermore, we showed how warnings are not listened to when people do

not trust their politicians and governmental institutions. We described how typical
Filipino value orientations (kanya-kanya-syndrome, pakikipakapwa, utang na loob,
bahala na, pagkaya,) influenced their coping behavior. We illustrated
misunderstandings in communication between Americans and Filipinos due to
different value orientations and cultural experiences in low- and high-context
cultures. We characterized the problems that arise when disaster managers and
health caretakers deal with victims from a different ethnicity and culture. And we
described problems related to the building of dikes. All of the examples highlight how
culture influences the disaster management process and its success.

Conclusions: Culture and Disaster Management

Our analysis focused on cultural influences on disaster management.

Probably now more than ever, there is a need for international cooperation related
to natural and human-made disasters. As natural disasters, such as earthquakes and
volcanic eruptions, will continue to be part of the lives of citizens, especially in Third-
World countries, multi-cultural expert groups will become more and more common.
The lack of resources and expertise in Third-World countries is the main reason why
experts and aid organizations from other countries are often asked for assistance in
times of disaster. Inevitably, certain problems, especially related to cultural influences
on warning, evacuation, reconstruction, and communication arise. Even in recent
years the Filipino Government asked for foreign personnel and financial support; for
example, US military support in the fight of the Abu Sayaff and the Moro Islamic
Liberation Front (MILF) in Mindanao. This further justifies the necessity for a
continued effort in mutual cultural understanding.
 However, as recent history has shown, problems related to multicultural
expert groups in disaster management are not only limited to Third World countries
but also affect western industrialized countries. These countries are confronted more
and more with human-made disasters related to terrorist attacks and are also seeking
international support and alliances. Thus, the understanding of each other’s culture
becomes a crucial factor in successful disaster management.
And lastly, we hope to have emphasized the need to train disaster managers
in strategic and also intercultural competence. Strategic competence refers to the
ability to deal successfully with novel, uncertain, complex and dynamic situations and
to deal successfully with human errors in such situations. Intercultural competence
includes an awareness of one’s own cultural background, an interest in the cultural
background of others, the sensitivity to realize cultural similarities and differences,
and the ability to tolerate these cultural differences, thus leading to a more successful
and satisfying interaction between people of different cultures. Disaster management
that incorporates strategic and intercultural competencies offers a better chance of
coping with disasters in the future—not only in the Philippines.
FOREIGN CASE STUDY
Creating Earthquake Preparedness in Schools
A Case Study of Mitigation Efforts in Indonesia
Introduction
The city of Bandung rests in the basin of a former lake in the shadow of active
volcanoes and mountain tops. Bandung is host to a multitude of important
government agencies, educational institutions, and industries. As the third largest city
in Indonesia, Bandung is an important industrial city noted for its burgeoning textile
industry. The majority of Indonesian textile is made in West Java, and two thirds of
this production occurs in Bandung making the city an important outpost of the
economy.
As is characteristic of any bustling metropolis, there is a focus on the here and
now. The factory outlets do their daily business, the street vendors sell typical
Indonesian delights of Nasi Goreng (fried rice) and various forms of Ayam (chicken),
bands of youth make their living strumming their guitars and wooing traffic jammed
cars in hopes of making a few hundred Rupiah, and the groups of students make their
way to school every morning.
In a country still trying to forge a healthy economy the role of a major city will
indeed be focused on more immediate matters relating to peoples’ livelihoods.
However, beyond the horizon there looms the potential for a fatal disaster.
A Potential Disaster
Earthquakes are one of the worst geological threats to the Indonesian region.
The geodynamic positioning of the Indonesian islands within the zone of the
Australian plate, the Eurasian plate, the Pacific plate, and the Philippine plate makes
the country amongst the most seismically active countries in the world. The major
fault systems in the area are the Sunda Strait Fault, the Indian Ocean Subduction
Fault, the Baribis Fault, and the Cimandiri Fault. The visible Lembang Fault within
Bandung makes this city vulnerable to great catastrophe.
Bandung’s high population density is what makes this city one of the most
vulnerable to earthquake disasters in Indonesia. For a city that was initially earmarked
for only 500,000 people, by the year 2010 Bandung will be home to approximately 7
million people. This large population size elevates the risk of an earthquake in
Bandung. Unknown to the majority of the city’s population, the soil conditions of the
prehistoric lakebed on which Bandung sits increases vulnerability from earthquake
impact. The region’s soil is formed by depositions of alluvium. This is soft soil, which
makes the area more susceptible to the impact of shock waves generated during an
earthquake. The head of Volcanology and Disaster Mitigation, Department of
Geology, Dr. Surono, explains, “Sedimentation is this area is very thick and usually
earthquake magnitude is very high, especially for the island of Java. The impact is
higher when there is soft soil. In Java there are many problems because 60% of the
Indonesian population lives here. That is 220 million people. If an earthquake occurs
in Java with a magnitude from 4.8 – 5.2 on the Richter scale, the structure of
traditional houses will collapse.”
The lack of guidance and control to urban development schemes has led to
the expansion of the city into more seismically prone areas. The implementation of
building codes to ensure earthquake safety has not been effective. Critical facilities
such as hospitals and schools are at the greatest risk of collapse due to inappropriate
construction.
Unlike more pronounced disasters that Indonesia faces, such as landslides, floods,
and hurricanes- the preparation for an event that is unpredictable and rare is low on
the agenda of city officials. Overall, there is great negligence of the risk that
earthquakes pose to the city of Bandung.
The Bandung Earthquake Scenario
(Predictions of a 200 year periodical earthquake)
According to the Risk Assessment Tools publication by the RADIUS project
(Risk Assessment Tools for Diagnostic of Urban Areas against Seismic Disasters),
experts assume that serious damage and collapse will take place in Bandung if there
is a strong earthquake. The region with the highest intensity is subdistrict Cibiru and
the lowest intensity area where ground acceleration may meet 0.238 gravitation is
subdistricts Cibeunying Kaler and Cibeunying Kidul.
Investigations suggest that the number of victims will be as high as 2,600
people. The percentage of people losing their settlements due to building collapse
and damage will be 60% in downtown Bandung and 20% in rural areas. The railway,
electricity networks, and clean water sources will be severely damaged. Cibeunying
region, which has the densest traffic, will experience the worst road damage. In the
Tegallega, Cibeunying, and Bojonegera areas, bridge damage will also be grave. This
will jeopardize the ability for other areas to bring in help to Bandung.
 construction and non-structural measures such as education, training and technology
transfer.”

