CEE-BSCE-1st Term-1st Sem - BCE 211F (WEEKS 1-14)

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education

Civil Engineering Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: BCE 211/F: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING
Name of Teacher: Engr. NORODDIN V. MELOG
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF
THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Table of Contents
Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying ................................................ 4

Course Outline Policy..................................................................................................................... 4
Course Information ........................................................................................................................ 7
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a ....................................................................................................... 8
Metalanguage .......................................................................................................................................................................... 8
Essential Knowledge ............................................................................................................................................................ 8
Introduction to Surveying.......................................................................................................................... 8
Types of Surveying ........................................................................................................................................ 8
Difference between Plane and Geodetic Surveying......................................................................... 9
Methods of Surveying .................................................................................................................................. 9
Development of Surveying Instruments............................................................................................ 10
Surveying Measurements ........................................................................................................................ 13
Significant Figures ..................................................................................................................................... 14
Student Field Practice .............................................................................................................................. 14
Surveying Field Notes ............................................................................................................................... 14
The Field Survey Party ............................................................................................................................. 16
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................................................................. 17
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................................................................................................................... 17
In a Nutshell .......................................................................................................................................................................... 18
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b ..................................................................................................... 19
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................... 19
Essential Knowledge ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
Errors and Mistakes .................................................................................................................................. 19
Types of Errors ............................................................................................................................................ 19
Sources of Errors ........................................................................................................................................ 20
Accuracy and Precision ............................................................................................................................ 21
Theory of Probability ................................................................................................................................ 21
Most Probable Value ................................................................................................................................. 22
Residual .......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Probable Error............................................................................................................................................. 22
Relative (Error) Precision....................................................................................................................... 23
Weighted Observations ............................................................................................................................ 23
Interrelationship of Errors ..................................................................................................................... 23
Measurement of Horizontal Distances .............................................................................................. 24
Measurement by Taping.......................................................................................................................... 27
Correction in Taping ................................................................................................................................. 28
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Self-Help ................................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................................................................. 31
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................................................................................................................... 32
In a Nutshell .......................................................................................................................................................................... 33
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c ..................................................................................................... 35
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................... 35
Measurement of Vertical Distances .................................................................................................... 35
Two Peg Test ................................................................................................................................................ 37
Differential Levelling ................................................................................................................................ 39
Profile Leveling............................................................................................................................................ 41
.................................................................................................................................................................................................... 41
Curvature and Refraction in Levelling .............................................................................................. 42
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................................................................. 45
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................................................................. 46
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................................................................................................................... 46
In a Nutshell .......................................................................................................................................................................... 49
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a ..................................................................................................... 50
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................... 50
............................................................................................................................................................. 53
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b. Analyze and calculate the measurement of directions
and angles. ....................................................................................................................................... 53
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................... 53
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................... 56
Interior angle traverse ............................................................................................................................. 57
Deflection angle traverse ........................................................................................................................ 58
Latitudes and Departures ....................................................................................................................... 59
Error of Closure ........................................................................................................................................... 60
Balancing Latitudes and Departures ................................................................................................. 62
Methods in obtaining the area for a closed traverse .................................................................. 62
Topographic Survey .................................................................................................................................. 65
Hydrographic Surveys .............................................................................................................................. 66
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................................................................. 67
Let’s Analyze ......................................................................................................................................................................... 68
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In a Nutshell .......................................................................................................................................................................... 69
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3a ..................................................................................................... 71
Metalanguage ....................................................................................................................................................................... 71
SELF-HELP............................................................................................................................................................................. 74
LET’S CHECK......................................................................................................................................................................... 75
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3b ..................................................................................................... 76
A. Degree of Curve (Arc Definition) ................................................................................................ 81
B. Degree of Curve (Chord Definition) ........................................................................................... 82
SELF-HELP............................................................................................................................................................................. 84
IN A NUTSHELL ................................................................................................................................................................... 84
............................................................................................................................................................................ 91
SELF-HELP............................................................................................................................................................................. 97
LET’S CHECK......................................................................................................................................................................... 97
LET’S ANALYZE ................................................................................................................................................................... 98
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Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying
Course Coordinator: Engr. Noroddin V. Melog

Email: noroddin_melog@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: 09276878200
Phone: (082) 296 1084 local 133
Effectivity Date: August 17, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 162 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: DRAW 101/D – Engineering Drawing 1
Co-requisite: None
Credit: 3.0 units lecture / 2.0 units laboratory
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The expected
number of hours will be 54 including the face-to-face or
virtual sessions. The face-to-face sessions shall include
the summative assessment tasks (exams) since this
course is crucial in the licensure examination for civil
engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 5th , 9th , 14th
and 18th week of the semester. The assessment paper
shall be attached with a cover page indicating the title of
the assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission and
name of the student. The document should be emailed to
the course coordinator. It is also expected that you
already paid your tuition and other fees before the
submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.
Since this course is included in the licensure examination

for civil engineers, you will be required to take the
Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the University.
This should be scheduled ahead of time by your course
coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all licensure-
based programs.
Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment tasks
(if necessary) are required to be submitted through Turnitin with a
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maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This means

that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the students will
either opt to redo her/his paper or explain in writing
addressed to the course coordinator the reasons for the
similarity. In addition, if the paper has reached more than
30% similarity index, the student may be called for a
disciplinary action in accordance with the University’s
OPM on Intellectual and Academic Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to complete
the task for you have severe punishments (reprimand,
warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be submitted
and approved by the course coordinator. If necessary,
you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or via
Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to
ensure that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards
or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the program
Papers and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The
program coordinator shall communicate with the
students on the approval and disapproval of the
request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
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1st formative assessment – 10%

2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style IEEE Referencing
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources of
the course. All communication formats: chat, submission
of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be through the
portal and other university recognized platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: ssales@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
coordinator with the approval of the program coordinator
may provide alternative assessment tasks or extension of
the deadline of submission of assessment tasks. However,
the alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning outcomes.
Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator
Jetron J. Adtoon
jadtoon@umindanao.edu.ph
09055267834
CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902
GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
Ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu,ph
09212122846
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Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu,ph
09060757721
Library Contact LIC
Brigida E. Bacani
library@umindanao.edu,ph
09513766681
Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS
CC’s Voice: Good day dear students! Welcome to this course CE 311/F – Surveying 1 (Elementary
and Higher Surveying). By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become a civil
engineer and that you visualized yourself already in the field doing site measurements
and investigations. This course deals with the fundamentals of surveying applied to civil
engineering problems.
CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:
CO 1: Understand the appropriate surveys and investigations required for various civil
engineering projects.
CO 2: Know the requirements of various surveys and investigations
CO 3: Know the methodologies of carrying out the more common surveys and
investigations such as topographic surveys.
Let ug begin!
Big Picture
Week 1-5: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to:
a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding on introduction of
surveying its terminologies and concepts, this includes history and types
of instruments.
b. Be able to understand horizontal distances and apply the concepts of
errors in surveying.
c. Be able to understand and apply the concept of vertical distances.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding

on introduction of surveying its terminologies and concepts, this includes
history and types of instruments.
Metalanguage
The demonstration of this ULO requires the understanding of the following:
1. Surveying – It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between

objects of measuring angles between lines, of determining the direction of lines,
and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear measurement.
2. Geodetic Surveying – the type of surveying which considers the true shape of the
earth.
3. Plane Surveying - the type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) , you need to fully
understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding
pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you
are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are available
in the university’s library e.g. library, search.proquest.com, etc.
Introduction to Surveying
One of the oldest arts practiced by man is

surveying. From the earliest times it has always
been necessary to mark the boundaries and
divide tracts of land. Through the centuries the
uses of surveying have expanded such that today
it is difficult to undertake any type of engineering
construction that does not involve some types of
surveying.
Surveying is the determination of the relative

spatial location of the points on or near the surface of the earth. As defined by webster, it is
the branch of applied mathematics which teaches the art of determining the area of any
portion of the earth’s surface, the length and directions of the boundary lines, the contour
of the surface, and of accurately delineating the whole on paper.
Types of Surveying
1. Geodetic Surveying – the type of surveying which considers the true shape of the
earth. Geodetic Surveys are usually of a national character are mostly undertaken by
government agencies to serve as a basis for the production of accurate base and
topographic maps.
2. Plane Surveying – the type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected. Plane Surveying
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is of wide scope and application. The different methods of plane surveying are
employed in various surveys undertaken in engineering, scientific, commercial,
architectural, geographic, navigational, and exploratory work.
Difference between Plane and Geodetic Surveying
Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying

The earth surface is considered as a The earth surface is considered as a
plane surface. curved surface.
This survey is done for smaller area less This survey is done for large area greater
than 250 km2. than 250 km2.
Comparatively low accuracy required. Comparatively high accuracy required.
The line joining any two stations is The line joining any two stations is
considered to be straight. considered as a curved line.
The triangle formed by any three points The triangle formed by any three points
is considered as a plane. is considered as a spherical.
Methods of Surveying
1. Control Survey – Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary
points.
2. Boundary Survey – Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and on
establish the position of these lines on the ground.
3. Topographic Survey – Made to gather data to produce a topographic map showing
the configuration of the terrain and the location of natural and man-made objects.
4. Hydrographic Survey – The survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of
navigation, water supply, or sub-aqueous construction.
5. Mining Survey - Made to control, locate and map underground and surface works
related to mining operations.
6. Astronomical Survey – generally involve imagining or mapping of regions of the sky
using telescopes.
7. Route Survey – Refers to those control, topographic, and construction surveys
necessary for the location and construction of highways, railroads, canals,
transmission lines, and pipelines.
8. Photogrammetric Survey – Made to utilize the principles of aerial photogrammetry,
in which measurements made on photographs are used to determine the positions
of photographed objects.
9. Construction Survey – Made to lay out locate and monitor public and private
engineering works.
10. City Surveys – are surveys of the areas in and near a city for the purpose of planning
expansions or improvements, locating property lines, fixing reference monuments,
determining the physical features and configuration of the land, and preparing maps.
11. Forestry Surveys – a type of survey executed in connection with forest management
and mensuration, and the production and conservation of forest lands.
12. Industrial Surveys – sometimes known as optical tooling. It refers to the use of
surveying techniques in ship building, construction and assembly of aircraft, layout
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and installation of heavy and complex machinery, and in other industries where very
accurate dimensional layouts are required.
13. Cadastral Surveys – are usually closed surveys which are undertaken in urban and
rural locations for the purpose of determining and defining property lines and
boundaries, corners, and areas. These surveys are also made to fix the boundaries of
municipalities, town, and provincial jurisdictions.
Development of Surveying Instruments
1. Astrolabe - The astrolabe of Hipperachus is one of the best

known of the measuring instrument that have come down from
ancient times.
2. Telescope - The invention of the telescope in 1607 is

generally accredited to Lippershey. In 1609, Galileo
constructed a refracting telescope for astronomical
observations.
3. Transit - The invention of the transit is credited to

Young and Drapper who worked independently from
each other sometime in 1830.
4. Semi-circumferentor - An early surveying instrument

which was used to measure and lay off angles and establish
lines of sight by employing peep sights.
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5. Plane Table - One of the oldest types of surveying

instruments used in field mapping.
6. Dioptra - The dioptra, which was perfected by

Heron of Alexandria, was used in leveling and for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles. It consists
essentially of a copper tube supported on a standard
and could be rotated in either horizontal or vertical
plane.
7. Roman Groma - The Roman Surveyors used the

groma as an instrument for aligning or sighting
points.
8. Libella - The Assyrians and Egyptians are

believed to be the first users of the labella. The
instrument had an A-frame with a plumb line suspended
from its apex and was used to determine the horizontal.
9. Vernier - The Vernier is a short auxiliary scale

placed alongside the graduated scale of an
instrument, by means of which fractional parts of
the smallest or least division of the main scale can
be determined precisely without having to
interpolate.
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10. Diopter - An instrument developed by the Greeks.

It was used for leveling, laying off right angles, and for
measuring horizontal and vertical angles.
11. Compass - The magnetic compass came into

wide used during the 13th century for
determining the direction of lines and in
calculating angles between lines.
12. Ginter’s Chain - Was invented by Sir

Edmund Gunter in 1620, was the forerunner of
instruments used for taping distances.
13. Chorobates - This instrument was designed for

leveling work. It consisted of a horizontal
straight edge about 6 meters long with
supporting legs, and a grove 2.5 cm deep and 1.5
m long on top.
14. Merchet - The merchet was a

device for measuring time and meridian.
It was first used by the Chaldeans in
about 4000 B.C. It consisted of a slotted
palm leaf through which to sight and a
bracket from which a plumb bob was
suspended.
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Surveying Measurements
A. Direct Measurements - A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured

quantity with a standard measuring unit or units employed for measuring a quantity
of that kind.
Examples:
• Applying a wire or tape to a line
• Determining a Horizontal or vertical angle with a transit
• Fitting a protractor between two intersecting lines to determine the
intersection angle
B. Indirect Measurements - When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument

directly to a quantity to be measured an indirect measurement is made. The
observed value is determined by its relationship to some other unknown values. It is
important for surveyors and students of surveying to have a good working
knowledge of trigonometry and geometry.
The Meter
The international unit of linear measure is the meter. This was proposed sometime
in 1789 by French scientist who hoped to establish a system suitable for all times
and all people and which could be based upon permanent and natural standards.
The following more commonly used prefixes are added to basic names
Mega 1,000,000 Deca 10 Milli 0.001

Kilo 1,000 Deci 0.1 Micro 0.000001
Hecto 100 Centi 0.01 Nano 0.000000001
Conversion Table for some units used in Surveying
1 acre = 4047 𝑚2 1 military pace = 2.5ft

1 chain = 100 links = 4 rods = 66 ft 1 perch = 1 pole = 1 rod = 25 links
1 cubit = 18 inches 1 pin = 100 links = 1 tape length
1 furlong = 40 rods 1 section = 640 acres
1 knot = 6080 ft = 1 nautical mile 1 tally = 10 pins
1 link = 0.66 ft 1 township = 36 sections
1 mile (nautical mile) = 6080 ft = 8 furlongs 1 vara = 33 inches
1 mile (statue mile) = 5280 ft 1 yard = 3 ft
Angular Measurements
A. Sexagesimal Units – Degree, Minute and Second

1 Degree = 60 Minutes 1 Minute = 60 Seconds
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B. Centesimal Units – Gradian

360 Degrees = 400 Grads
Significant Figures
✓ Rule 1 – Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.

✓ Rule 2 – For values less than one, zeroes immediately to the right of the decimal are
not significant.
✓ Rule 3 – Zeroes placed at the end of decimal numbers are significant.
Student Field Practice
• In an elementary surveying, the student acquires certain extent of field practice.

