Bche 111L - Chemistry For Engineers Week 1-5 (Sim-Sdl)

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education

Chemical Engineering Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

(SDL)
Course/Subject: BCHE 111/L- CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Name of Teacher: Engr. Jessie C. Calo
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS
INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE
STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE
COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
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Table of Contents
Course Outline: BCHE 111/L-CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS ....................................................... i
Course Coordinator ...................................................................................................................................... i
Course Outline Policy ....................................................................................................................................... i
Grading System ................................................................................................................................................ iii
Course Information .......................................................................................................................................... v
Big Picture I .......................................................................................................................................................6
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): ..........................................................................................6
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa .........................................................................................................................6
Metalanguage ......................................................................................................................................................6
Essential Knowledge........................................................................................................................................7
Basic Concepts of Crystal Structure .....................................................................................................7
Unit Cell .............................................................................................................................................................8
Bravais Lattices........................................................................................................................................... 10
Bravais Lattices in Two Dimensions ................................................................................................ 10
Bravais Lattices in Three Dimensions ............................................................................................. 10
Atomic Coordination ................................................................................................................................ 11
Atomic Packing Factor (APF) ............................................................................................................... 11
Density Calculation ................................................................................................................................... 15
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 18
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 19
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 21
Keywords Index .............................................................................................................................................. 22
References ......................................................................................................................................................... 22
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb ..................................................................................................................... 23
Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 23
Essential Knowledge..................................................................................................................................... 24
Physical Properties of Metals............................................................................................................... 25
Chemical Properties of Metals............................................................................................................. 25
Metals in the Periodic Table ................................................................................................................. 27
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 32
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 33
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 34
Keywords Index .............................................................................................................................................. 35
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References ......................................................................................................................................................... 35
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc ...................................................................................................................... 36
Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 36
POLYMERS .................................................................................................................................................... 37
Monomer, Mer And Polymer ................................................................................................................ 37
Characteristics of Polymers .................................................................................................................. 37
Polymers Based on Origin ..................................................................................................................... 38
Polymers Based Type of Monomer involved in the Structure ............................................. 38
Polymers Based on Structure .............................................................................................................. 38
Classification of Polymers based on Molecular Forces............................................................ 41
ELASTOMERS .............................................................................................................................................. 43
Fiber-Forming Polymers ........................................................................................................................ 44
Polymerization ............................................................................................................................................ 44
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 50
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 51
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 52
Keywords Index .............................................................................................................................................. 53
References ......................................................................................................................................................... 53
Big Picture in Focus: ULOd ..................................................................................................................... 54
Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 54
Nanomaterials ............................................................................................................................................. 55
Fundamental Properties of Nanomaterials ................................................................................... 55
Engineered Nanoparticles ..................................................................................................................... 57
Types of Nanocomposites...................................................................................................................... 60
Approaches in the Synthesis on Nanomaterials ......................................................................... 61
Synthesis in the Top-Down Approach ............................................................................................. 61
Synthesis in the Bottom-Up Approach ............................................................................................ 62
Applications of Engineered Nanomaterial .................................................................................... 63
Types of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials........................................................................................... 63
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 66
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 67
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 68
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Keywords Index .............................................................................................................................................. 69

References ......................................................................................................................................................... 69
Schedule of Activities Week 1-3 .............................................................................................................. 72
Big Picture II .................................................................................................................................................. 73
Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO) ........................................................................................ 73
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa ......................................................................................................................... 73
Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 73
Atmospheric Chemistry .......................................................................................................................... 75
Layers of The Atmosphere .................................................................................................................... 75
Composition of The Atmosphere ....................................................................................................... 75
Nitrogen Cycle ............................................................................................................................................. 76
Oxygen Cycle ................................................................................................................................................ 77
Photochemical Reaction in the Atmosphere ................................................................................ 77
Ozone in the Atmosphere ...................................................................................................................... 77
Acid Rain ........................................................................................................................................................ 78
Ozone depletion.......................................................................................................................................... 79
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 80
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 81
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 82
Keywords Index .............................................................................................................................................. 83
References ......................................................................................................................................................... 83
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb ........................................................................................................................ 84
Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 84
Chemistry of Water ................................................................................................................................... 86
Properties of Water .................................................................................................................................. 86
Freshwater .................................................................................................................................................... 90
Water Cycle................................................................................................................................................... 90
Process of Water Cycle ............................................................................................................................ 91
Types of Water ............................................................................................................................................ 91
Dissolved Oxygen....................................................................................................................................... 92
Importance of Dissolved Oxygen in Aquatic Life........................................................................ 92
Eutrophication Process ........................................................................................................................... 93
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Different Methods of Analysis ............................................................................................................. 93