The Indonesian Urban Disaster Mitigation Project (IUDMP) was launched in

1997 under the Asian Urban Disaster Mitigation Program (AUDMP) of the Asian
Disaster Preparedness Center (ADPC, Bangkok) and funded by USAID/OFDA. The
AUDMP aims to draw focus to reducing disaster risk of urban population,
infrastructure, critical facilities, and shelter in selected Asian cities. IUDMP was
implemented by the Center for Earthquake Engineering Studies and the Center for
Urban and Regional Development Studies at the Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB). The
objective of the project was to establish sustainable public and private sector
mechanisms for disaster mitigation.
The city of Bandung was selected for a demonstration project, which would focus on
implementing stricter building codes, and creating safer school communities through
preparation for the possible impact of an earthquake. In addition, the catastrophic
earthquake that hit the city of Bengkulu in 2000 was a window of opportunity for the
project to carry out a school retrofitting initiative with the blessings of the local
authority.

Assessing Risk

The first step for implementing mitigation techniques is to carry out basic
intensity zoning mapping and risk assessment. This allows any selected area to be
delineated into high, medium and low seismic hazard zones, and to assess
vulnerability. Thereafter possible damage and loss is assessed in risk assessment. The
two processes lead to mitigation planning that is relevant to each delineated zone.

Mitigation of an Earthquake Impact

Disaster mitigation can be defined as “Measures taken in advance to reduce

the impact of a disaster. It includes structural measures such as safer building
Activities of IUDMP
(In collaboration with government and non-government organizations)

• Basic intensity zoning mapping and risk assessment

• Campaign on earthquake awareness and preparedness for school children
• Training for school teachers on earthquake preparedness programming for
school children
• Dissemination of information on earthquake preparedness for school
children and adults in the form of leaflets, simple manuals, and posters
• Design and implementation of earthquake resistant school building
construction and retrofitting for post-earthquake reconstruction programs
• Training of engineers and local government officials on earthquake resistant
school buildings
• Training of small contractors and craftsmen on construction of earthquake
resistant buildings

Earthquake Safety Drills
One of the preparedness measures that came out of the teacher training was
the implementation of Earthquake safety drills in classrooms.
In the crowded courtyard of SD. Sabang, an elementary school in the center
of Bandung, children are enjoying their last day of school. In one classroom,
enthusiastic students demonstrate what they have learnt through the school’s
earthquake safety program. When given the signal by their teacher, the students duck
under their desks, simulating the shaking of the tables by moving them back and
forth. When the shaking is over, at the command of the teacher and with great
discipline, the children form a line and walk slowly out of the classroom and into the
courtyard. Some students mimic injured persons and are helped out of the room by
others. Role play of emergency response and first aid follows. The enthusiastic kids
do not hesitate to make this simulation as authentic as possible. When they seem to
be out of danger all the children line up and walk back to take their seats.