• The students are expected to have a working knowledge of surveying instruments
and their uses.
• Members of the student field parties should from time to time alternately assume the
various duties involved in the field work.
• The use of surveying instruments requires not only a thorough understanding of the
basic theories and principles of surveying but also a fairly extensive amount of field
practice.
Surveying Field Notes
• Surveying field notes constitute the only reliable and permanent record of actual
work done in the field.
• Before any survey is made, the necessary data to be collected should be considered
carefully and in the field all such required data should be obtained.
• The field notes become the official record of the survey. It is for this reason that notes
must be complete, legible, concise, and comprehensive, and logically arranged
according to recognized practice.
• Field notes are usually worked over in the office into some more advanced form of
presentation, such as map, a report, or a computation.
• A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of previous surveys may be required
for a related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old field notes will
be only available reference, and their value will depend largely upon the
completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded.
• In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by office
personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not familiar with conditions on
the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been recorded.
• A completed record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes more
mistakes and erroneous information.
• A need to rerun, extend, or otherwise make use of previous surveys may be required
for a related project. In such case it would be most logical that the old field notes will
be only available reference, and their value will depend largely upon the
completeness and clarity with which they have been recorded.
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• In many engineering applied surveys the field notes are used or referred to by office
personnel who have not seen the field site or who are not familiar with conditions on
the project site. They rely entirely only upon what has been recorded.
• A completed record written in a disorderly and confused manner often causes more
mistakes and erroneous information.
• The notes should be recorded in the conventional and generally used format and not
according to whims of the field surveyor.
• It is essential that notes be intelligible to others without verbal explanations.
• Field work observations should be recorded directly in the notebook at the time
observations are made.
• In court, field notes may be used as evidence.
The Field Notebook
• In practice the field notebook should be of good quality rag paper, with stiff board or
leather cover made to withstand hard usage, and of pocket size.
• The field notebook may be bound in any of three ways: conventional, ring, or loose-
leaf.
• In some technical schools’ students are asked to use bond paper instead of field
notebooks when preparing and submitting their field notes.
Types of Notes
1. Sketches - A good sketch will help to convey a correct impression. Sketches are rarely
made to exact scale, but in most cases, they are made approximately to scale. They
are drawn freehand and of liberal sizes. Please note that a sketch crowded with
unnecessary data is often confusing.
2. Tabulations - A series of numerical values observed in the field are best shown in a
tabulated format. Tabular forms should be used wherever possible. This format prevents
mistakes, allows easy checking, saves time, makes the calculation legible to others, and
simplifies the work of the person checking the field notes.
3. Explanatory Notes - Explanatory notes provide a written description of what has
been done in the field. These are employed to make clear what the numerical data
and sketches fail to do. Usually they are placed on the right-hand page of the field
notebook in the same line with the numerical data that they explain.
4. Computations - Calculations or one kind or another form a large part of the work of
surveying. Most surveying-type computations are made algebraically using simple
arithmetical steps and trigonometric functions. Electronic hand-held calculators,
desk calculators, or digital computers are now used for calculating values.
5. Combination of The Above - The practice used in most extensive surveys is a
combination of the above. The surveyor should be able to determine for himself
which type of combination would be most logical to use in portraying the type of data
gathered in the field.
Information Found in Field Notebooks
1. Title of the Fieldwork or Name of Project - The official name of the project or title of the
field work should always be identified. The location of the survey and preferably its
nature or purpose should always be stated.
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2. Time of the Day and Date - These entries are necessary to document the notes and furnish
a timetable, as well as to correlate different surveys.
3. Weather Conditions - Temperature, wind velocity, typhoons, storms, and other weather
conditions, such as in surveying operations.
4. Names of Group Members and Their Designations - The chief of party, instrument man,
tape man, and other members of the survey of the survey party must be identified. This
information will be necessary for documentation purposes and other future reference.
5. List of Equipment - All survey equipment used must be listed, including its make, brand,
and serial number. The type of instrument used, and its adjustment, all have a definite
effect on the accuracy of the survey.
The Field Survey Party
1. Chief of Party - The person who is responsible for the overall direction, supervision,
and operational control of the survey party. He is also responsible for its logistical
and technical requirements, and problems of a field survey operation. Prior to the
execution of a survey project, he consults or confers with superiors regarding the
project to be undertaken. He is responsible for submitting survey reports and
records. He prepares cost estimates of survey projects.
2. Assistant Chief of Party - The person whose duty is to assist the chief of party in the
accomplishment of the task assigned to the survey party. He takes over the duties of
the chief of party during the absence of the chief. He conducts ground reconnaissance
and investigates sites of a proposed project to gather necessary data prior to the start
of a survey work. He is primarily responsible for the employment of surveying
equipment, instruments and accessories used in the survey operation. He prepares
field and office reports and survey plans for submission to the chief of party.
3. Instrumentman - The person whose duty is to set up, level, and operate surveying
instruments such as the transit, engineer’s level, theodolite, sextant, plane table and
alidade, etc. He also assists the technician in the operation of electronic surveying
equipment.
4. Technician - The person who is responsible for use and operation of all electronic
instruments required in a field work operation. It is his duty to see to it that these
equipment's are functioning properly, are regularly calibrated, and are in proper
adjustment.
5. Computer - The person whose duty is to perform all computations of survey data and
works out necessary computational checks required in a field work operation.
6. Recorder - The person whose duty is to keep a record of all sketches, drawings,
measurements, and observations taken or needed for a field work operation. He
keeps table of schedules of all phases of work and the employment of the members
of the survey party.
7. Head Tapeman - The person responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear
measurements with tape. He determines and directs the marking of stations to be
occupied by the surveying instruments and directs the clearing out of obstructions
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along the line of sight. He inspects and compares tapes for standard length prior to
their use in taping operations.
8. Rear Tapeman - The person whose duty is to assist the head tapeman during taping
operations and in other related work.
9. Flagman - The person whose duty is to hold the flagpole or range of pole at selected
points as directed by the instrumentman. He helps the tapeman in making
measurements and assists the axeman in cutting down branches and in clearing
other obstructions to line of sight.
10. Rodman - The person whose primary duty is to hold the stadia or leveling rod when
sights are to be taken it.
11. Pacer - The person whose duty is to check all linear measurements made by the
tapeman. He assists the tapeman in seeing to it that mistakes and blunders in linear
measurements are either reduced or eliminated. He may also perform the job of a
rodman.
12. Axeman/Lineman - The person whose duty is to clear the line of sight of trees, bush,
and other obstructions in wooded country.
13. Aidman - The person whose duty is to render first aid treatment to members of the
survey party who are involved in snake and insects’ bites, accidents, and other cases
involving their health, safety, and wellbeing.
14. Utilityman - The person whose duties are to render other forms of assistance needed
by the survey party or as directed by the chief of party.
Self-Help
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson:
*La Putt, J.P. (2010) Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.): Baguio Research and Publishing
Center
*Kavanagh, B.F. (2006) Surveying: Principles and Applications (7th ed.): New Jersey:
Pearson Prentice Hall
Let’s Check
Surveying Methods: Research more on the different surveying methods discussed

above, provide pictures and situation in which it is applicable. Affix your signature at the end
of your submittal.
Let’s Analyze
Activity A: Find the number of significant figures
1. 10.258
2. 0.00000078
3. 500
4. 89.5870000
5.0.00860
Activity B: Solve the following problems

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1. A distance was measured and as recorded to have a value equivalent to 10 perches, 5

rods, and 50 varas. Compute the total distance in feet.
2. A line was measured with 20-m tape. There was 3 tallies and 6 pins, and the distance
from the last pin and the end of the line was 3.75m. Find the length of the line in meters.
In a Nutshell
Introduction to Surveying: Read and understand each statement carefully. Choose

the best answer that corresponds to the statement.
1. Surveying is defined as the art and science of determining angular and linear
measurements to establish the form, extent, science of deter and relative position
of points, lines, and establish the areas on or near the surface of the earth or on
other extraterrestrial bodies through
A. pure mathematics and the social sciences
B. applied mathematics and the use of specialized equipment and techniques
C. field observations and measurements
D. cartographic, geodetic, and photogrammetric methods
E. principles of algebra and geometry
2. Plane surveying is that type of surveying in which the earth is considered to be a flat
surface. Distances and areas involved are of limited extent and the
A. approximate shape of the earth is considered
B. theoretical shape of the geoid is evaluated
C. exact shape of the earth Is disregarded
D. spheroidal shape of the earth is considered
E. shape of the earth is considered a geoid
3. A type of survey which is of wide extent and takes into account the spheroidal shape
of the earth is known as
A. geodetic surveying
B. plane surveying
C. geoid surveying
D. earth surveying
E. terrestrial surveying
4. A photogrammetric survey makes use of photographs taken with specially designed

cameras either from
A. a ship or an elevated ground station
B. the ground surface or underwater
C. a field or a laboratory environment
D. a map or a scaled drawing
E. airplanes or ground stations
5. The international System of Units or SI was promulgated by the International

Bureau of weights and Measures in
A. 1960
B. 1978
C. 1983
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D. 1875
E. 1799
6. Give the importance of a survey party. Is there really a need to have a complete
party in all surveying activities? Explain
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Be able to understand horizontal distances and
apply the concepts of errors in surveying.
Metalanguage
1. Error – defined as the difference between the true value and the measured value
of a quantity. It is a deviation of an observation or a calculation from the true value
and is often beyond the control of the one performing the operation.
2. Mistakes – inaccuracies in measurements which occur because some aspect of a
surveying operation is performed by the surveyor with carelessness, inattention,
poor judgement, and improper execution.
3. Horizontal distance - the distance between two points measured at a zero percent
slope.
Essential Knowledge
Errors and Mistakes
Errors are inherent in all measurements and result from sources which cannot be
avoided. They may be caused by the type of equipment used, imperfections of the senses of the
person undertaking measurement or by natural causes.
Mistakes are also caused by misunderstanding of the problem, inexperience, or

indifference of the surveyor. A large mistake is referred to as a blunder.
Types of Errors
1. Systematic Errors/Cumulative Errors - This type of error is one which will always
have the same sign and magnitude as long as field conditions remain constant and
unchanged.
• For changing field conditions there is a corresponding change in magnitude
of the error, however, the sign remains constant.
• Systematic errors conform to mathematical and physical laws. such errors
can be computed, and their effects eliminated by applying corrections,
employing proper techniques in the use of instruments, or by adopting a field
procedure which will automatically eliminate it.
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• In surveying, systematic errors occur due to instrumental factors, natural

causes, and human limitations of the observer.
2. Accidental Errors - These errors are purely accidental in character.

• The occurrence of such errors are matters of chance as they are likely to be
positive or negative and may tend in part to compensate or average out
according to laws of probability.
• There is no absolute way of determining or eliminating them since the error
for an observation of a quantity is not likely to be the same as for a second
observation.
• Accidental errors are caused by factors beyond the control of the surveyor
and are present in all surveying measurements. Also, in comparison to
systematic errors, these errors are usually or minor importance in surveying
operations.
Sources of Errors
1. Instrumental Errors - These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used,
either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between the
different parts prior to their use.
Examples of instrumental errors:

✓ Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.
✓ Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.
✓ Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an
instrument whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
✓ Sighting on a rod which is warped.
✓ Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of a transit or level.
2. Natural Errors - These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments used,
either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between the
different parts prior to their use.
Common examples:
✓ The effect of temperature variation on the length of a steel tape.
✓ Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic
declination.
✓ Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
✓ Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a
strong wind.
✓ Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to a slope or uneven
ground.
3. Personal Errors - These errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of sight,
touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one individual to another and may vary
due to certain circumstances existing during measurement.
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Typical errors:
✓ Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during sighting.
✓ Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of the
telescope are not positioned correctly on the target.
✓ Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel tape
during measurements.
Accuracy and Precision
Accuracy indicates how close a given measurement is to the absolute or true value of
the quantity measured. It implies the closeness between related measurements and their
expectations.
Precision refers to the degree of refinement and consistency with which any physical
measurement is made. It is portrayed by the closeness to one another of a set observation
is closely clustered together, the observation is said to have been obtained with high
precision.
Theory of Probability
• Probability is defined as the number of times something will probably occur over the
range of possible occurrences.
• It is very much involved in games of chance, such as throwing dice, tossing a coin, or
in various games using cards.
• The theory of probability is useful in indicating the precision of results only in so far
as they are affected by accidental errors.
The theory of probability is based upon the following assumptions relative to the occurrences
of errors:
• Small errors occur more often than large ones and that they are more probable.
• Large errors happen infrequently and are therefore less probable; for normally
distributed errors, unusually large ones may be mistakes rather than accidental
errors.
• Positive and negative errors of the same size happen with equal frequency; that is,
they are equally probable.
• The mean of an infinite number of observations is the most probable value.
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Most Probable Value
From the theory of probability, a basic assumption is that the most probable value
(mpv) of a group of repeated measurements made under similar conditions is the arithmetic
mean or the average. Most probable value refers to a quantity which, based on available
data, has more chances of being correct than has any other.
Σ𝑥 (𝑥1 + 𝑥2 + 𝑥3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛 )
𝑚𝑝𝑣 = 𝑥 = =
𝑛 𝑛
Residual
The residual, which is sometimes referred to as the deviation, is defined as the difference
between any measured value of a quantity and its most probable value or:
𝑣 = 𝑥 − 𝑥̅
Where v is the residual in any measurement, x is a measurement made of a quantity, and 𝒙 ̅
is the most probable value of the quantity measured. Residuals and errors are theoretically
identical.
Probable Error
The probable error is a quantity which, when added to and subtracted from the most
probable value, defines a range within which there is a 50 percent chance that the true value
of the measured quantity lies inside (or outside) the limits thus set.
If errors are arranged in order of magnitude, it will be possible to determine the probable
error. This is the error that would be found in the middle place of the arrangement, such
that one half of the errors are greater than it and the other half are less than it.
The value of the probable error is calculated with the use of the following formulae which
are derived from the method of least squares.
∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑠 = ±0.6745√
𝑛−1
∑ 𝑣2
𝑃𝐸𝑚 = ±0.6745√
𝑛(𝑛 − 10)
Where:
PEs = probable error of any single measurement of a series

PEm = probable error of the mean
∑ 𝑣 2 = summation of the squares of the residuals
n = number of observations
The determination and use of the probable error in surveying is primarily to give an
indication of the precision of a particular measurement. It is often an approximated value
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and is not mathematically exact since only a few repeated measurements are usually made
and the conditions of measurement are not rigidly controlled.
For example, if 235.50 m represents the mean or most probable value of several
measurements and 0.1 m represents the probable error of the mean value, the chances are
even that the true value lies between 235.40 and 235.60 m, as it is also probable that the
true value lies outside of these limiting values. Note that the lower and upper limits are
determined by correspondingly subtracting and adding 0.10 m to 235.50 meters. To express
the probable limits of precision for this particular case, the quantity should be written as:
235.50 ± 0.10 m
Relative (Error) Precision
The total amount of error in a given measurement should relate to the magnitude of the
measured quantity in order to indicate the accuracy of a measurement. In surveying
measurements, ratio of the error to the measured quantity is used to define the degree of
refinement obtained.
Relative error, sometimes called relative precision, is expressed by a fraction having the
magnitude of the error in the numerator and the magnitude of a measured quantity in the
denominator. It is necessary to express both quantities in the same units, and the numerator
is reduced to unity or 1 in order to provide an easy comparison with other measurements.
For example, if for a particular measurement the probable error of the mean is 0.10 m and
the most probable value of the measurement is 235.50 m, the relative precision (RP) would
be expressed as 0.10/235.50 or 1/2355, also written as 1:2355.
Weighted Observations
Many surveying measurements are made under different circumstances and conditions and
therefore have different degrees of reliability. The problem often encountered is how to
combine these measurements and determine the most probable values. For such a situation
it is necessary to estimate the degree of reliability (or weight) for each of the measurements
before they are combined, and the most probable values are determined.
In some instances, weights are assigned on the basis of weather conditions prevailing
attained on a bright early morning could be considered as more reliable than one
measured on a cold and rainy day. This method of assigning weights will require good
judgement and can only be expected of more experienced surveyors.
In the case of repeated measurements, if a quantity is measured, for example, in two

repetitions by group A and in four repetitions by group B, then the measurement taken by
B should be given twice the weight of the measurement of group B is regarded as twice as
reliable as that of group A. The assignment of weights in the ratio of 2 to 1 may be assigned
instead of 2 and 1. For instance, the weights may be 1 and 1/2; and 2, or 16 and 8.
Interrelationship of Errors
In some instances, it is required to determine how the final result is affected when a
computation involves quantities that are subject to accidental errors. Two commonly
applied principles of the theory of errors involve the summation of errors and the product
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of errors. These principles are given to provide the student a better understanding of the
propagation of errors.
1. Summation of Errors
If measured quantities are added, each of which is affected by accidental errors, the
probable error of the sum is given by the square root of the sum of the squares of the
separate probable errors arising from the several sources.”
𝑷𝑬𝒔 = √𝑷𝑬𝟏𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟐𝟐 + 𝑷𝑬𝟑𝟐 + ⋯ 𝑷𝑬𝒏𝟐

Where:
PEs = probable error of the sum
PE1, PE2, PEn = probable error of each measurement
2. Product of Errors
“For a measured quantity which is determined as the product of two other

independently measured quantities such as Q1, and Q2 (with their corresponding
probable errors), the probable error of the product is given by the following
equation.”
𝑷𝑬𝒑 = √(𝑸𝟏 ∙ 𝑷𝑬𝟐)𝟐 + (𝑸𝟐 ∙ 𝑷𝑬𝟏)𝟐
Where:
PEp = probable error of the product
Q1 and Q2 = measured quantities
PE1 and PE2 = probable error corresponding to each quantity measured.
Rules for Weighted Measurements
1. The weight is directly proportional to the number of observations or

measurements.
2. The weight is inversely proportional to the distance.
3. The weight is inversely proportional to the square of the probable errors.
4. The weight is inversely proportional to the number of set-ups.
Measurement of Horizontal Distances
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Distance by Pacing
Pacing is one the simplest method of measuring distances. It is used in

instances where approximate results can be enough for the data needed,
such as getting the rodman in position during a cross-section survey, or
simply measuring a relatively short distance where accuracy is not that
of an issue.
Pace - Length of a step. Measured heel-to-heel, or toe-to-toe.
Stride - A double step. One stride is equivalent to two paces.
Pace Factor - The distance covered by one step.
• It is suitable in determining approximate distances in situations where a low

precision of measurement is sufficient.
• Unless a mistake has been made in counting, it will seldom be more than 3 percent
in error.
• To pace a distance, it is necessary to first determine the length of one’s pace. This is
referred to as the pace factor.
Important Notes:
✓ The length of a pace varies with different persons.