Ocean Water ................................................................................................................................................. 94
Desalination Processes ........................................................................................................................... 95
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 97
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 98
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 99
Keywords Index ........................................................................................................................................... 100
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 101
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc ...................................................................................................................... 102
Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................ 102
Essential Knowledge.................................................................................................................................. 104
Soil Chemistry .......................................................................................................................................... 104
Basic Soil Components ......................................................................................................................... 104
Chemical Composition of Soil ........................................................................................................... 106
Colloidal Properties of Soil................................................................................................................. 108
Ion Exchange in Soil............................................................................................................................... 109
Soil pH .......................................................................................................................................................... 111
Let’s Check ...................................................................................................................................................... 113
Let’s Analyze .................................................................................................................................................. 114
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................................................................... 115
Keywords Index ........................................................................................................................................... 116
References ...................................................................................................................................................... 116
Schedule of Activities Week 4-5 ........................................................................................................... 117
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Course Outline: BCHE 111/L-CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Course Coordinator: Engr. Jessie C. Calo
Email: jessie_calo@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: Thru email, LMS, Facebook and Phone Calls

Mobile: 09171902221
Phone: (082) 296 -1084 /305-0646 local 133
Effectivity Date August 17, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)

Time Frame: 108 Hours (Lecture + Laboratory)
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning

Requisites: None
Credit: 4 units (3 units lecture, 1-unit laboratory)

Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.
Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details
Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is

designed for blended learning mode of instructional
delivery with scheduled face to face or virtual
sessions. The expected number of hours will be 54
including the face to face or virtual sessions. The
face to face sessions shall include the summative
assessment tasks (exams) since this course is also a
part in the licensure examination for chemical
engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd ,5th

,7th, and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper
shall be attached with a cover page indicating the
title of the assessment task (if the task is
performance), the name of the course coordinator,
date of submission and name of the
student. The document should be emailed to the
course coordinator. It is also expected that you
already paid your tuition and other fees before the
submission of the assessment task.
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If the assessment task is done in real time through

the features in the Blackboard Learning
Management System, the schedule shall be
arranged ahead of time by the course coordinator.
Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for teachers, you will be required to
take the Multiple- Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time
by your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable
for all licensure-based programs.
Turnitin Submission (if necessary) To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment
tasks are required to be submitted through
Turnitin with a maximum similarity index of 30%
allowed. This means that if your paper goes beyond
30%, the students will either opt to redo her/his
paper or explain in writing addressed to the course
coordinator the reasons for the similarity. In
addition, if the paper has reached more than 30%
similarity index, the student may be called for a
disciplinary action in accordance with the
University’s OPM on Intellectual and Academic
Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as

cheating and commissioning other students or
people to complete the task for you have severe
punishments (reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late Assignments/Assessments The score for an assessment item submitted after
the designated time on the due date, without an
approved extension of time, will be reduced by 5%
of the possible maximum score for that assessment
item for each day or part day that the assessment
item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment

paper has a valid reason, a letter of explanation
should be submitted and approved by the course
coordinator. If necessary, you will also be required
to present/attach evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessments Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2)
weeks after the submission. This will be returned by
email or via Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online
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or virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to

validate the originality of the assessment task
submitted and to ensure that all the group members
are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the

course coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on
the student’s failure to comply with the similarity
index and other reasonable grounds such as
academic literacy standards or other reasonable
circumstances e.g. illness, accidents financial
constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment Papers and Appeal You should request in writing addressed to the
program coordinator your intention to appeal or
contest the score given to an assessment task. The
letter should explicitly explain the reasons/points
to contest the grade. The program coordinator shall
communicate with the students on the approval and
disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean
with the original letter of request. The final decision
will come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