Poorer, more run down schools in Bandung appear less privileged in having
such earthquake preparedness. In the winding alleys of a congested residential area
on the outskirts of Bandung is SD. Tikukur. A building has already collapsed due to
strong winds, and a new one is being erected. Children run and play on sand, mortar,
and steel rods used for the building. The principal and teachers have no real
knowledge about the TOT program, but have been spectators to the IUDMP team
running a small training seminar for a few classes in the school. The children have
done an earthquake drill once under the training of the IUDMP, but this is not
something that happens here anymore.
Mr. Teddy Boen, a pioneer on studying structural damage due to earthquakes
complains about the difficulty in convincing people of the risk of earthquakes.
“Earthquakes are the hardest hazard to convince people about, because you cannot
see it and it does not happen often. It is not like a flood or hurricane that occurs often
and is visible. Only when people are convinced will effective mitigation happen.”
However, while Mr. Boen admits frustrations, he also admits to successes. He says,
“For the first time many teachers and contractors know the risk of earthquakes, and
they know what to do- not to run out of the building, but to duck under a table or
chair.”
Making School Buildings Safer Structurally
In Bengkulu, an earthquake that occurred in 2000 damaged many school
buildings as well as other critical facilities. Fortunately, it occurred in nighttime and
there were no casualties. IUDMP was offered a window of opportunity through this
event. In the aftermath of the disaster, the local government was receptive to the
IUDMP message of making schools safer. While Bandung was the demonstration
project for earthquake mitigation, Bengkulu became the replication project. The
project in Bengkulu offered technical guidance to retrofit school buildings in a cost-
effective manner. Retrofitting is the process which reinforces existing buildings by
structural modifications to provide greater strength to resist disaster impact. IUDMP
requested Mr. Teddy Boen, a well-known advocate of earthquake safety in Indonesia,
to provide his experiences on how to carry out retrofitting in order to create a
practical guideline. He draws from a wealth of knowledge accumulated in studying
earthquake damage in Indonesia over several years. School buildings in Indonesia
under the central government used a general design and hence the observation and
analysis of structural weaknesses was made easier.

Observations of structural damage leads to the analysis of why they occurred

through computer modeling. The process revealed the structural deficiencies in the
generic design of Indonesian school buildings. The more common faults appeared to
be:

• Sliding of roof tiles

• Gable walls collapse
• Poor quality of materials
• Poor workmanship
• Poor masonry
• Poor anchoring of building components
Teddy Boen explains that the greater aim of retrofitting is to prevent a
building from collapsing. He also emphasizes that the process IUDMP has brought out
IUDMP recommended the correction of weaknesses while leaving the
is for Indonesia only. One can learn from the process but it may not be applicable
buildings undemolished. Where the buildings were damaged, they were repaired
wholesale elsewhere.
according to guidelines given. This was a big cost-saving initiative compared to the
accepted practice of demolishing damaged buildings and constructing anew. Detailed
construction drawings were made available so that contractors and masons were able
to carry out acceptable building construction and retrofitting.

IUDMP also carried out training for contractors and masons to facilitate
proper workmanship in retrofitting and new construction.
 overflow into a city with limited drainage capacity claimed 30 lives, affected almost
80,000 people and severely damaged properties, infrastructure, public utilities,
critical facilities, and commercial and industrial establishments. Water rose up to 3.5
meters high and 75 per cent of the city was partially submerged for several days.
Severe rains hit all communications and power lines and sent the city into darkness.
People suffered from snake and scorpion bites, drowning, dehydration, dengue fever
and other diseases as water levels remained high and stagnant. Losses exceeded US$
220 million.

The devastating flood of November 2000 brought to public attention the

need for actions to minimize future social and economic losses in Hat Yai and
Thailand. But what could be done? What is needed? What is the process for selecting
and prioritizing the actions to take? Who should be involved? How can one assess the
effectiveness of the actions?

What is the Appropriate Mitigation Mix?