✓ It is important to walk naturally when calibrating one’s pace in pacing distances.
✓ An attempt to make each step predetermined length is tiring and will only give less
accurate results.
✓ The length of a pace will vary with the speed of pacing, the roughness of the ground,
the weight of the clothing and shoes used, fatigue on the part of the pacer, the slope
of terrain, as well as the age and sex of the individual.
✓ The pace will also differ when going uphill or downhill.
✓ A pedometer or passometer can be used to count the pace if the distance to be paced
is quite long.
Distance by Taping
• The most common method of measuring or laying out horizontal distances.

• Taping consists of stretching a calibrated tape between the points and reading the
distance indicated on the tape.
• Taping may vary from a relative precision of about 1:1000 to 1:25000 or better.
Distance by Tachymetry
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It is based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed and is an indirect method
of measurement.
A. Stadia Method - Horizontal distance determined by

this method will yield a relative precision of only
1/300 and 1/1000.
B. Subtense Bar Method - The subtense bar is a convenient and practical device used for
quick and accurate measurement of horizontal distances. The bar, which is precisely 2
meters long, consists of a rounded steel tube through which runs a thin invar rod. A
theodolite, set up at the other end of the line to be measured, is used in measuring the
subtending angle.
Distance by Graphical and Mathematical Methods
• By graphical or mathematical methods,

unknown distances may be determined
through their relationship with known
distances geometrically.
• Determining distances by scaling from maps or
aerial photographs.
• The determination of lengths of the sides of a
horizontal control system such as in
triangulation and trilateration involves
geometric and trigonometric relationships.
Distance by Mechanical Devices
These devices, however, are only applicable for low precision surveys or where quick
measurements are desired.
The more commonly used among these devices include

1. Odometer
2. Measuring Wheel
3. Optical Range Finder
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Distance by Photogrammetry
The term photogrammetry refers to the measurement of

images on a photograph. The type of photographs used
are those taken from an aircraft with the axis of the
camera pointed vertically towards the terrain
photographed. Precision is about 1/3000 to 1/5000
Measurement by Taping
Composition of a Taping Party
1. Head Tapeman – responsible for the accuracy and speed of all linear measurements.
2. Recorder – keeps a record of all measurements, sketches, observations
3. Flagman – holds the pole at selected points, clears out obstruction.
4. Rear Tapeman – assist the tapeman during a taping operation.
Procedure of Taping
1. Aligning the tape

2. Stretching the tape
3. Plumbing
4. Marking Full Tape Lengths
5. Tallying Taped Measurements
6. Measuring Fractional Lengths
Breaking Tape
It is a standard practice to hold the tape horizontally above ground and to plumb at one or
both ends when taping on sloping or uneven terrain surfaces. This requires the
measurement of shorter distances which are accumulated to total a full tape length. The
procedure is referred to as “breaking tape”
This method is effective on measuring

an uneven terrain distance to ensure
more accuracy in the results.
Slope Taping
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Taped measurements may be made directly along the

slopes when the ground is of uniform inclination and
fairly smooth, rather than break tape every few meters.
This practical method is generally preferred since
measurements could be made quickly and more
accurately than horizontal measurements.
If the angle is known, we can calculate the distance

using trigonometric identities.
It can also be solved using Pythagorean theorem.
Correction in Taping
Taping corrections could either be of the following: taping to determine an unknown length,
or taping for the purpose of laying out a required or specified length. Regardless of which of
these two categories is involved, there are some corrections which are applied to the
original measurements to determine the correct and more accurate length.
Corrections to taping are applied using the following rules:
Rule 1. When a line is measured with a taped that is “too long”, the corrections are applied
to the observed length by adding.
Rule 2. When a specified or required length is to be laid out with a tape that is “too long”,
the corrections are subtracted from the known length to determine the corrected length to
be laid out.
Rule 3. When measuring or laying out lengths with tape that is “too short”, the corrections
are applied opposite to those stated in the first two rules.
• When measuring with tape too long, add; tape too short, subtract. Do the reverse
when laying out.”
The required degree of precision in taping will define the procedure of measurement,
equipment, and accessories to be used, and the corrections to be considered. The following
conditions which could exist during a taping operation may require the application of
corrections.
Corrections in Taping
1. The tape used is not of standard or nominal length due to either faults in their
manufacture, or damage caused by kinks, bends, cuts, and splices on the tape.
2. Ends of the tape are not held at the same level when “breaking tape” along inclined or
rough terrain surface or when undertaking slope taping.
3. Inaccuracy in keeping the tape along a straight-line during measurement or in laying out
of lengths.
4. Tape is not of nominal length due to the difference in the temperature prevailing during
the actual measurement and the temperature for which the tape was standardized.
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5. Shortening or lengthening of the tape due to the application of a pull on its ends which
differs significantly from the pull applied on the tape during standardization
6. Distance between the end points of an unsupported length of tape is less than the
specified nominal length due to the effect of sag or a strong blowing side wind.
Types of Tape Correction
1. Correction due to incorrect tape length
The absolute value for the correction per tape length (corr) is determined from the
difference between nominal length of tape (NL) or
𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓. = 𝑻𝑳 − 𝑵𝑳
Correspondingly, corrected distances which are measured or laid out with a tape that is
too long or too short can be determined from the following equations
𝑴𝑳
𝑪𝟏 = 𝑪𝒐𝒓𝒓 ( )
𝑵𝑳
𝑪𝑳 = 𝑴𝑳 ± 𝑪𝟏
Where:
C1 = total correction to be applied to the measured length or length to be laid out
CL = corrected length of the line to be measured or laid out
ML = measured length or length to be laid out
NL = nominal length of tape
2. Correction due to Slope
Derived: For gentle slopes it is safe to assume that the slope

distance (s) is approximately equal to the horizontal
distance (d) or
𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 =
𝟐𝒔
a. For gentle slopes (grade less than 20%)

𝒉𝟐
𝑪𝒉 =
𝟐𝒔
b. Steep Slopes (Between 20% and 30%)
𝒉𝟐 𝒉𝟒
𝑪𝒉 = +
𝟐𝒔 𝟖𝒔𝟑
c. Very Steep Slopes (Greater than 30%)
𝑪𝒉 = 𝒔(𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝜽)
Therefore, the horizontal distance (d) is equal to the measured slope distance (s)
subtracted by the slope correction (Ch): “d = s – Ch”
3. Correction due to temperature

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The tape lengthens as the temperature rises and shortens as the temperature falls. Any
change in the length of a tape due to variations in temperature is critical when
undertaking precise measurements.
𝑪𝒕 = 𝜶𝑳(∆𝑻) = 𝜶𝑳(𝑻 − 𝑻𝒔 )
Where:
𝛼 = coefficient of linear expansion (thermal)
L = length of the line measured
T = temperature at the time of measurement
Ts = standardized tape temperature
4. Correction due to Tension (Pull Correction)
During calibration (or standardization) a tape is subjected to a certain amount of standard

pull or tension on its ends. When used in the field during taping, it is elongated or shortened
accordingly, depending on the amount of pull applied on it.
E = Unit Stress / Elongation per unit length

Deriving:
(𝑷𝒎 − 𝑷𝒔 )𝑳
𝑪𝒑 =
𝑨𝑬
Where:
Pm = pull applied to the tape (kg or N)

Ps = standard pull of tape (kg or N)
L = measured length
A = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 or m2)
E = modulus of elasticity (kg/cm2 or N/m2)
5. Correction due to Sag
A tape attains its correct length when it is fully supported and subjected to the pull for which
it was standardized. If the support is only at its ends or at the two points measured, it will
sag even if the standard pull is maintained because of its own weight.
𝝎𝟐 𝑳𝟑 𝑾𝟐 𝑳
𝑪𝒔 = 𝒐𝒓
𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐 𝟐𝟒𝑷𝟐
Where:
𝝎 = weight of the tape per unit length (kg/m or N/m)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg or N)
L = interval between supports or the unsupported length of tape (m)
P = tension of pull applied to the tape (kg or N)
6. Correction due to Wind
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A strong wind blowing perpendicular to the direction of taping will move the middle and
unsupported portion of tape to one side of the line measured. This introduces an error to
the measurement which is similar to the effect of sag but is usually much less.
(usually given. If not use the formula for correction due to sag for given pull of wind)
Normal Tension
By exerting a sufficiently greater amount of pull on the tape when it is suspended and
sagged, the tape will be stretched and a considerable decrease in the amount of sag results.
The applied pull which will lengthen the tape to equal the shortening caused by sag is
referred to as the Normal Tension.
The formula of Normal Tension can be calculated using the given formula:
𝟎. 𝟐𝟎𝟒𝑾√𝑨𝑬
𝑷𝑵 =
√𝑷𝑵 − 𝑷𝑺
Where:
PN = normal tension or the pull which will eliminate the effect of sag (kg or N)
W = total weight of tape between supports (kg or N)
E = cross-sectional area of tape (cm2 or m2)
Ps = standard pull for the tape (kg)
Self-Help
Center
Let’s Check
Problem Set: Most Probable Value and Probable Error
1. The three angles of a triangle were measured with the following results: A = 42°05’, B =
115°38’, and C = 22°08’. Determine the most probable value of each angle.
2. The angles about a point have the following observed values: 87°07’50’’, 125°17’20’’,
and 147°35’20’’. Determine the most probable value of the three angles.
3. The interior angles of a quadrilateral were observed to be: A = 100°35’40’’, B =

118°44’15’’, C = 80°54’35’’, and D = 59°45’50’’. Determine the most probable value of
each of these angles.
4. A quantity was measured ten times with the following results: 34.630, 34.626, 34.364,
34.628, 34.629, 34.626, 34.627, 34.633, 34.625, and 34.624 meters. Determine the
probable error of the mean and the relative precision of the mean.
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5. A surveying instructor sent all the 40 students in his class out to measure a distance
between two points marked on a runway. The students working in groups of four came
up with 10 different measurements as follows: 920.45, 921.05, 921.65, 920.25, 920.15,
921.85, 921.95, 920.45, 921.15, and 921.35 meters. Assuming these values are equally
reliable and that variations result only from accidental errors, determine the relative
precision of single measurement and the relative precision of the mean.
6. The following values were determined in a series of rod readings made under identical
conditions: 3.312, 3.307, 3.304, 3.306, 3.309, 3.301, 3.311, 3.308, 3.312, 3.306, and 3.313
meters. Determine the following: most probable value of the observed rod readings,
probable error of a single measurement and of the mean, and the relative precision of a
single measurement and of the mean.
Let’s Analyze
Problem Set: Weighted Measurements, Summation and Product of Errors
1. A line is measured on a windy day as 338.65 m. The same line measured 338.37 m on a
calm day. If the latter measurement is given four times the reliability of the first,
determine the most probable value of the measured line.
2. A distance AB is measured five times as 610.03, 610.01, 610.05, 610.04, and 610.02
meters. The measurements were given weights of 3, 2, 1, 2, and 3, respectively, by the
head tape man. Determine the weighted mean for distance AB. Also, determine what
difference results if later judgment revises the weights to 2, 3, 1, 3, and 2.
3. And angle ABC is measured at different times using various instruments and procedures.
The results, which are assigned certain weights, are as follows: 75° 09'26", weight of 4;
75°09’25’’, weight of 3; and 75° 09’27’’, weight of 1. Determine the most value of the
angle measured. probable
4. In this problem the weight an angle is assumed to be proportional to the number of times
it has been measured by repetition. Five angles in a pentagon were measured with the
of following results: 134°44’35’’, 167°02'05'’, 86°15’20’’, 75°48’50’’, and 76°08’50’’. If
the number of repetitions for each measurement and were 2, 6, 6, 8, and 4, respectively,
determine the adjusted values of the angles.
5. Two sides and the included angle of a triangle were measured and the probable error of
each value were computed as follows: a = 267.55 m ± 0.05 m, b = 564.75 ± 0.06 m, and
the angle C = 57°15’45’’. Determine the area of the triangle and the probable error of the
area.
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6. Three sides of triangle were measured with the following results: a =1431.20 m ± 0.02
m, b = 570.77 m ± 0.03 m, and c = 1767.15 m ± 0.04 m. Determine the angles in the
triangle together with the probable errors of the angles.
7. A line AE is divided into segments for measurement with a tape. The results were AB =
134.10 m ± 0.040 m, BC = 320.63 m ± 0.055 m, CD =173.73 m ± 0.056 m, and DE = 160.85
m ± 0.050 m. Determine the length of the line and the probable error of the measured
length.
8. The difference in elevation between two ground points was measured by each of three
field parties using different kinds of leveling instruments. The results are as follows: 1st
Party, DE = 18.45 m ± 0.05 m; 2nd Party, DE=18.40 m ± 0.04 m; 3rd Party, DE = 18.48 m
± 0.05m. Determine the most probable difference in elevation between the two ground
points.
9. The four approximately equal sides of a tract of land were measured and the
measurements included the following errors: ±0.085 m, ±0.014 m, ±0.175 m, and ± 0.205
m, respectively Determine the probable error for the total length (or perimeter) of the
tract.
10. The dimensions of a five-sided tract of land are given by the following measurements
and corresponding probable errors: 221.63 m ± 0.004 m, 235.70m ± 0.002 m, 196.05 m
± 0.005 m, 296.13 m ± 0.012 m, and 303.18 m ± 0.015 m. Determine the probable error
of the sum of the five measurements and the most probable value o! the perimeter.
11. Two sides of a rectangle were measured as being 226.25 m ± 0.03 m and 307.28 m ±
0.04m. Determine the area of the figure and the probable error of the area.
12. The base and altitude of triangular-shaped figure were measured with certain
estimated probable errors as follows: b = 425.67 m ± 0.07 m and h = 138.63 m ± 0.06 m.
Determine the area of the figure and the probable error in the resulting calculation.
In a Nutshell
Problem Set: Measurement of Horizontal Distance
1. In walking along a 75-m course, the pacer of a field party counted 43.50, 44.00, 43.50,
43.75, 44.50, 43.25 strides. Then 105.50, 106.00, 105.75, and 106.25 strides were
counted in walking from one market to another established along a straight and level
course. Determine the distance between the two markers.
2. A student paces a 50-m length five times with the following results: 57.00, 56.75, 56.50,
58.00, and 56.25 paces. Determine how many paces must he step off in order to establish
a distance of 450 meters in on level ground.
3. Determine the length of a line negotiated in 208 paces by a person whose pace is 0.76
meters long.
4. With the use of a 1-sec theodolite positioned at the center of a six-sided lot, the following
readings were taken on a 2-m subtense bar set up at each corner: 0° 25' 16",
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0°12’35",0°15'05", 0°22'29", 0°30’45", and 0°09’50". Determine the distance of each

corner from the Instrument position.
5. A 2-m long subtense bar was first set up at A and subsequently at B, and the subtended
angles to the bar, as read from a theodolite positioned somewhere along the middle of
line AB, were recorded as 0°24'15’’ and 0°20'30', respectively. Determine the length of
AB.
6. A slope measurement of 545.38 m is made between points and B. The elevation of A is