Contact:
 Course discussions/exercises – 30%
 1st Formative assessment – 10%
 2nd Formative assessment – 10%
 3rd Formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):
 Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Referencing Style College of Engineering Education referencing style

will be based on Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers (IEEE) referencing format.
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email

account which is a requirement to access the
BlackBoard portal. Then, the course coordinator
shall enroll the students to have access to the
materials and resources of the course. All
communication formats: chat, submission of
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assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be through the

portal and other university recognized platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student

email, please contact the course coordinator or
program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares

Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 09562082442
Contact Details of the Program Head Engr. Ramiro Emerson C. Amon

Email: ramiro_amon@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 09566929029
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate
with the course coordinator about the nature of his
or her special needs. Depending on the nature of the
need, the course coordinator with the approval of
the program coordinator may provide alternative
assessment tasks or extension of the deadline of
submission of assessment tasks. However, the
alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
Online Tutorial Registration Online tutorial will be done thru LMS.
Help Desk Contact Blackboard

blackboardclass@umindanao.edu.ph
CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902
GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy,RPm,RGC,LPT
ronadora-deala@umindanao.edu.ph
09212122846
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Library Contact Head of LIC

Brigida E. Bacani
Email :library@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone:09513766681
Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello engineer in the making! Welcome to this course BCHE 111/L: Chemistry
for Engineers. This course deals with core concepts of chemistry which are
important in the practice of engineering profession which includes
generation of energy, the chemistry of engineering materials, the chemistry
of the environment and a special topic specific to an engineering field of
expertise.
CO CO stands for Course Outcomes. These are the skills that students are
expected to demonstrate at the end of the course to pass the subject. The
following are the COs of BCHE 111/L:
CO 1. Demonstrate understanding of chemistry in relation to the generation
of energy, the chemical principles and concepts of structures and bonding of
common engineering materials, and the chemical processes that take place
in the environment.
CO 2. Conduct experiments in relation to the models and concepts learned in
class.
Let us begin!
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Big Picture I
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
a. demonstrate understanding on the basic concepts of crystal structure;
b. differentiate metals and non-metals by understanding their characteristics;

c. explain the concept of polymers;
d. show understanding of the concept of engineered nanomaterials.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Demonstrate understanding on the basic

concepts of crystal structure
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study of
crystal structure to demonstrate ULOa will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions
in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
Amorphous an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range
order that is characteristic of a crystal
Atomic the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to the total volume
Packing Factor of the unit cell
Body-centered has lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus an additional
cubic point at the center of the cell.
Bravais lattice the fourteen distinguishable ways of arranging the points independently
in three-dimensional space
Coordination defined as the number of equidistant nearest neighbors that an atom has
number in a given structure
Crystal lattice is the symmetrical three-dimensional arrangement of atoms inside a

crystal.
Cystalline is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered

microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all
directions.
Crystallograph the lines drawn parallel to the lines of intersection of any three faces of
ic axes the unit cell which do not lie in the same plane
Density mass per unit volume

Face-centered has lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus additional points
cubic at the centers of each face of the unit cell.
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Hexagonal layers of spheres are packed so that spheres in alternating layers overlie
close-packed one another. As in cubic close packing, each sphere is surrounded by 12
other spheres.
Interfacial the angles between three crystallographic axes
angles
Lattice collective term for primitives and interfacial angles
parameters
Primitives the dimensions of a unit cell
Simple cubic is the simplest repeating unit in a simple cubic structure. Each corner of
the unit cell is defined by a lattice point at which an atom, ion, or molecule
can be found in the crystal.
Space lattice defined as an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which every
point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the array.
Unit cell the smallest group of atoms of a substance that has the overall symmetry
of a crystal of that substance, and from which the entire lattice can be
built up by repetition in three dimensions.
Void space vacant space left or unutilized space in unit cell, and more commonly
known as interstitial space
Essential Knowledge
Basic Concepts of Crystal Structure