Structural and non-structural mitigation in Hat Yai, Thailand

Introduction

Thais have been living with flood for centuries. Flood in urban and rural areas
during the rainy season is common and is considered as part of life in Thailand.
However, accelerated and uncontrolled growth of densely populated built-up areas
has put more people, properties and infrastructure at risk to flood and other hazards.

With increasing frequency, Thailand is facing situations, in which scarce

resources that were earmarked for development projects have to be diverted for
relief and recovery following disasters, thus impeding the process of sustainable
development.

The devastating flood of 21 to 24 November 2000 in Hat Yai was an urban

disaster. Heavy rainfall, flash flood from the eastern mountain ranges and river
 There is no shortage of possibilities for reducing disaster risks. Traditionally
scientists and engineers have sought to “control” disasters. To control flood, for
example, construction of embankments or flood walls are popular to protect the land
area behind them. But it has been widely documented that this is not sufficient

Disaster risk management in Thailand focused primarily on emergency

response, recovery and structural mitigation measures. However, the occurrence of
a series of disasters over the last decade has indicated that the efforts undertaken so
far are not adequate.

Increasingly, a complement of structural and non-structural mitigation

measures to building institutions’ and communities’ capacities to cope with disaster
risks are used in many countries. Effective decision on the appropriate mix of
mitigation measures will depend on the area’s development objectives, an
assessment of risk and the resources available.

Disaster Management Cycle

Effective disaster risk reduction needs to include the complete cycle of

activities that occurs before, during and after disasters. The important phases in a
disaster management cycle - response, recovery, mitigation and preparedness - flow
in a continuous cycle and form an integral part of the development process.
 Structural Mitigation Measures: any physical construction to reduce or avoid
possible impacts of hazards, which include engineering measures and
construction of hazard-resistant and protective structures and infrastructure
 Non-Structural Mitigation Measures: policies, awareness, knowledge
development, public commitment and methods and operating practices,
including participatory mechanisms and provision of information, which can
reduce risk and related impacts.
The Planning Process

After the Year 2000 flood, the National Economic and Social
Development Board (NESDB) was tasked to formulate a flood mitigation action plan
for Hat Yai. The Government of Thailand allocated almost USD120 million for this
process. The plan was submitted and approved by the Cabinet in April 2001.

A series of meetings involving national government departments responsible

for forestry, highways, irrigation, land development, local administration,
meteorology, public works, town and country planning, and all provincial- and
district-level government departments were called upon to develop the flood
mitigation action plan. Kasetsart University and ADPC were also involved in this
planning process. A Hat Yai Flood Mitigation Committee was established with five
subcommittees to plan and implement proposed measures.

The focus of the plan was on large-scale structural mitigation measures that
could better manage large volume of floodwater into Hat Yai and the vicinity. They
include construction of an integrated network of bypass channels, drainage systems,
flood walls, water pump stations and water retention ponds. Proposed non-structural
mitigation measures, also focused at the macro-level, included development of an
early warning system, land-use readjustments and reforestation.
 pilot initiative, TUDMP’s broader goal is to demonstrate to Thailand and other
countries in Asia, a methodology for mitigation planning and implementation that
promotes safer communities and sustainable development. The experience in Hat Yai
highlighted four steps that are key to effective disaster mitigation:

 Step 1: Assess the risk. Prior to planning, it is important to assess the

risk. Comprehensive risk assessment is conducted to better
understand the existing and potential disaster risks. Based on the risk
assessment, mitigation measures can be identified and prioritized.
 Step 2: Plan with communities. While the development of a plan at
its minimum may involve a small number of disaster managers or
other specialists, ideally mitigation or disaster risk reduction planning
is a priority-setting and partnership-building exercise to coordinate
the efforts of multiple agencies and levels of government and society.
ADPC provided a community-based approach to disaster mitigation
that is participatory in design and address the community’s
vulnerabilities and capacities.
 Step 3: Raise awareness. To ensure political commitment for the
planning and implementation of mitigation measures, it is essential
for all stakeholders to first be aware of the importance of disaster
mitigation.
Step 4: Build capacity. It is necessary to go beyond raising awareness by
generating knowledge and developing skills which can translate this awareness into
concrete practices. There are no clear cut lines as to when one step begins and the
other ends. These are inter-related steps that take place simultaneously. Based on
the community-level emergency management and response plans developed by the
pilot communities, a series of training sessions and drills were conducted for the
communities. They included:

 A flood evacuation drill

 Field training on rescue boat driving, first aid and rescue
 Fire safety
It was in this context that ADPC developed the TUDMP ─ to complement and
build on the activities implemented under this flood mitigation action plan. In this
 The planning process involves continuous implementation, monitoring,
review and revision of the plan to reflect the changing situation and needs of the
areas. Monitoring and evaluation a fundamental learning process to understand the
full extent of positive and negative outcomes and impacts of an initiative.