424.25 m and that of B in 459.06 m. Determine the horizontal distance between the two
points.
7. The sides of rectangular parcel of property were measured and recorded as 249.50 m
and 496.85 m. It was determined, however, that the 30-m tape used in measuring was
actually 30.05 m long, Determine the correct area of the rectangle in hectares.
8. A track and field coach wishes to layout for his team a 200-m straightaway course. If he
uses a 50-m tape known to be 50.20 m long, determine the measurements to be made
so that the course will have the correct length.
9. A 30-m steel tape is of standard length at 20°C. If the coefficient of thermal expansion of
steel is 0.0000116/1°C, determine the distance to be laid out using this tape to establish
two points exactly 1235.65 m apart when the temperature is 33°C.
10. A steel tape is 30.0-m long under a pull of 6.0 kg when supported throughout. It has a
cross-sectional ported area of 0.035 cm2 and is applied fully supported with a 12-kg pull
to measure a line whose recorded length is 308.32 m. Determine the correct length of
the line if E=2.1 x 106 kg/cm2.
11. A 30-m steel tape weighs 1.5 kg and is supported at its end points and at the 5 and
15meter marks. If a pull of 8 kg is applied, determine the correction due to sag between
supports and for one tape length.
12. Determine the normal tension required to make a tape exactly 30.0 m between its ends
when used in an unsupported mode, If the tape has a cross-sectional area of 0.045 cm2
and weighs 0.90 kg. Assume that the tape exactly 30.0 m when supported throughout its
length under a standard pull of 6.0 kg, and its modulus of elasticity 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2.
13. A 30-m tape weighs 12.5 g/m and has a cross section of 0.022 cm2. If it measures
correctly when supported throughout under a tension of 8.0 kg and at temperature of
20°C. When used in the field, the tape is only supported at its ends, under a pull of 9.0
kg, and at an average temperature of 28°C. Determine the distance between the zero and
30-m marks.
14. A line was found to be 2865.35 m long when measured with a 30-m tape under a steady
pull of 6.5 kg at a mean temperature of 30°C. Determine the correct length of the line if
the tape used is of standard length at 20°C under a pull of 5.5 kg. Assume the cross-
sectional area of tape to be 0.025 cm2, elastic modulus as 2.10 x 106 kg/cm2, and
coefficient of thermal expansion to be 0.0000116/1°C.
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15. The sides of a triangle measure 1063.55, 1840.33, and 1325.05 m. Determine the three
angles in the triangle.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1c. Be able to understand and apply the concept of
vertical distances.
Metalanguage
1. Leveling – an art of determining the relative height of different points on, above
or below the surface.
2. Elevation – the height to which something is elevated above a point of reference,
especially mean sea level.
3. Vertical distance – also known as vertical separation is the distance between two
vertical positions. Many vertical coordinates exist for expressing vertical
position: depth, height, altitude, elevation, etc. Each quantity may be expressed in
various units: meters, feet, etc.
4. Curvature – the curved shape of the earth means that the level surface through
the telescope will depart from the horizontal plane through the telescope as the
line of sight proceeds to the horizon.
5. Refraction - it is largely a function of atmospheric pressure and temperature
gradients, which may cause the bending to be up or down by extremely variable
amounts.
Essential Knowledge
Measurement of Vertical Distances
• Leveling is defined as “an art of determining the relative height of different points on,
above or below the surface”.
• Leveling is the process of directly or indirectly measuring vertical distances to
determine the elevation of points or their differences in elevation.
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• The principle of levelling is to obtain horizontal line of sight with respect to which
vertical distances of the points above or below this line of sight are found.
Definition of Terms
1. Level Surface – It is a curved surface which is at any point perpendicular to the

direction of gravity or the plumb line.
2. Level Line – A level line is a curved line in a level surface all points of which are
normal to the direction of gravity and equidistant from the center of the earth.
3. Horizontal Surface – It is a plane that is tangent to a level surface at a particular point.
4. Horizontal Line – A straight line in a horizontal plane which is tangent to a level line
at one point.
5. Vertical Line – A vertical line at any point is a line parallel to the direction of gravity.
6. Mean Sea Level – Mean sea level is an imaginary surface of the sea which is midway
between high and low tides.
7. Datum – Datum is any convenient level surface coincident or parallel with mean sea
level to which elevations of an area are referred.
8. Elevation – For a point, its elevation is the vertical distance above or below mean sea
level or any other selected datum.
Leveling Methods
1. Direct or Spirit Leveling – is the commonly employed method of determining the

elevation of points some distance apart by a series of setups of a leveling instrument
along a selected route.
2. Reciprocal Leveling – Reciprocal leveling is the process of accurately determining the
difference in elevation between two intervisible points located at a considerable
distance apart and between which points leveling could not be performed in the usual
manner.
3. Profile Leveling – This method of leveling is used to determine differences in elevation
between points at designated short measured intervals along an established line to
provide data from which a vertical section of the ground surface can be plotted.
4. Trigonometric Leveling – This method of levelling is employed in determining by
trigonometric computations the difference in elevation between two points from
measurements of its horizontal or slope distance and the vertical angle between the
points.
5. Stadia Leveling – Stadia levelling combines features of direct leveling with those of
trigonometric leveling.
6. Barometric Leveling – Barometric leveling involves the determination of differences
in elevation between points by measuring the variation in atmospheric pressure at
each point by means of a barometer.
7. Cross-Section levelling – In highway or railroad constructions, it is often necessary to
obtain a representation of the ground surface on either side of the centerline.
8. Borrow Pit Leveling – Borrow-pit leveling is a method of determining the relative
elevations of points in borrow-pit excavations for the purpose of calculation volumes.
Types of Levels
1. Dumpy Level – the dumpy level is the most widely used direct leveling instrument.
2. Wye Level - The wye level is very similar to the dumpy.
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3. Builder’s Level – This instrument is used primarily in the different phases of building
construction where a high degree of precision is not a primary requisite.
4. Automatic Level – Self-leveling features are incorporated in automatic levels.
5. Tilting Level – This type of leveling instrument can be tilted or rotated about its
horizontal axis.
6. Geodetic Level – The geodetic level is basically another type of tilting level.
7. Transit as a Level – The engineer’s transit has always been referred to as the
“universal surveying instrument” because of its variety of uses.
8. Laser Level – An innovation introduced to surveying operations is the use of lasers.
9. Hand Level – The hand level is a handheld instrument used on surveys involving short
sights and where a low order of accuracy is sufficient.
Sources of Error in Leveling
A. Instrumental Errors
• Instrument Out of Adjustment
• Rod Not Standard Length
• Defective Tripod
B. Personal Errors
• Bubble Not Centered
• Parallax
• Faulty Rod Readings
• Rod Not Held Plumb
• Incorrect Setting of Target
• Unequal Backsight and Foresight Distances
C. Natural Errors
• Curvature of the Earth
• Atmospheric Refraction
• Temperature Variations
• Wind
• Settlement of the Instrument
• Faulty Turning Points
Two Peg Test
• The most common means of checking an instrument in the field and can be done for
both optical & laser levels.
• The purpose is to check that the line of sight through the level is horizontal (parallel
to the axis of the bubble)
• The line of sight is defined by the location of the horizontal crosshair.
Two-Peg Test Procedure
1. Place 2 pegs, 60 to 90m apart are established on the ground.

2. Set up the instrument such that the eyepiece is 20cm or less in front of the rod held on
one of the pegs as at A.
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3. A rod reading a is taken on the end of the telescope.

4. Telescope is then turned toward the rod now held over the other peg at B, and a rod
reading b is taken on it.
5. The instrument is next moved, set up, and leveled near where a second set of rod
readings, c and d, are taken on the rod held at B and A.
𝐷𝐸𝑎 = 𝑎 − 𝑏
𝐷𝐸𝑏 = 𝑑 − 𝑐
* 𝐷𝐸𝑎 = 𝐷𝐸𝑏 , level in adjustment, If not, level out of adjustment
When the line of sight is inclined from the horizontal, the error in the line of sight from the
distance AB is
e = difference in elevation between d and d’

e = d – d’
Alternate Procedure
1. Place 2 stakes at a distance of 200 to 300 ft (60 to 90m) apart.

2. Set up the level midway between the 2 stakes, and rod readings are taken at both
locations.
3. If the line of sight through the level is not horizontal, the errors in rod readings (Δe1) at
both points A and B will be identical (level is halfway between the points).
4. Because the errors are identical, the calculated difference in elevation between A and B
(difference in rod readings) will be true difference in elevation.
5. The level is then moved to within 5‐6ft, or 2m (minimum focusing distance of the level)
of one of the points and set up with a rod reading determined.
6. Any line‐of‐sight error generated over that very short distance will be relatively
insignificant compared to the next rod reading at B.
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7. The rod is then held at B and a rod reading obtained.
Differential Levelling
Determining or establishing elevations is, at times, the most essential activity of the field
engineer. Elevations are needed to set slope stakes, grade stakes, footings, anchor bolts,
slabs, decks, sidewalks, curbs, etc. Just about everything located on the project requires
elevation. Differential leveling is the process used to determine or establish those
elevations.
Differential leveling is a very simple process based on the measurement of vertical distances
from a horizontal line. Elevations are transferred from one point to another through the
process of using a leveling instrument to read a rod held vertically on, first, a point of known
elevation and, then, on the point of unknown elevation. Simple addition and subtraction are
used to calculate the unknown elevations.
A single-
level setup is illustrated in Figure 5-1. A backsight reading is taken on a rod held on a point
of known elevation. That elevation is transferred vertically to the line of sight by reading the
rod and then adding the known elevation and the backsight reading. The elevation of the
line of sight is the height of instrument (HI). By definition, the line of sight is horizontal;
therefore, the line of sight elevation can then be transferred down to the unknown elevation
point by turning the telescope to the foresight and reading the rod. The elevation of the
foresight station is found by subtracting the rod reading from the height of instrument. Note
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that the difference in elevation from the backsight station to the foresight station is
determined by subtracting the foresight rod reading from the backsight rod reading.
Figure 5-2. Direction of Differential Leveling
Figure 5-3. Typical Format of Level Notes

A level route consists of several level setups, each one carrying the elevation forward to the
next foresight using the differential-leveling method. Figure 5-2 shows a short level route
and illustrates the typical format used in the field for differential level notes.
Differential Leveling Procedure
1. Designate the initial or reference point of the level route as BM 1 and the final or
terminal point as BM-2.
2. Set up and level the instrument at a convenient location along the general designated
route between the two points.
3. Take and record a backsight on BM-1.
4. Direct the rodman to move forward along the level route (not necessarily in a straight
line between BM-1 and the next point) and establish TP-1.
5. Take and record a foresight in TP-1.
6. Transfer and set up the level at another suitable location beyond TP-1 and take and
record a backsight on TP-1.
7. Direct the rodman to move a convenient distance ahead of the instrument and
establish TP-2.
8. Take and record a foresight on TP-2.
9. Repeat the procedure until a foresight is finally taken on BM-2.
10. Refer to the accompanying sample tabulation for the recording of observed field data.
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Profile Leveling
Profile Leveling
Profile leveling is a method of surveying that has been carried out along the central line of a
track of land on which a linear engineering work is to be constructed/ laid. The operations
involved in determining the elevation of ground surface at small spatial interval along a line
is called profile leveling.
Stations
The line along which the profile is to be run is to be marked on the ground before taking any
observation. Stakes are usually set at some regular interval which depends on the
topography, accuracy required, nature of work, scale of plotting etc. It is usually taken to be
20 meters. The beginning station of profile leveling is termed as 0+000. Points at multiples
of 1000m from this point are termed as full stations. Intermediate points are designated as
pluses.
Figure 6-1. Profile Leveling (10m station)
In carrying out profile leveling, a level is placed at a convenient location (say I1) not
necessarily along the line of observation. The instrument is to be positioned in such a way
that first backsight can be taken clearly on a B.M. Then, observations are taken at regular
intervals (say at 1, 2, 3, 4) along the central line and foresight to a properly selected turning
point (say TP1). The instrument is then re-positioned to some other convenient location
(say I2). After proper adjustment of the instrument, observations are started from TP1 and
then at regular intervals (say at 5, 6 etc.) terminating at another turning point, say TP2. Staff
readings are also taken at salient points where marked changes in slope occur, such as that
at X. The distance as well as direction of lines are also measured.
Profile Leveling Procedure
1. Profile Leveling
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a. Establish stakes at every full station along the center line of a 500-m long proposed
roadway at intervals of 100 meters.
b. Set up and level the instrument in some convenient location on one side of the
proposed roadway.
c. Take and record a backsight on a rod held on a nearby bench mark to determine the
height of instrument.
d. Take and record intermediate foresights from as many center line points up to within
practical limits of sighting.
e. When the rod has been advanced to a point beyond which further readings to ground
points cannot be observed, establish a turning point, and take a foresight on it to
determine its elevation.
f. Transfer and set up the instrument in another farther position and take a backsight on
the turning point just established. Then continue taking rod readings on ground points
as before until the end of the roadway is reached.
g. Tabulate observed and computed values accordingly. Refer to the accompanying
sample format for the tabulation of field data.
2. Plotting the Profile
a. Plot the observed and computed data (stationings and elevations of full and plus
stations) on a special paper having horizontal and vertical lines printed on it to
represent distances both horizontally and vertically.
b. Use a scale of 1:1000 for plotting the horizontal distances and 1:100 for the vertical
distances.
c. Connect the plotted elevations for the profile by a smooth curved line drawn freehand.
d. Label the plot of the profile accordingly. The stationings, elevations, and horizontal and
vertical scales must be indicated.
Curvature and Refraction in Levelling
For long sights and accurate levelling work, the effects of curvature of the earth and
refraction of the line of sight shall have to be taken into consideration. Due to curvature, the
points appear to be lower than they are; while due to refraction, they appear to be higher
than they actually are. The effect of curvature being greater than that of refraction, the
combined effect causes the points to appear to be lower than they are.
Curvature
Earth has a curved face which is assumed to be a level surface, but the line of sight as
furnished by the levelling instrument is horizontal and not the level line. Therefore, all
points on the line of sight are not equidistant from the surface of the earth and consequently
the points read on the staff are not strictly at the same level as horizontal hair of the diagram.
The level line falls away from the horizontal line of sight and the vertical distance between
the horizontal line and the level line denotes the effect of curvature of the earth.
In Fig., 7.24. A’ is the instrument station and P the point where the staff is held. On looking
through the telescope, we sight along AB, the horizontal line of sight, and take the staff reading
PB. The point B is considered to be at the same level as A, but actually the points C and A are
at the same level. The true reading is, therefore, PC.
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The difference BC between the observed and true staff readings denotes the error due to
curvature of the earth, which may be determined as follows:
In fig 7.25,
• D= the length of the sight or the distance from the instruments to the staff station in
kilometers
• BC= he error due to curvature.
• O= the center of the earth.
• R= the radius of the earth.
By Geometry, BC x BE =BA2
Or BC (BC= CE) = BC2
Or BC2 +BC x CE=BA2
Since BC is usually very small as compared with the diameter of the earth and its square will still
be much smaller and may therefore be neglected in calculation:
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taxing diameter of the earth as 12,742

kilometers, we get:
Hence the error in staff reading due to curvature of the earth = 0.0785 D2 meters, where D
is the distance from the level to the staff in kilometers. The effect of curvature is to increase
the staff reading i.e., this error is positive and so the correction is negative.
True staff reading = observed staff reading – 0.0785 D2
Refraction
It is a well-established law of physics that rays of light passing through layers of different
densities do not remain straight but are refracted or bent down towards the denser
medium. Consequently, the ray of light from the staff to the instrument is not straight as AB
in fig. 7.26 but it follows a curved path AD concave towards the earth as the near the surface
of the earth is denser than the upper layers of air.
Under normal atmospheric conditions, arc AD may be taken as circular and of radius seven
times that of the earth. The effect of refraction is therefore 1/7th7 the of that of the
curvature but is of opposite nature. Hence the correction for refraction is additive to the
staff reading.
The error due to refraction:
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Combined Correction due to Curvature and Refraction:

Since the effect of curvature is to increase the staff readings and that of refraction is to
decrease them and also the effect of curvature is greater than that of refraction, the combined
effect is therefore, to increase the staff readings, hence the combined correction is subtractive.
The combined error due to curvature and refraction:
And true staff reading = observed staff reading -0.0673 D2
Self-Help
Center
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Let’s Check
1. In the two-peg test of a dumpy level the following observations were taken: with level
setup near A, observed readings are a=1.855 m and b=1.434 m; with level setup near B,
c=1.790 m and d=2.211 m. Determine the correct reading on the rod held at A with the
instrument still in the same position at B for a horizontal line of sight.
2. The two-peg test is used to determine if the line of sight of the telescope is parallel to
the axis of the bubble tube. A tilting level is set up halfway between points A and B and
rod readings on both points are 1.969 m and 2.161 m, respectively. The level is then set
up 3.50 m away from A along the extension of line AB and 53.50 from B. Then rod
readings on A and B were recorded as 1.554 m and 1.728 m, respectively. Determine if
the line of sight is inclined downward or upward and the amount by which the
horizontal cross hair should be moved to adjust the line of sight.
3. A dumpy kevel is set up and leveled approximately halfway between two points, C and
D. The elevation of point C is 135.00 m above mean sea level and the reading on a rod
held at this point is 1.52 m. If the reading on the road held at point D is 2.74 m, determine
the difference in elevation between the two points. Also, determine the elevation of
point D.
4. The backsight reading on a point is 2.25 m and the foresight reading on a second point
is 0.86 m. If the elevation of the first point is 460.96 m, determine the elevation of the
second point.
5. Readings on a rod held at two points and B, 75 m apart, are 2.965 m and 1.295 m,
respectively. Determine the rod reading at points on line AB which are 25 m and 45 m
from A. Assume that there is a uniform gradient along line AB.
Let’s Analyze
1. Complete the differential level notes shown below and perform the customary
arithmetic check.
STA BS HI FS ELEVATION
BM 10 2.085
TP 1 2.015 0.982
TP 2 1.864 1.428
TP 3 0.579 1.527
BM 11 0.423 2.423
TP 4 1.446 1.807
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TP 5 1.778 1.725
TP 6 2.051 2.339
TP 7 2.920 1.005
BM 12 3.186 2.358
TP 8 2.805 0.995
TP 9 0.774 1.206
BM 13 0.603
2. In running a line of differential levels from BM1 to BM2, the following rod readings were
taken in the order given: 2.40, 1.30, 1.43, 0.98, 1.25, 0.87, 1.85, 1.05, 2.94, 2.08, 1.69,
2.50, 1.61, 2.71, 0.75, and 2.11 meters. If the elevation of BM1 is 445.25 m, complete the
level notes and show the customary check on the computations.
3. Prepare and complete the differential level notes for the information shown in the
accompanying illustration. Include the customary arithmetic check.
4. The accompanying
schematic arrangement of lines portray a differential level route. The values indicated
represent backsight and foresight readings taken at different points as labeled. Prepare
and complete level notes for the information shown and perform the customary
arithmetic check.
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5. Set up and complete the level notes for a double rodded line from BM 45 to BM 46. In
the following rod readings H refers to stations along the high route and L to stations
along the low route; BS on BM45 = 2.238, FS on TP1(H) = 0.703, FS on TP1(L) = 1.252,
BS on TP1(H) = 2.855, BS on TP1(L) = 3.402, FS on TP2(H) = 1.173, FS on TP2(L) = 1.558,
BS on TP2(H) = 2.542, BS on TP2(L) = 2.932, FS on TP3(H) = 1.339, FS on TP3(L) = 1.660,
BS on TP3(H) = 2.390, BS on TP3(L) = 2.711, and FS on BM46 = 1.015 meters. Assume
that the elevation of BM45 is 524.550 m. Perform the customary arithmetic check.
6. Determine the distance from station 4 + 38.85 to the following stations: 8 + 68.42, 16 +
50.56, 2 + 73.05, 0 + 69.08, and 36 + 10.14.
7. Complete the following set of profile level notes and show the customary arithmetic
check.
STA BS HI FS IFS ELEV

BM-a 1.24 234.51 m
TP-1 1.11 3.40
1+00 4.6
+25 2.8
+50 3.6
+75 2.4
TP-2 3.21 2.46
2+00 1.2
+25 3.2
+50 2.8
TP-3 3.06 2.74
BM-b 2.40
8. Reciprocal leveling between points A and B, located on opposite banks of a wide river
gives the following readings in meters. From the first setup near A: on A, 0.993; on B,
2.076, 2.077, and 2.078. For the set-up near B the readings are: on B, 2.549; on A. 1.463,
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1.462, and 1.463. If the elevation of A is 925.28 meters determine the true difference in
elevation between the two points and the elevation of B.
In a Nutshell
1. Determine the combined effect of curvature and refraction on level sights of 30, 50, 100,
250, 300, 500, 1000, and 2000 m.
2. A backsight of 3.055 m is taken on a point 75 m from a level station and a foresight of

1.258 m from the same station. Determine the difference in elevation between the two
points, taking into account the combined effect of curvature and refraction.
3. Determine the backsight or foresight distance for an instrument set up which will cause
an error due to earth’s curvature and atmosphere’s refraction equal to 0.0015 m, 0.0575
m, 0.0986 m, 0.2935 m, and 0.8750 m.
4. An observer standing on shore can just see the top of a lighthouse 16.5 km away. If the
eye height of the observer above sea level is 1.735 m, determine the height of the
lighthouse above sea level. Neglect the effect of the waves.
5. Determine how far (in km) out from shore an inter-island vessel will be when a red light
on its deck, 9.45 m above the water, disappears from the sight of a child standing on
shore and whose eye level is 1.32 m above the water.
6. By taking a sight across lake 24 km wide through a pair of binoculars, determine the
height of the shortest tree on the opposite shore whose tip the observer can see. Assume
that the eyes of the observer are 1.675 m above the shoreline on which he stands.
7. Two towers, A and B are located on level ground and their bases have equal elevations
above sea level. Determine the distance between the two towers if a person standing on
top of tower A can just see the top of tower B. His eyes are 15.50 m above the ground.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a. Analyze and calculate the tachymetry surveys.
Metalanguage
The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of this
section in the course.
1. Stadia. a surveying method for determination of distances and differences of elevation by
means of a telescopic instrument having two horizontal lines through which the marks on a
graduated rod are observed
2. Error. are the difference between a measured value and its true value.
3. Inclined Distance. steeply towards the ridge in the distance.
Essential Knowledge
Tacheometer is used where chaining is difficult such as river, valley, broken boundaries, stiff slope,
undulations. It is used in the preparation of contour maps, in which horizontal & vertical distances
are required to be measured. It is used for the survey road, railway.
MEASUREMENT BY STADIA FOR HORIZONTAL DISTANCE
Tachymetry (or tacheometry) is another procedure of obtaining horizontal distance. It is

based on the optical geometry of the instruments employed and is an indirect method of
measurement. A transit or a theodolite is used to determine subtended intervals and
angles on a graduated rod or scale from which distances are computed by trigonometry.
Tachymetric measurements are performed either by the stadia method. The stadia
method provides a rapid means of determining horizontal distances. It was introduced in
1771 by James Watt of Scotland and was at that time referred to as a micrometer for
measuring distances. The precision of the stadia method depends upon the following
factors: the refinement with which the instrument was manufactures, the skill of the
observer, the length of measurement, and the effects of refraction and parallax. Horizontal
distances determine by this method will yield a relative precision of only between 1/300
and 1/1000. This, apparently, does not conform to the usual precision required in running
lines for most engineering surveys. Because of its low precision, it is mostly used in
topographic or reconnaissance surveys. It is also employed for checking measurements
obtained by more precise methods.
The equipment for stadia measurements consists of a telescope with two horizontal hairs
called stadia hairs and a graduated rod called a stadia rod. The telescopes of most
surveying instruments are equipped with stadia hairs which are placed in equal distances
on either side of the horizontal cross hair. The spacing of the stadia hairs is so designed
that at a distance of 100 meters their intercept on a vertical rod will be about 1 meter. At
200 meters, then, the intercept should be about 2 meters, and so on. It is important that
the line of sight is horizontal and it intersects the rod at right angles.
The process of taking a stadia measurement consists in observing through the telescope
the apparent locations of the two stadia hairs on a vertically held rod. From the observed
interval read on the rod, the distance from the telescope to the rod is found by
proportional relationships in similar triangles. The equation D = Ks + C is employed in
computing horizontal distances from stadia intervals then sights are horizontal. The stadia
constant C is the distance from the center of the instrument to the principal focus. Its value
is usually equal to zero for internal focusing telescopes. K is the stadia interval factor of
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the instrument. Most instruments are so designed that this value is made equal to 100. The
stadia interval, s, is determined in the field by observing the difference between the upper
stadia hair reading and the lower stadia hair reading.
Example: A stadia rod held at a distant point B is sighted by an instrument set up at A. The
upper and lower stadia hair readings were observed as 1.300m and 0.900m, respectively.
If the stadia interval factor (K) is 100, and the instrument constant (C) is zero, determine
the length of line AB.
D = Ks + C
D = (100)(1.300-0.900) +0.00
D = 40.0 m (Length of line AB)
MEASUREMENT BY STADIA FOR INCLINED DISTANCE
Based on the figure, the formula for slope distance, (S) is S = Kscosα + C
Then, the horizontal distance H = Scosα, while the vertical distance V = Ssin α
Example: Din kuhaa kog example sa bayugo. Wala koy makuha sa net
SOURCES OF ERROR IN STADIA WORK
The sources of errors in surveying measurements are classified under the following three
groups.
1. Instrumental Errors – These errors are due to imperfections in the instruments
used, either from faults in their construction or from improper adjustments between
the different parts prior to their use. Surveying instruments jut like any other
instrument, are never perfect; proper corrections and field methods are applied to
bring the measurements within certain allowable limits of precision. Moreover, with
time and continuous usage, the wear and tear of the instrument will likely be a cause
for errors. Examples of instrumental errors are:
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a. Measuring with a steel tape of incorrect length.

b. Using a leveling rod with painted graduations not perfectly spaced.
c. Determining the difference in elevation between two points with an instrument
whose line of sight is not in adjustment.
d. Sighting on a rod which is warped.
e. Improper adjustment of the plate bubbles of transit or level.
2. Natural Errors – These errors are caused by variations in the phenomena of nature
such as changes in magnetic declination, temperature, humidity, wind, refraction,
gravity, and curvature of the earth. Natural errors are beyond the control of man.
However, in order to keep the resulting errors within allowable limits, necessary
precautions can be taken. Methods can also be adopted to suit prevailing conditions.
The surveyor may not be able to totally remove the cause of such errors but he can
minimize their effects by making proper corrections of the results and using good
judgment. Common examples are:
a. The effect of temperature variation on the length of the steel tape.
b. Error in the readings of the magnetic needle due to variations in magnetic
declination.
c. Deflection of the line of sight due to the effect of the earth’s curvature and
atmospheric refraction.
d. Error in the measurement of a line with a tape being blown sidewise by a strong
wind.
e. Error in the measurement of a horizontal distance due to slope or uneven ground.
3. Personal Errors – These errors arise principally from limitations of the senses of
sight, touch and hearing of the human observer which are likely to be erroneous or
inaccurate. This type of fallibility differs from one individual to another and may vary
due to certain circumstances existing during a measurement. Some personal errors
are constant, some are compensation, while others may be erratic. Personal errors
are significantly reduced or eliminated as skills are developed in surveying
operations through constant practice and experience. Errors of this type are also
eliminated by employing appropriate checking of procedures in the taking and
recording of measurements. Typical of these errors are:
a. Error in determining a reading on a rod which is out of plumb during sighting.
b. Error in the measurement of a vertical angle when the cross hairs of the telescope
are not positioned correctly on the target.
c. Making an erroneous estimate of the required pull to be applied on a steel tape
during measurement.
TRIANGULATION AND TRILATERALIZATION
Triangulation is a surveying method that measures the angles in a triangle formed by three survey
control points. Using trigonometry and the measured length of just one side, the other distances in
the triangle are calculated. The shape of the triangles is important as there is a lot of inaccuracy in
a long skinny triangle, but one with base angles of about 45 degrees is ideal.
Each of the calculated distances is then used as one side in another triangle to calculate the
distances to another point, which in turn can start another triangle. This is done as often as
necessary to form a chain of triangles connecting the origin point to the Survey Control in the place
needed. The angles and distances are then used with the initial known position, and complex
formulae, to calculate the position (Latitude and Longitude) of all other points in the triangulation
network.
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The distances in a triangle could then be measured directly instead of calculating them from the
observed angles. If needed the angles could be calculated. The process of calculating positions
through the chain of triangles is then the same as for triangulation.
Example: Wala koy makit an sa net din
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b. Analyze and calculate the measurement of directions
and angles.
Metalanguage
1. Bearing. is defined as the acute angle that is measured between the reference meridian and
the given line.
2. Azimuth. as a horizontal angle measured clockwise from a reference meridian.
3. Magnetic Declination. is the angle on the horizontal plane between magnetic north (the
direction the north end of a magnetized compass needle points, corresponding to the direction
of the Earth's magnetic field lines).
Essential Knowledge
Azimuths and bearings are horizontal angles measured to represent or locate a line with respect to
a meridian. It is a determination of a direction with the use of a compass. They are used
advantageously in boundary, topographic, control, and other kinds of surveys, as well as in
computations.
BEARINGS
Bearing is described either from the South or the North (which does not necessarily mean True
North, as it could be North-based on the observer’s perspective or meridian), and the angle is
described either going East or West.
AZIMUTHS
The word azimuth came from a word of Arabic origins, ‘as-sumut’, which is the plural of ‘as-samt’.
It means – ‘the way or direction’. hen one refers to azimuth, it is a determination of a direction with
the use of a compass. The reference is North, which is 0 or 360 degrees. The compass user’s
direction is then measured in degrees, clockwise from zero or North. So, in effect, East is
considered as 90 degrees, 180 degrees for South, and 270 degrees for West. It is essentially an
angular measurement from a horizontal reference. It is a part of the angular coordinate system
used for locating a point in the sky. Typically, azimuth uses True North as the reference, but may
sometimes use the North base line (meridian) for land navigation.
Example:
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- The 45° azimuth is equivalent to N 45° E bearing.