In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement
of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the
intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns that repeat along
the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter (Moore & Smart, 2005).
The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes the repeating
pattern is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell completely defines the symmetry
and structure of the entire crystal lattice, which is built up by repetitive translation of
the unit cell along its principal axes. The repeating patterns are said to be located at the
points of the Bravais lattice.
The lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles between
them are the lattice constants, also called lattice parameters. The symmetry properties
of the crystal are described by the concept of space groups. All possible symmetric
arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space may be described by the
230 space groups.
The crystal structure and symmetry play a critical role in determining many
physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical
transparency.
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Crystal structure is one of the most important aspects of materials science and
engineering as many properties of materials depend on their crystal structures. The
basic principles of many materials characterization techniques such as X-ray diffraction
(XRD), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are based on crystallography.
Therefore, understanding the basics of crystal structures is of paramount importance.
Matter exist usually in solid or fluid (liquid, gas) state. According to modern
concept matter classification is specified as condensed state and gaseous state. Solids
and liquids come under condensed state. Any material whose position of constituent
particles is fixed can be regarded as solids.
Solids are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength.
This indicates that the molecules, atoms or ions that make up as solid is closely packed.
Thus, in solids we will have a well ordered molecular, atomic or ionic arrangement.
In general solids can be classified into:
 Crystalline - particles are orderly arranged (long range order).
 Amorphous - particles are randomly oriented.
If the atoms or molecules are uniquely arranged in crystalline solid or liquid, we
call it a crystal structure. A crystal possesses long range order and symmetry. The main
property of crystal structure is its periodicity. This periodicity is due to the arrangement
of atoms/molecules in the lattice points. The crystal structure as a whole can be
considered as the repetition of unit cell. For a given crystal structure the shape of unit
cell is same but varies from crystal to crystal (Schaffer et al, 1999).
Figure 1. General classification of solids

Unit Cell
Crystal structure is described in terms of the geometry of arrangement of
particles in the unit cell. The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit having the
full symmetry of the crystal structure. The geometry of the unit cell is defined as
a parallelepiped, providing six lattice parameters taken as the lengths of the cell edges
(a, b, c) and the angles between them (α, β, γ). The positions of particles inside the unit
cell are described by the fractional coordinates (xi, yi, zi) along the cell edges, measured
from a reference point. It is only necessary to report the coordinates of a smallest
asymmetric subset of particles.
This group of particles may be chosen so that it occupies the smallest physical
space, which means that not all particles need to be physically located inside the
boundaries given by the lattice parameters. All other particles of the unit cell are
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generated by the symmetry operations that characterize the symmetry of the unit cell.
The collection of symmetry operations of the unit cell is expressed formally as the space
group of the crystal structure (Atkins & de Paula, 2006).
Figure 2. Unit cell

Unit cell can be of primitive as well as non-primitive type. A primitive cell is a
minimum volume unit cell and has only one lattice point in it and the latter contains
more than one.
Figure 3. Primitive and non-primitive unit cell

In the given figure below, simple cube is a primitive cell. No. of atoms per unit cell
is one for it. The rest two is non primitive. No. of atoms per unit cell is 2 and 4
respectively.
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Figure 4. Primitive cell (P) and Non-primitive cell (I and F)

Bravais Lattices
The number of lattices that can fill two- or three-dimensional space with
periodically repeating units without leaving gaps or causing overlaps is limited.
Therefore, there is a finite number of different crystal structures, and different
crystalline solids may crystallize according to the same pattern. The metrics of the lattice
may be different, but the symmetry is the same in such cases. Lattices which fill space
without gaps are called Bravais lattices. There are five of them in two dimensions and
14 in three dimensions (Hermann, 2017).
Bravais Lattices in Two Dimensions
The most general and least symmetric Bravais lattice in two dimensions is
the oblique lattice. If the angle between the two lattice vectors is 90°, the higher
symmetry of the cell gives rise to a distinct Bravais lattice, either rectangular
or square depending on whether the unit cell vectors have different length or not. In the
case of a rectangular lattice, we can distinguish between a primitive rectangular lattice
and a centered rectangular lattice, which has an extra lattice point (atom) at the center.
The centered rectangular lattice could be set up as a primitive lattice with lower
symmetry (unit cell shown in green), but convention prefers the more symmetric
description. Finally, if the lattice vectors are the same length and the angle is 120°, we
have another special case with higher symmetry, the hexagonal lattice (Ellis et al, 1995).
Figure 5. Bravais lattices in two dimensions