It is important to establish sustainable systems for risk assessment, planning,

awareness raising and capacity building and repeat activities, messages and training
courses. This is because people will forget; politicians and leaders change, thus,
community needs also change.

Recommendations

Focus on:

 Linking disaster mitigation with development goals

Conclusion
The gradual shift from a top-down relief and response approach to a more
inter-sectoral risk management approach has begun to influence the way disaster risk
reduction programs are now being planned and implemented. Many high-level
policymakers from the government sector and international agencies are recognizing
the importance of the participation of local government, NGOs, CBOs and
communities in development.
 Adopting a multi-hazard approach to assessment, planning and
implementation
 Ensuring the participation of representatives from different sectors
and levels
 Committing funds for mitigation planning and implementation
 Developing clear roles and responsibilities for different stakeholders
in disaster risk reduction
 Providing policy support for community-based disaster risk
management
 Establishing networks and sustainable mechanisms for revising plans,
raising awareness and building capacities as staff and community
needs changes

However, despite regulations, trainings and pilot projects, people will

continue to be vulnerable unless they are committed to and take the responsibility
for reducing disaster risk. For mitigation to become a part of people’s–“culture”
requires time and integrated efforts from different organizations.
 CHAPTER 3
SUMMARY. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
Summary
Our report mainly discuss the different kind of disaster in the world
focusing the natural hazards in the Philippines. After defining the possible
hazards that the Philippines could experience we gather data to have its
design and disaster mitigation. Our concern is to know the different methods
on how we should response on this natural disaster in terms of structural
basis.
Generally, our country are very prone to natural disaster as we
experience today due to its geographical location and physical environment.
Earthquake and tropical cyclones continue to batter the Philippines and
millions of lives are affected. Different government agencies are subjected to
prevent and lessen the big impact on our society.
As part of the research we are able to collect data on different hazard
mapping given by the National Disaster Risk Reduction Management Council
(NDRRMC) that illustrates the hazard prone areas. Those information lead us
to get their mitigation methods on how we should response to different
calamities before and after and how they prepare to every situation.
work but some are not due to incapability of the people and the lack of
knowledge on how they can resist this hazards.
Overall, our research tackles the possible prevention and mitigation
that our government have and the status awareness of the people on how
they handle this calamities.
Conclusion and Recommendation
Based on our research, we can conclude that the Philippines have
their own mitigation and prevention method, and standards on how
structure/infrastructure should be design. The main problem is that the people
are not aware on their own situation and lack of financial aspect. Government
has its own programs but the problem is also the lack of budget.
We students, probably say that we should be knowledgeable on our
own livings. This means that we should know if our location are in danger
zone mostly hazard prone areas, discipline and cooperation to avoid greater
impact on our lives.

With the relation on our course, we are much aware on how structures
can withstand earthquake and tropical cyclones based on the given
guidelines of specific government agencies. We are concern on structural
component and the Department of Public Works and Highways are the
assigned agency to handle this situation. They have their guidelines and
design standard for building and bridges in order for this to carry the
allowable load it can have. They have their project response on earthquake
and flooding like building dikes, river expansion and retrofitting for the
structure to strengthen its foundation.

We have our case studies that compile some of the natural disasters
in the Philippines and we analyze the methods on how our government
respond to this situation. Some of the prevention and mitigation methods
BIBLIOGRAPHY

EBOOK FILES:

 (CASE STUDY ORMOC)Structural Measures for Flood Management

in the Philippines
 Tropical Storm Sendong CASE STUDY-Jan2013
 IRR of RA 10121
 NDRRM Framework
 National Disaster Risk Reduction and Management Plan (NDRRMP)
2011‐2028
 PHILIPPINES COUNTRY REPORT ON DISASTER RESPONSE
MANAGEMENT

WEBSITES:

 www.ndrrmc.gov.ph
 Philippines: National progress report on the implementation
of the Hyogo Framework for Action (2009-2011) – interim,
http://www.preventionweb.net/files/18619_phl_NationalHFA
progress_2009-11.pdf
 www.dpwh.gov.ph
 www.pagasa-dost.gov.ph
 Disaster Management in Southeast Asia: An Overview”,
http://www.unisdr.org/asiapacific/ap-publications/docs/adpc-
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