- The 90° azimuth is equivalent to E bearing.
- The 135° azimuth is equivalent to S 45° E bearing.
- The 315° azimuth is equivalent to N 45° W bearing.
MAGNETIC DECLINATION
At most places on the Earth's surface, the compass doesn't point exactly toward geographic north.
The deviation of the compass from true north is an angle called "declination" (or "magnetic
declination"). It is a quantity that has been a nuisance to navigators for centuries, especially since
it varies with both geographic location and time.
Declination is simply a manifestation of the complexity of the geomagnetic field. The field is not
perfectly symmetrical; it has non-dipolar "ingredients," and the dipole itself is not perfectly aligned
with the rotational axis of the Earth. If you were to stand at the north geomagnetic pole, your
compass, held horizontally as usual, would not have a preference to point in any particular
direction, and the same would be true if you were standing at the south geomagnetic pole. If you
were to hold your compass on its side, the north-pointing end of the compass would point down at
the north geomagnetic pole, and it would point up at the south geomagnetic pole.
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Example: The magnetic declination in a locality is 2°30’ E. Determine the true bearing and true
azimuths reckoned from north and south of the following lines whose magnetic bearings are given.
a. AB, N 25°40’E
b. AC, S 50° 12’ E
c. AD, S 62° 18’ W
Solution:
a. Determining True Bearing and True Azimuth of Line AB.
b. Determining True Bearing and True Azimuth of Line AC.
c. Determining True Bearing and True Azimuth of Line AD.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2c. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding on

introduction of surveying its terminologies and concepts, this includes history and
types of instruments.
Metalanguage
4. Traverse – it is that type of survey in which a number of connected survey lines form the
framework and the directions and lengths of the survey lines are measured with the help
of an angle measuring instrument and tape or chain respectively.
5. Azimuth – the direction of a celestial object from the observer, expressed as the angular
distance from the north or south point of the horizon to the point at which a vertical circle
passing through the object intersects the horizon.
6. Interior angles - the inner of the two angles formed where two sides of a polygon come
together.
7. Exterior angles - is the angle between any side of a shape, and a line extended from the
next side. interior exterior angles.
8. Deflection angles - is the angle between the onward extension of the previous leg and the
line ahead.
9. Latitudes - is the measurement of distance north or south of the Equator. It is measured
with 180 imaginary lines that form circles around the Earth east-west, parallel to the
Equator. These lines are known as parallels.
10. Longitudes - is the measurement east or west of the prime meridian. Longitude is
measured by imaginary lines that run around the Earth vertically (up and down) and meet
at the North and South Poles. These lines are known as meridians.
11. Contour - In the property world, a contour is an outline of a mass of land. A contour or
detailed survey is done by a surveyor and required before you can start on the design of
your buildings.
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12. Linear Error of Closure - A short line of unknown length and direction connecting the initial
and final station of the traverse. It is approximately determined by plotting the traverse to
scale, or more exactly by computing hypotenuse of a right triangle whose side are the
closure in latitudes and closure in departures respectively.
Essential Knowledge
Interior angle traverse
The field operations in the interior angle method of traversing consist of occupation of the
successive stations and a transit or theodolite is being used to measure horizontal angle. At each
station the vernier is set at zero, and a backsight to the preceding station is taken. The instrument is
then turned on its upper motion until the advance station is sighted and the interior angle is
observed. All interior angles is generally observed twice, once with telescope direct and other with
the telescope reversed. Immediately after completion of observation, an arithmetical check on the
angular error of closure should be performed to detect any blunder or excessively large error in
angular measurement.
Figure 3c 1: Closed-loop traverse with observed interior angles
Figure 3c 1 shows an interior-angle closed traverse that originates at point A lying on the line
PQ having a known azimuth of 42° 00' 00" as determined from a previous survey. In this traverse,
point A was occupied first and an angle was observed between line PQ and traverse line AB. The
angle is observed to be 18° 00' 00". After the interior angle at A was observed, points B, C, D and E
were occupied and interior angles was observed by method of repetition (at least twice) at each
traverse station. Directions for the traverse sides are reckoned using the angle QAB turned from the
line of known azimuth PQ to line AB. Thus, the azimuth of line AB is 42° 00' 00" + 18° 00' 00"= 62°
00' 00".
To check the angular closure, azimuths are calculated from previously known azimuth of a
line. The azimuth of each succeeding traverse line is computed by adding the clockwise interior
angle or subtracting the anti-clockwise interior angle to the back azimuth of the preceding line. Thus,
W.C.B. of a traverse line = Back W.C.B. of the preceding line ± included angle
where + for clockwise interior angle and - for anti-clockwise interior angle. Further, 360° needs to
be subtracted from computed W.C.B., if it is more than 360° and to be added, if the computed value
is negative.
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In this method also there are two ways for finding the error of closure in a traverse observation.
These are
• Azimuth adjustment method

• Interior angle adjustment method
In azimuth adjustment method, the computed azimuth of the starting side is checked with its
priori observed value. If both the values agrees, there is no error in the measurements for traverse.
Otherwise there is error in measurement. To remove the error, a correction equal in magnitude but
opposite in nature to the error of closure is distributed to the computed azimuth to find corrected
azimuth.
In interior angle adjustment method, the algebraic sum of the interior angles is being
computed and needs to be (2n - 4) X 90° where n is the number of sides in the traverse. If there is
no difference, no error is associated with the observation. Otherwise there is an error in observation
of interior angles. The amount of error is distributed equally among all the interior angles to find
their corrected values. Then, azimuth of the line are computed using the adjusted interior angles.
In any case, the sum of the interior angles of a traverse should not deviate from (2n - 4) X 90°
by more than the square root of the number of instrument setups times the estimated standard
deviation in observing the angles. In practice, this estimated standard deviation in angular
measurement is usually taken equal to 0.5 to 1.0 times the least count of the instrument used in
measuring the angles. If the misclosure is within the permissible limit, it is to be adjusted. However,
if it is large, the error should be located and corrected before leaving the field. If necessary the whole
work should be repeated.
In the closed loop traverse, although the calculated azimuths are internally consistent, the
absolute orientation is based entirely on one angle observed between the known azimuth line and
the side of a traverse. This is a weakness in close loop method of traversing. To eliminate the
weakness, another angle should be observed from some other traverse point to another
independent line of known azimuth.
Deflection angle traverse
In this method of traverse surveying, successive stations are occupied and deflection angles
are measured by a transit or theodolite. At each station, a backsight is taken to the previous station
with vernier A set at zero. The telescope is then reversed by plunging it. A foresight to the next
station is then taken by turning the instrument about the vertical axis on its upper motion, and the
deflection angle is observed. The angle is recorded as right R or left L, according to whether the
upper motion is turned clockwise or counter clockwise. Usually, deflection angles are observed
twice, once with the telescope in face left and the other in face right condition. Immediately after
completion of traverse observation, an arithmetical check on the angular error of closure should be
performed to detect any blunder or excessively large error in angular measurement.
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Figure 3c 2: (a) Azimuth with deflection angle to the left; (b) Azimuth with deflection angle to the
right
To check the angular closure, azimuths are calculated from previously known azimuth of a
line. The unknown azimuth of a line is computed by adding the right deflection angle and subtracting
the left deflection angle with the forward azimuth of the previous line. Thus,
W.C.B. of a traverse line = Forward W.C.B. of the preceding line ± deflection angle.
360° needs to be subtracted from computed W.C.B., if it is more than 360° and to be added, if the
computed value is negative. Figure 3c 2 illustrates the computations of azimuth using deflection
angles to the left and right.
The error of closure in a traverse observation can be determined by two ways. These are
either based on the computed azimuth or on the observed deflection angles.
In the azimuth adjustment method, the computed azimuth of the closing line is compared with its
previously observed value. If both the values agrees each other, there is no error of closure
otherwise it exist. To remove the error, a correction equal in magnitude but opposite in nature to
the error of closure is to be distributed among the observed deflection angles.
In the deflection angle adjustment method, the algebraic sum of the deflection angles is being
computed taking the right deflection angles as positive and left deflection angles as negative. The
general relation to compute the error of closure by this method is as follows:
Forward azimuth of the first side of traverse (at first station) + SR - SL = Forward azimuth of the last side of the
traverse (at terminating station) + 360°
where SR is the sum of the right deflection angles and SL is the sum of the left deflection angles. If
the computed value differs from the previously observed values, an error of closure exists in the
measurements of traverse. To find adjusted azimuth of the sides of the traverse, first the deflection
angles get adjusted by applying correction equal to the amount of error of closure and then adjusted
azimuths are computed.
Latitudes and Departures
➢ The closure of a traverse is checked by computing the latitudes and departures of each of it sides
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➢ The latitude of a line is its projection on the north–south meridian
➢ The departure of a line is its projection on the

east– west line
➢ A northeasterly bearing has: + latitude and
+ departure
Error of Closure
➢ Consider the following statement:

“If start at one corner of a closed traverse and walk its lines until you return to your starting
point, you will have walked as far north as you walked south and as far east as you have walked
west”
➢ Therefore  latitudes = 0 and  departures = 0
➢ When latitudes are added together, the resulting error is called the error in latitudes (EL)
➢ The error resulting from adding departures together is called the error in departures (ED)
➢ If the measured bearings and distances are plotted on a sheet of paper, the figure will not close
because of EL and ED
Latitudes and Departures - Examples

No. 1
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No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
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Balancing Latitudes and Departures
A popular method for balancing errors is called the compass or the Bowditch rule
The “Bowditch rule” as devised by Nathaniel Bowditch, surveyor,

navigator and mathematician, as a proposed solution to the problem of
compass traverse adjustment, which was posed in the American journal
The Analyst in 1807.
The correction to be applied in the latitude or departure of any

course is proportional to the ratio of the distance or length of the course to the length of the traverse.
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝐴𝐵
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝐴𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝐴𝑇𝐴𝐵 − × 𝑒𝐿𝐴𝑇
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝐴𝐵
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝐸𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐸𝑃𝐴𝐵 − × 𝑒𝐷𝐸𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
The Transit Rule, the correction to be applied in the latitude or departure of any course is
proportional to the ratio of the latitude or departure of the course to the arithmetic sum of all the
latitudes or departures in the traverse without regards to the sign.
|𝐿𝐴𝑇𝐴𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐿𝐴𝑇𝐴𝐵 = 𝐿𝐴𝑇𝐴𝐵 − × 𝑒𝐿𝐴𝑇
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐿𝐴𝑇
|𝐷𝐸𝑃𝐴𝐵|
𝐶𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝐷𝐸𝑃𝐴𝐵 = 𝐷𝐸𝑃𝐴𝐵 − × 𝑒𝐷𝐸𝑃
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐷𝐸𝑃
Methods in obtaining the area for a closed traverse
DOUBLE MERIDIAN DISTANCE (DMD) METHOD
The following three rules provide a means of computing the DMD for each course of a traverse:
RULE 1: The DMD of the first course is equal to the departure of the course.
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RULE 2: The DMD of any other course is equal to the DMD of the preceding course, plus the
departure of the preceding course, plus the departure of the course itself.
Rule 3: The DMD of the last course is numerically equal to the departure of that course, but
with the opposite sign.
1
Double Area (DA) = DMD x Adjusted Latitude, 𝐴 = 2 ∑ 𝐷𝐴
DOUBLE PARALLEL DISTANCE (DPD) METHOD
The following three rules provide a means of computing the DPD for each course of a traverse:
RULE 1: The DPD of the course is equal to the latitude of the course.
RULE 2: The DPD of any other course is equal to the DPD of the preceding course, plus the
latitude of the preceding course, plus the latitude of the course itself.
RULE 3: The DPD of the last course is numerically equal to the latitude of that course but with
the opposite sign.
1
Double Area (DA) = DPD x Adjusted Departure, 𝐴 = 2 ∑ 𝐷𝐴
Example:
Line Adjusted Latitude Adjusted Departure

(+N) (-S) (+E) (-W)
AB 490.71 47.27
BC 587.12 608.89
CD 327.41 786.78
DE 1002.76 218.32
EF 122.67 1116.62
FA 375.01 544.64
SUM 1452.64 -1452.84 1661.26 -1661.26
Computation of DMD (Refer to the rules of the computing DMD)
DMD ab = 47.27
DMD bc = 47.27 + 47.27 + 608.89 = 703.43
DMD cd = 703.43 + 608.89 + 786.78 = 2099.10
DMD de = 2099.10 + 786.78 + 218.32 = 3104.20
DMS ef = 3104 + 218.32 -1116.62 = 2205.90
DMD fa = 2205.90 – 1116.62 -544.64 = 544.64
Computation of double areas DOUBLE AREA = DMD X Adj Lat.
DA ab = 47.27 x 490.71 = 23 195.86

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DA bc = 703.43 x 587.12 = 412997.82
DA cd = 2099.10 x (-327.41) = -687266.33
DA de = 4104.20 x (-1002.76) = -3112767.59
DA ef = 2205.90 x (-122.67) = -270597.75
DA fa = 544.64 x 375.01 = 204245.45
∑DA = -3430192.54
THEREFORE:
2 X AREA = -3430192.54
AREA = -1715096.27 SQ M(negative sign is disregarded)
Computation of DPD’s (Refer to rules for computing DPD)
DPD ab = 490.71
DPD bc = 490.71 + 490.71 + 587.12 = 1568.54
DPD cd = 15668.54 + 587.12 -327.41 = 1828.25
DPD de = 1828.25 – 327.41 -1002.76 = 498.08
DPD ef = 498.08 -1002.72-122.67 = -627.35
DPD fa = -627.35 – 122.67 + 375.01 = -375.01
Computation of Double Areas (DOUBLE AREA = DPD X ADJ. LATITUDE)
DA ab = 490.71 x 47.27 = 2395.86
DA bc = 1568.54 x 608.89 = 955068.32
DA cd = 1828.25 x 786.78 = 1438430.54
DA de = 498.08 x 218.32 = 108740.83
DA ef = 627.35 x (-1116.62) = 700511.56
DA fa = 375.01 x (-544.64) = 204245.45
∑DA = 3430192.56
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THEREFORE:
2 X AREA = 3430192.56
AREA = 1715096.28 SQ.M.
Topographic Survey
Contour is an Imaginary line on the ground surface joining the points of equal elevation is
known as contour. In other words, Contour is a line in which the ground surface is intersected by a
level surface obtained by joining points of equal elevation. This line on the map represents a contour
and is called Contour line. A map showing Contour Lines is known as Contour Map. The process of
tracing contour lines on the surface of the earth is called Contouring.
Purposes of Contouring
Contour survey is carried out at the starting of any engineering project such as a road, a railway, a
canal, a dam, a building etc.
1. For preparing contour maps in order to select the most economical or suitable site.
2. To locate the alignment of a canal so that it should follow a ridge line.
3. To mark the alignment of roads and railways so that the quantity of earthwork both in cutting
and filling should be minimum.
4. For getting information about the ground whether it is flat, undulating or mountainous.
5. To locate the physical features of the ground such as a pond depression, hill, steep or small
slopes.
Contour Interval & Horizontal Equivalent
Contour Interval: The constant vertical distance between two consecutive contours is called the
contour interval.
Horizontal Equivalent: The horizontal distance between any two adjacent contours is called as
horizontal equivalent.
The contour interval is constant between the consecutive contours while the horizontal equivalent
is variable and depends upon the slope of the ground.
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Characteristics of Contours
1. All points in a contour line have the same elevation.