Bravais Lattices in Three Dimensions
Based on the lattice parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ and applying the restrictions
as above, only 14 types of lattices are possible in three dimensions. One general
(triclinic) and thirteen special. Only seven different systems of axis are found to be
sufficient to represent all Bravais lattice. This fourteen space lattice is divided into seven
crystal systems (Callister, 2002).
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They are triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal and

cubic.
Table 1. Bravais lattices in three dimensions
Atomic Coordination
In chemistry, crystallography, and materials science the coordination
number, also called ligancy, of a central atom in a molecule or crystal is the number of
atoms, molecules or ions bonded to it. The ion/molecule/atom surrounding the central
ion/molecule/atom is called a ligand. This number is determined somewhat differently
for molecules than for crystals.
By considering the arrangement of atoms relative to each other, their
coordination numbers (or number of nearest neighbors), interatomic distances, types of
bonding, etc., it is possible to form a general view of the structures and alternative ways
of visualizing them.
Simple cubic, face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) have
coordination numbers 6, 8, and 12 respectively (Atkins, 2006).
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Atomic packing fraction mainly gives us an idea about the arrangement of
atoms/ions in solids. It will give the efficiency with which the available space is being
filled by atoms (Callister, 2002).
Packing fraction is defined as the ratio of volume of atoms occupying the unit
cell to the volume of unit cell.
Volume of atoms in unit cell

APF =
Volume in unit cell
Examples:
1. Simple Cubic
Consider a cube of side 'a'. Atoms of radius ‘r’ is placed at the corner. So
that length of cube a=2r.
Figure 6. Simple cubic unit cell

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Lattice Simple Base- Body- Face- Example
System Centered Centered Centered
triclinic CuSO4.5H2O
K2Cr2O7
monoclinic CaSO4.2H2O
FeSO4
Na2SO4
orthorhombic KNO3
BaSO4
rhombohedral
As
Sb
Bi
tetragonal
TiO2
SnO2
NiSO4
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hexagonal SiO2
Zn
Mg
Cd
cubic Au
Cu
NaCl
In a simple cubic structure, the atoms occupy at the eight corners. An atom
at the corner is equally shared by 8 unit cells. So, the contribution of one atom to
a unit cell is 1/8. Therefore the no. of atoms per unit cell is (1/8)*8(corner atoms)
=1.
Volume of unit cell = a = (2r) = 8r
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πr π
APF = 3 = = 52%
8r 6
2. Body-centered Cube
Consider a cube of side ‘a’, and atoms of radius ‘r’ are placed at corners and
at the body centre. Length of body
diagonal, √3a=4r.
Figure 7. Body-centered cubic unit cell
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4 8
Volume of atoms in unit cell = 2 ∗ πr = πr
3 3
In a body centered cube, there will be one atom at the centre along with 8
corner atoms. This corner atom is shared by 8 unit cell and the atom at the centre
is not a shared one. Therefore no. of atoms per unit cell= (1/8)*8(corner
atoms)+1(body centre)=2.
4r 64r
Volume of unit cell = a = =
√3 3 √3
8
πr √3π
APF = 3 = = 68%
64r 8
3√3
3. Face-centered Cube
Consider a cube of length ‘a’ and atoms of radius ’r’ are placed at the
corners as well as at the face centre. Length of face diagonal √2a=4r.
Figure 8. Face-centered cubic unit cell