2. Flat ground is indicated where the contours are widely
separated and steep-slope where they run close together.
3. A uniform slope is indicated when the contour lines are
uniformly spaced and
4. A plane surface when they are straight, parallel and
equally spaced.
5. A series of closed contour lines on the map represent a
hill , if the higher values are inside.
6. A series of closed contour lines on the map indicate a
depression if the higher values are outside
7. Contour line cross ridge or valley line

at right angles.
If the higher values are inside the bend or
loop in the contour, it indicates a Ridge.
If the higher values are outside the bend,
it represents a Valley.
8. Contour lines cannot merge or cross

one another on map except in the case of
an overhanging cliff
9. Contour lines never run into one
another except in the case of a vertical
cliff. In this case, several contours
coincide and the horizontal equivalent
becomes zero.
Hydrographic Surveys
Hydrographic Survey deals with the measurement of the depth and bottom configuration
of bodies of water. Sounding is the procedure used in the measurement of depth of points within a
body of water.
Capacity of lakes or reservoirs

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There are two methods in defining the capacity of lakes or reservoirs.

1. Contour Method
2. Cross-section Method
Contour Method
• This method in estimating the capacity of lakes or reservoirs uses subaqueous contours that
are obtained running transverse surveys and soundings along the waterline or shoreline. The
area bounded by each contour is then defined using a planimeter. The volume is then obtained
using either End Area Method or Prismoidal Formula.
Cross – Section Method
• A method that is relatively less precise than the contour method. The waterline/shoreline is
surveyed, same as in contour method, then a line across the body of water will be taken. Cross
sections, perpendicular to the line and usually at equal intervals, are then defined using a
series of sounding procedures. The volume is then approximated using either End Area
Method or Prismoidal Formula.
Volume Using End-Area Method

𝑳
𝑽 = (𝑨 + 𝑨 )
𝑬 𝟐 𝟏 𝟐
Volume Using Prismoidal Formula

𝑳
𝑽 = (𝑨 + 𝟒𝑨𝒎 + 𝑨 )
𝑷 𝟔 𝟏 𝟐
Self-Help
*La Putt, J.P. (2010) Elementary Surveying (3rd ed.): Baguio Research and Publishing Center
*Kavanagh, B.F. (2006) Surveying: Principles and Applications (7th ed.): New Jersey: Pearson
Prentice Hall
Let’s Check
Answer the following:
Problem 1: Determine the interior angles for each of the four accompanying traverse sketches.
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Problem 2: The following are the measured deflection angles for a closed traverse: 97°05’R,
152°18’R, 96°13’R, 22°15L, and 36°44’R. Determine the error of closure and adjust the measured
angles by assuming that the error is the same for each angle. Tabulate values accordingly.
Let’s Analyze
Answer the following:
Problem 1: Given the tabulated data below for transit-tape surveys, determine the linear error of
closure for each traverse, the direction of the side of error, and the precision of the measurements
made. Tabulate all observed and computed values.
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Problem 2: Given in the accompanying tabulations are the observed and calculated data for two
different transit-tape surveys:
For each set of survey data, determine the linear misclosure, direction of the side of error, and
precision of the survey after the latitudes and departures are balanced by the compass rule. Tabulate
values accordingly and draw to a suitable scale the adjusted traverse.
In a Nutshell
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Problem 1: Given in the accompanying tabulation are the adjusted latitudes and departures for a
property survey. Determine the adjusted length and adjusted bearing of each course. Tabulate all
given and computed values accordingly.
ADJUSTED LATITUDE ADJUSTED DEPARTURE

COURSE
+N -S +E -W
1-2 103.82 117.09
2-3 3.67 176.83
3-4 166.64 20.34
4-5 27.65 224.05
5-1 86.80 90.21
Sums +194.29 -194.29 +314.26 -314.26
(∑ 𝑁𝐿) (∑ 𝑆𝐿) (∑ 𝐸𝐷) (∑ 𝑊𝐷)
Problem 2: Given the following traverse sketches:
Determine the deflection angles for each traverse and tabulate values accordingly.
Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
d. Familiarize the different terminologies and methods used in Route Surveying.

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e. Understand the concept and types of Horizontal Curves and its importance on
roadway safety and design.
f. Be able to analyze, solve, and plot a Simple Curve.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3a. Familiarize the different terminologies and

methods used in Route Surveying.
Metalanguage
4. Surveying. The process of analyzing and recording the characteristics of a land area span to
help design a plan or map for construction.
5. Topography. The arrangement of the natural and artificial physical features of an area.
6. Route Surveying. Analysis of surveying data necessary to determine alignment,
grading, and earthwork quantities for the design and construction of various
engineering projects such as roads, railroads, pipelines, and utilities.
Essential Knowledge
I. INTRODUCTION TO ROUTE SURVEYING
What is Route Surveying?
A Route Survey is defined as being the required service and product that adequately
locates the planned path of a linear project or right of way which crosses a prescribed area
of real estate, extending from at least one known point and turning or terminating at another
known point. Adequate location shall mean substantial compliance with the conditions and
tolerances expressed in this standard.
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A route survey which defines new or proposed boundaries shall be conducted as a

boundary survey and must adhere to the rules and regulations of a country’s professional
land surveying board.
What is makes it unique from other surveying methods?

Unlike any other surveying methods, route surveying is a basically topographic
survey specifically required for the planning of a right of way, the acquisition of fee or
easement property and for eventual construction layout work. The location of the facilities
within the right of way are often held in respect to the center line or a right of way line. A
Route Survey is made on the ground to provide for the location of right of way lines, a
centerline, or reference lines in relation to property lines and terrain features.
Route surveys involve measuring and computing horizontal and vertical angles,
elevations, and horizontal distances. The results of these surveys are used to prepare
detailed plan and profile base maps of proposed roadways. In addition, the elevations
determined in the survey serve as the basis for calculation of construction cut and fill
quantities, and in determining roadway banking.
II. ROUTE SURVEYING TERMINOLOGIES
This section presents a review of basic terminology, concepts, and standard

procedures used in highway surveys. The review begins with some basic definitions.
Highway curves can be either circular arcs or spirals.
Horizontal Curves
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A simple curve is a circular are connecting two straight lines (tangents). A

compound curve consists of two or more circular arcs of different radii tangent to each
other with their centers on the same side of the common tangent. Compound curves where
two circular areas having centers on the same side are connected by a short tangent are
called broken-back curves. A reverse curve is two circular arcs tangent to each other but
with their centers on opposite sides of the common tangent. A curve whose radius decreases
uniformly from infinity to that of the curve it meets is called a spiral curve. Spiral curves
with the proper superelevation (banking) provide safe and smooth riding qualities. Circular
and spiral curves are used for curves in the horizontal plane.
Vertical Curves
Tangents in the vertical plane are joined by parabolic curves (also referred to simply
as vertical curves). Vertical curves are used in highway and street vertical alignment to
provide a gradual change between two adjacent grade lines. Some highway and municipal
agencies introduce vertical curves at every change in grade line slope, whereas other
agencies introduce vertical curves into the alignment only when the net change in slope
direction exceeds a specific value (e.g. 1.5 percent or 2 percent).
III. ROUTE SURVEYING PROCESSES
A route surveying system usually contains four separate but interrelated processes:
• Reconnaissance and planning
• Works design
• Right of way acquisition
• Construction of works
Reconnaissance and planning

Reconnaissance survey is done to examine the general character of the area for the
purpose of determining the most feasible route or routes for further more detailed
investigations.
Data collected from reconnaissance survey is used for feasibility study of all different
routes, preparation of approximate estimates of quantities and costs. This helps in selection
of most suitable alternatives. This survey also helps in determining any deviations required
in the basic geometric standards to be adopted for the highway facility.
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Reconnaissance survey is generally not required for the work consisting of

improvements to existing roads unless bypass roads are involved.
The reconnaissance survey methods may be conducted in the following sequence.
a) Study of topographical survey sheets, agricultural, soil, geological and
meteorological maps and aerial photography.
b) Aerial photography wherever necessary and feasible, and
c) Ground reconnaissance including another round of serial reconnaissance for
inaccessible and difficult stretches, where required.
Works design
An arrangement in the workplace that has the objective of overcoming employee
alienation and job dissatisfaction that comes about from mechanical and repetitive tasks in
the workplace. Work design is used by organizations to boost productivity by offering
employees non- monetary rewards such as satisfaction from a greater sense of personal
achievement. Thus, this is an important factor in whatever scale of route surveying it is.
Right of way acquisition

Right-of-way (ROW) acquisition is the act of taking the land from its original owner
by another party, with legal rights to take the real property, by providing a monetary
compensation for the value of the property (Francis 2009).
Construction of works
It basically sets out that construction work includes building work, civil engineering
or engineering construction work development which includes or is intended to
include construction work. Any works that involve preparation of an area for a building or
structure would be considered as construction work. In the case of route surveying, the
construction of works depends on the goal of the survey. Whether it is to construct a drainage
system or simply a roadway design.
SELF-HELP
You may refer to the scholastic sources below to help you further understand the lesson
Reference/s:
Garber, Nicholas A. (2015). Traffic and highway engineering. 5th Edition., Cengage Learning
Chapter 1
Ghiliani, Charles D. (2016). Elementary surveying: an introduction to geomatics. Boston:

Pearson/Prentice Hall
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Nathanson, Jerry A. (2011). Surveying fundamentals and Practices. Boston: Prentice Hall
LET’S CHECK
From their given natures and definitions, classify the following horizontal curves as to SIMPLE,
COMPOUND, REVERSE, or SPIRAL.
1. _____________________________________ 2. ___________________________________
3. ______________________________________ 4. ___________________________________
5. ________________________________________
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3b. Understand the concept and types of Horizontal
Curves and its importance on roadway safety and design.
Essential Knowledge
When a highway changes horizontal direction, making the point where it changes direction
a point of intersection between two straight lines is not feasible. The change in direction would
be too abrupt for the safety of modern high-speed vehicles. Therefore, it is necessary to interpose
a curve between the straight lines. The straight lines of a road are called tangents because the
lines are tangent to the curves used to change direction.
I. IMPORTANCE OF HORIZONTAL CURVES
On practically all modern highways, the curves are circular curves, or curves that form
circular arcs. The smaller the radius of a circular curve, the sharper the curve. For modern high-
speed highways, the curves must be flat, rather than sharp. That means they must be large-
radius curves.
In highway work, the curves needed for the location or improvement of small secondary
roads may be worked out in the field. Usually, however, the horizontal curves are computed after
the route has been selected, the field surveys have been done, and the survey base line and
necessary topographic features have been plotted. In urban work, the curves of streets are
designed as an integral part of the preliminary and final layouts, which are usually done on a
topographic map. In highway work, the road itself is the end result and the purpose of the design.
But in urban work, the streets and their curves are of secondary importance; the best use of the
building sites is of primary importance.
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The principal consideration in the design of a curve is the selection of the length of the
radius or the degree of curvature. This selection is based on such considerations as the design
speed of the highway and the sight distance as limited by headlights or obstructions. Some typical
radii you may encounter are 12,000 feet or longer on an interstate highway, 1,000 feet on a major
thoroughfare in a city, 500 feet on an industrial access road, and 150 feet on a minor residential
street.
II. TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES
There are four types of horizontal curves. They are described as follows:
1. Simple- The simple curve is an arc of a circle (Figure 3-2, View A). The radius of the circle
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determines the sharpness or flatness of the curve.
2. Compound- Frequently, the terrain will require the use of the compound curve. This curve
normally consists of two simple curves joined together and curving in the
same direction
3. Reverse- A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together, but curving in
opposite direction. For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be avoided
when possible
4. Spiral- The spiral is a curve that has a varying radius. It is used on railroads and most
modern highways. It provides a transition from the tangent to a simple curve or
between simple curves in a compound curve.
III. ELEMENTS OF A HORIZONTAL CURVE

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The elements of a circular curve are shown in the figure above. Each element is
designated and explained as follows:
a. POINT OF INTERSECTION (PI) - The point of intersection is the point where the
back and forward tangents intersect. Sometimes the point of intersection is
designated as V (vertex).
b. INTERSECTING ANGLE (I) - The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the PI.
Its value is either computed from the preliminary traverse angles or measured in
the field.
c. RADIUS (R) The radius is the distance from the center of a circle or curve
represented as an arc, or segment. The radius is always perpendicular to back and
forward tangents.
d. POINT OF CURVATURE (PC) - The point of curvature is the point on the back
tangent where the circular curve begins. It is sometimes designated as BC (beginning
of curve) or TC (tangent to curve).
e. POINT OF TANGENCY (PT) - The point of tangency is the point on the forward
tangent where the curve ends. It is sometimes designated as EC (end of curve) or CT
(curve to tangent).
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f. CENTRAL ANGLE (Δ or θ) - The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn
from the center of the circle (O) to the PC and PT. The value of the central angle is
equal to the I angle. Some authorities call both the intersecting angle and central angle
either I or A.
g. POINT OF CURVE (POC) - The point of curve is any point along the curve.
h. LENGTH OF CURVE (L or Lc) - The length of curve is the distance from the PC to
the PT, measured along the curve.
i. TANGENT DISTANCE (T) - The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents
from the PI to the PC or the PT. These distances are equal on a simple curve.
j. LONG CHORD (LC) - The long chord is the straight-line distance from the PC to the PT.
Other types of chords are designated as follows:
C The full-chord distance between adjacent stations (full, half, quarter, or one-
tenth stations) along a curve
C1 The sub chord distance between the PC and the first station on the curve
C2 The subchord distance between the last station on the curve and the PT
k. EXTERNAL DISTANCE (E) - The external distance (also called the external secant)
is the distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve. The external distance bisects
the interior angle at the PI.
l. MIDDLE ORDINATE (M) - The middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of
the curve to the midpoint of the long chord. The extension of the middle ordinate
bisects the central angle.
m. DEGREE OF CURVE (D) - The degree of curve defines the sharpness or flatness of
the curve.
IV. DEGREE OF CURVATURE
The last of the elements listed above (degree of curve) deserves special attention.
Curvature may be expressed by simply stating the length of the radius of the curve. This was
done earlier in this chapter when typical radii for various roads were cited. Stating the
radius is a common practice in land surveying and in the design of urban roads. For highway
and railway work, however, curvature is expressed by the degree of curve.
Two definitions are used for the degree of curve. These definitions are discussed in the
following sections.
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A. Degree of Curve (Arc Definition)
The arc definition is most frequently used in highway design. This definition,
illustrated in the figure, states that the degree of curve is the central angle formed by two
radii that extend from the center of a circle to the ends of an arc measuring 100 feet long
(or 100 meters long if you are using metric units). Therefore, if you take a sharp curve,
mark off a portion so that the distance along the arc is exactly 100 feet, and determine that
the central angle is 12°, the degree of curvature is 12°. It is referred to as a 12° curve. The
figure illustrates that the ratio between the degree of curvature (D) and 360° is the same
as the ratio between 100 feet of arc and the circumference (C) of a circle having the same
radius.
That may be expressed as follows:
Since the circumference of a circle equals 2πR, the above expression can be written as:
Solving this expression for R:
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and also D:
For a 1° curve, D = 1; therefore R = 5,729.58 feet, or meters, depending upon the

system of units you are using. In practice, the design engineer usually selects the degree of
curvature on the basis of such factors as the design speed and allowable super elevation.
Then the radius is calculated.
B. Degree of Curve (Chord Definition)
The chord definition is used in railway practice and in some highway work. This
definition states that the degree of curve is the central angle formed by two radii drawn
from the center of the circle to the ends of a chord 100 feet (or 100 meters) long. If you
take a flat curve, mark a 100-foot chord, and determine the central angle to be 0°30’, then
you have a 30-minute curve (chord definition).
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From observation of the figure, you can see the following trigonometric relationship:
Then, solving for R:
For a 10 curve (chord definition), D = 1; therefore R = 5,729.65 feet, or

meters, depending upon the system of units you are using.
Notice that in both the arc definition and the chord definition, the radius of
curvature is inversely proportional to the degree of curvature. In other words, the larger
the degree of curve, the shorter the radius; for example, using the arc definition, the radius
of a 1° curve is 5,729.58 units, and the radius of a 5° curve is 1,145.92 units. Under the
chord definition, the radius of a 1° curve is 5,729.65 units, and the radius of a 5° curve is
1,146.28 units.
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SELF-HELP
You may refer to the scholastic sources below to help you further understand the lesson, or
you may click the video links for more understanding of the respective topics in route surveying.
References:
Garber, Nicholas A. (2015). Traffic and highway engineering. 5th Edition., Cengage Learning
Chapter 1

IN A NUTSHELL
What modern tools are used to create route surveys? Site these tools/software and their specific
advantages on designing roadway systems.
MODERN TOOL USE/S ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3c. Be able to analyze, solve, and plot a Simple Curve.
Essential Knowledge
I. A REVIEW ON CURVES
Curves are usually employed in lines of communication in order that the change of
direction at the intersection of the straight line shall be gradual. The lines connected by the
curves are tangential to it and are called as tangents or straights.
The curves are generally circular arcs but parabolic arcs are often used in some
countries for this purpose. Most types of transportation routes such as highways, railroads
and pipelines are connected by curves in both horizontal and vertical planes.
Necessity of Curves
Straight route of road or track is always desirable, since it provides economy in
construction, transportation and maintenance. But when there is change in alignment or
gradient of road or track, then it becomes a need to provide curves under following
circumstances
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1. Excessive cutting and filling can be prevented by providing the change in alignment
by curves.
2. The obstruction which came in the way of straight alignment can be made easier
by providing by pass with the help of curves.
3. In the straight route gradient are made more comfortable and easy providing
diversions with help of curves.
4. In the straight route costly land comes in the way then it can avoided by providing
diversions with the help of curves.
The purpose of the curves is to deflect a vehicle travelling along one of the straights safely
and comfortably through a deflection angle to enable it to continue its journey along the
other straight line.
Sharpness of a circular curve

The smaller is the degree of curve, the flatter is the curve and vice versa. The
sharpness of simple curve is also determined by radius R. Large radius are flat whereas small
radius are sharp.
II. ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CURVE AND THEIR FORMULA

A simple curve consists of a single arc connecting two straights or tangents. simple
curve is normally represented by the length of its radius or by the degree of curve.
In this section will be discussing the formulas for solving a simple curve. The
formulas that will be presented need not be memorized. All we need is geometry plus names
of all elements in simple curve. Note that we are only dealing with circular arc, it is in our
great advantage if we deal it at geometry level rather than memorize these formulas.
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a. Length of tangent, T
Length of tangent (also referred to as subtangent) is the distance from PC to PI. It is the
same distance from PI to PT. From the right triangle PI-PT-O,
b. External distance, E
External distance is the distance from PI to the midpoint of the curve. From the same
right triangle PI-PT-O,
c. Middle ordinate, m
Middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
chord. From right triangle O-Q-PT,
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d. Length of long chord, L

Length of long chord or simply length of chord is the distance from PC to PT. Again, from
right triangle O-Q-PT,
e. Length of curve, Lc
Length of curve from PC to PT is the road distance between ends of the simple curve. By
ratio and proportion,
An alternate formula for the length of curve is by ratio and proportion with its
degree of curve.
SI units: 1 station = 20 m
English system: 1 station = 100 ft
If given the stationing of PC and PT

Lc =Stationing of PT− Stationing of PC
f. Degree of curve, D
The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by an arc (arc basis) or chord (chord
basis) of one station. It will define the sharpness of the curve. In English system, 1 station
is equal to 100 ft. In SI, 1 station is equal to 20 m. It is important to note that 100 ft is equal
to 30.48 m not 20 m.
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Arc Basis
In arc definition, the degree of curve is the central angle angle subtended by one station
of circular arc. This definition is used in highways. Using ratio and proportion,
SI units (1 station = 20 m):
English system (1 station = 100 ft):
Chord Basis
Chord definition is used in railway design. The degree of curve is the central angle
subtended by one station length of chord. From the dotted right triangle below,
SI units (half station = 10 m):
English system (half station = 50 ft):
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III. SOLVING AND LAYING OUT A SIMPLE CURVE
Now let’s solve and lay out a simple curve using the arc definition, which is the
definition you will more often use as an EA. In the figure below, let’s assume that the
directions of the back and forward tangents and the location of the PI have previously been
staked, but the tangent distances have not been measured. Let’s also assume that stations
have been set as far as Station 18 +00. The specified degree of curve (D) is 15°, arc definition.
Our job is to stake half-stations on the curve.
We will begin by first determining the distance from Station 18 + 00 to the location
of the PI. Since these points have been staked we can determine the distance by field
measurement.
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Let’s assume we have measured this distance and found it to be 300.89 feet. Next, we set
up a transit at the PI and determine that deflection angle I is 75°. Since I always equals Δ, then Δ
is also 75°. Now we can compute the radius of the curve, the tangent distance, and the length of
curve as follows:
R = 5,729.58/D = 381.97 ft.
T = R tan Δ/2 = 293.09 ft.
L = 100 Δ/D = 500 ft.

From these computed values, we can determine the stations of the PI, PC, and PT as
follows:
Station at Pl = (Sta. 18 + 00) + 300.89 = 21 + 00.89
Tangent distance = (-) 2 + 93.09
Station at PC 18 + 07.80
Length of curve = (+) 5 + 00.00
Station at PT 23 + 07.80
By studying figure above and remembering that our task is to stake half-station intervals,
you can see that the first half-station after the PC is Station 18 + 50 and the last half- station
before the PT is 23+ 00; therefore, the distance from the PC to Station 18 + 00 is 42.2 feet [(18
+ 50) - (18 + 07.80)]. Similarly, the distance from Station 23+ 00 to the PT is 7.8 feet. These
distances are used to compute the deflection angles for the subchords using the formula for
deflection angles (d= .3CD) as follows:
Deflection angle d1 = .3 x 7.8 x 15 = 189.9' = 3°09.9'
Deflection angle d2 = .3 x 7.8 x 15 = 35.1' = 0°35.1'
A convenient method of determining the deflection angle (d) for each full chord is to
remember that d equals 1/2D for 100-foot chords, 1/4D for 50-foot chords, 1/8D for 25- foot
chords, and 1/20D for 10-foot chords. In this case, since we are staking 50-foot stations, d =
15/4, or 3°45'.
Previously, we discussed the difference in length between arcs and chords. In that
discussion, you learned that to be within allowable error, the recommended chord length for
an 8- to 16-degree curve is 25 feet. Since in this example we are using 50-foot chords, the length
of the chords must be adjusted. The adjusted lengths are computed using a rearrangement of
the formula for the sine of deflection angles as follows:
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C1 = 2R sin d1 = 2 x 381.97 x sin 3°09.9' = 42.18 feet.
C2 = 2R sin d2 = 2 x 381.97 x sin 0°35.1' = 7.79 feet.
C = 2R sin d2 = 2 x 381.97 x sin 3°45' = 49.96 feet.
As you can see, in this case there is little difference between the original and adjusted chord
lengths; however, if we were using 100-foot stations rather than 50-foot stations, the
adjusted difference for each full chord would be substantial (over 3 inches).
Now, remembering our previous discussion of deflection angles and chords, you know
that all of the deflection angles are usually turned using a transit that is set up at the PC. The
deflection angles that we turn are found by cumulating the individual deflection angles from
the PC to the PT as shown below:
Station Chord Deflection angle

PC 18 + 07.80 ------------ 0°00.0'
18 +50 C1 42.18 3°09.9'
19 + 00 49.96 6°54.9'
19 + 50 49.96 10°39.9'
20 + 00 49.96 14°24.9'
20 + 50 49.96 18°09.9'
21 + 00 49.96 21°54.9'
21 + 50 49.96 25°39.9'
22 + 00 49.96 29°24.9'
22 + 50 49.96 33°09.9'
23 + 00 49.96 36°54.9'
PT 23 + 07.80 C2 07.79 37°30'
Notice that the deflection angle at the PT is equal to one half of the I angle. That serves
as a check of your computations. Had the deflection angle been anything different than one
half of the I angle, then you would have made a mistake.
Since the total of the deflection angles should be one-half of the I angle, a problem arises
when the I angle contains an odd number of minutes and the instrument used is a 1-minute
transit. Since the PT is normally staked before the curve is run, the total deflection will be a
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check on the PC; therefore, it should be computed to the nearest 0.5 degree. If the total
deflection checks to the nearest minute in the field, it can be considered correct.
The curve that was just solved had an I angle of 75° and a degree of curve of 15°. When
the I angle and degree of curve consist of both degrees and minutes, the procedure in solving
the curve does not change, but you must be careful in substituting these values into the
formulas for length and deflection angles. For example, if I = 42°15’and D = 5°37’, the minutes
in each angle must be changed to a decimal part of a degree. To obtain the required accuracy,
you should convert them to five decimal places, but an alternate method for computing the
length is to convert the I angle and degree of curve to minutes; thus, 42°15’ = 2,535 minutes
and 5°37’ = 337 minutes.
Substituting this information into the length formula gives the following:
This method yields an exact result. By converting the minutes to a decimal part of a
degree to the nearest five places, you obtain the same result.
IV. OTHER SAMPLE PROBLEMS ON SIMPLE CURVES
Problem 1: The tangent distance of a 3˚ simple curve is ½ of its radius. Determine:

• Angle of intersection (I)
• Length of Curvature (Lc)
• Area of the fillet of the curve
Solution:
D=3˚, T=1/2R Lc=20I/D
T=RtanI/2 Lc=20(53.13)/3˚
1/2R=RtanI/2 Lc=354.2m
tanI/2=0.5 I/2=tan 0.5
I=53.13˚
A=T(R)- R² o/360˚
R=1145.916/D R=381.97 sqm
A=(190.99)(381.97)-(381.97) (53.13)/360˚
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A=5305.89sqm
Problem 2: The point of intersection of tangents on a simple curve is inaccessible falling

within a river. Points B and C on the tangents are connected by measurements on the ground.
Figure-P2
Required:
• Length of curve
• Radius of the Curve
• Degree of Curve
Solution:
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Solving for I:
θ=180˚-47.5˚-87.02˚
θ=45.48 ˚
I=180˚-45.48˚
I=134.52˚
Solving for tangent distance using sine law:

128.015/sin45.48 = (T-53.58)/sin87.02˚
T=232.88m
Solving for Lc:

Lc=RI, 20I/D Lc = (97.61)(134.52˚)(
π/180)
T=RtanI/2 Lc =229.7m
Solving for R using the tangent formula:

232.88=Rtan134.52˚/2
R=97.61m
Solving for degree of curvature using chord basis

D = 1145.916/R
D = 1145.916/97.61
D = 11.739
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SELF-HELP
You may refer to the scholastic sources below to help you further understand the lesson,
or you may click the video links for more understanding of the respective topics in route
surveying.
References:
Garber, Nicholas A. (2015). Traffic and highway engineering. 5th Edition., Cengage
Learning Chapter 1

LET’S CHECK
Activity 1-b:
Now that you know the most essential terms in this course, let us try to check your
understanding of these terms.
Part 1: Select a correct response to the description on each item.

1. A highway is composed of a series of curves and straight lines called
A. traverses
B. radii
C. tangents
D. center lines
2. What type of curve consists of two simple curves joined together and curving in
the same direction?
A. Simple
B. Compound
C. Spiral
D. Reverse
3. The first step in staking out a simple curve is to set the instrument up at what
point?
A. PC
B. PI
C. PT
D. Midpoint
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Part 2:
Briefly define all those who were not chosen as answers. Highlight their uses in route
surveying or in laying out a simple curve.
Activity 2-b:
On a sheet of paper, derive all formulas of the elements of a simple curve using simplified
trigonometry.
LET’S ANALYZE
Problem 1-c:
Find the length of curve and the station at PT if the degree of curve is 5° and the central
angle is 72°30’. Solve also the radius, tangent distance, external distance and middle ordinate.
Use 20-meter full station.
Problem 2-c:
A circular curve has 300 m radius and 60° deflection angle. What is its degree by (a) arc
definition and (b) chord definition of standard length 30 m. Also calculate (i) length of curve,
(ii) tangent length, (iii) length of long chord, (iv) mid-ordinate and (v) external distance.
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Problem 3-c:
The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 45° 30' and its radius is 198.17 m. PC is at
Sta. 0 + 700. Compute the right angle offset from Sta. 0 + 736.58 on the curve to tangent
through PC.
Problem 4-c:
The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 36° 30'. Compute the radius if the external
distance is 12.02 m.
Problem 5-c:
Given the following elements of a circular curve: middle ordinate = 2 m; length of long
chord = 70 m. Find its degree of curve, use arc basis.
99

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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Course/Subject: BCE 211/F: FUNDAMENTALS OF SURVEYING

Name of Teacher: Engr. NORODDIN V. MELOG

Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying ................................................ 4

Course Outline: BCE 211/F – Fundamentals of Surveying

Course Coordinator: Engr. Noroddin V. Melog

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

Since this course is included in the licensure examination

maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This means

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

1st formative assessment – 10%

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding

The demonstration of this ULO requires the understanding of the following:

1. Surveying – It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical distances between

One of the oldest arts practiced by man is

Surveying is the determination of the relative

Difference between Plane and Geodetic Surveying

Plane Surveying Geodetic Surveying

Development of Surveying Instruments

1. Astrolabe - The astrolabe of Hipperachus is one of the best

2. Telescope - The invention of the telescope in 1607 is

3. Transit - The invention of the transit is credited to

4. Semi-circumferentor - An early surveying instrument

5. Plane Table - One of the oldest types of surveying

6. Dioptra - The dioptra, which was perfected by

7. Roman Groma - The Roman Surveyors used the

8. Libella - The Assyrians and Egyptians are

9. Vernier - The Vernier is a short auxiliary scale

10. Diopter - An instrument developed by the Greeks.

11. Compass - The magnetic compass came into

12. Ginter’s Chain - Was invented by Sir

13. Chorobates - This instrument was designed for

14. Merchet - The merchet was a

A. Direct Measurements - A direct measurement is a comparison of the measured

B. Indirect Measurements - When it is not possible to apply a measuring instrument

Mega 1,000,000 Deca 10 Milli 0.001

Conversion Table for some units used in Surveying

1 acre = 4047 𝑚2 1 military pace = 2.5ft

A. Sexagesimal Units – Degree, Minute and Second

B. Centesimal Units – Gradian

✓ Rule 1 – Zeroes between other significant figures are significant.

Student Field Practice

• In an elementary surveying, the student acquires certain extent of field practice.

Surveying Field Notes

The Field Notebook

Information Found in Field Notebooks

The Field Survey Party

Surveying Methods: Research more on the different surveying methods discussed