4 16
Volume of unit cell = 4 ∗ πr = πr
3 3
In a face centered cube, each face possess one atom along with 8 corner
atoms. The atoms at the faces are equally shared by two unit cell. Corner atoms
by 8 unit cells. So the no. of atoms per unit cell is=(1/8)*8(corner
atoms)+(1/2)*6(atoms at face)=4.
4r
Volume of unit cell = a =
√2
16
πr π
APF = 3 = = 74%
4r 3√2
√2
4. Hexagonal Close-Packed
For the hexagonal close-packed structure, the unit cell (equivalent to 3
primitive unit cells) is a hexagonal prism containing six atoms (if the particles in
the crystal are atoms). Indeed, three are the atoms in the middle layer (inside the
prism); in addition, for the top and bottom layers (on the bases of the prism), the
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central atom is shared with the adjacent cell, and each of the six atoms at the
vertices is shared with other five adjacent cells. So the total number of atoms in
the cell is 3 + (1/2)×2 + (1/6)×6×2 = 6. Each atom touches other twelve atoms.
Now let a be the side length of the base of the prism and c be its height. The
latter is twice the distance between adjacent layers, i.e., twice the height of the
regular tetrahedron whose vertices are occupied by (say) the central atom of the
lower layer, two adjacent non-central atoms of the same layer, and one atom of
the middle layer "resting" on the previous three. Obviously, the edge of this
tetrahedron is a. If a=2r, then its height can be easily calculated to be a, and,
√
therefore, c = 4 r. So the volume of the hcp unit cell turns out to be a c, that
is 24√2r .
It is then possible to calculate the APF as follows:
4
N V 6 ∙ 3 πr
APF = =
V 3√3
a c
2
4 4
6 ∙ 3 πr 6 ∙ 3 πr
APF = =
3√3 2 3√3 2
2 (2r) 3 ∙ 4r 2 3 ∙ 16r
π π
APF = = = 0.74048048
√18 3√2
Figure 9. Hexagonal close-packed structure.

Density Calculation
The density of a solid is that of the unit cell, obtained by dividing the mass of the
atoms (n atoms x Matom) and dividing by Vc the volume of the cell (a3 in the case of a
cube). If the mass of the atom is given in amu (A), then we have to divide it by the
Avogadro number to get Matom. Thus, the formula for the density is:
nA
ρ=
VN
where:
ρ = density
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n = no. of atoms
A = atomic/formula weight
V = volume of unit cell
N = Avogadro s number
Example:
1. Polonium crystallizes in a simple cubic pattern with a unit cell length of 3.36
angstrom (Å). Estimate the density of Po in g/cm3. (1 Å = 1x10-8 cm)
Basis: 1 unit cell
Given:
n = 1 atom; a = 3.36x10-8 cm; A = 209 g/mol
Solution:
nA
ρ=
VN
g
(1 atom) 209
ρ= mol
atoms
(3.36x10 cm) 6.022x10
mol
ρ = 9.15 g/cm
2. Aluminum has a face-centered cubic unit cell, that is, an atom at each corner of
the unit cell and an atom at the center of each face. The Al-Al distance (2r) is
0.2863 nm. Calculate the density of aluminum in g/mL. The mass of aluminum
atom is 26.98 amu.
Basis: 1 unit cell
Given:
n = 4 atoms; A = 26.98 g/mol; 2r = 0.2863 nm = 0.2863x10-7 cm
Solution:
(4r) = a + a
16r = 2a
a = 8r
a = 2√2 r
nA
ρ=
VN
(4 atoms)(26.98 g/mol)
ρ= atoms
√2(0.2863x10 cm) (6.022x10
mol
)
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g
ρ = 2.7 = 2.7 g/mL
cm
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:
Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for surface

scientists and nanoscientists. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131386643/9651CF2002EF494EPQ/4
?accountid=31259. Chapter 2 Bulk Crystals: Three-Dimensional Lattices pp 7-90
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Let’s Check
Exercises:
1. Molybdenum forms body-centered cubic crystals and at 20 oC the density is 10.3
g/mL. Calculate the distance between the centers of the nearest molybdenum
atoms.
2. An element crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice. The edge of the unit cell
is 0.286 nm, and the density of the crystal is 7.92 g/cm3. Calculate the atomic
weight of the element.
3. Austenite form of iron has FCC crystal lattice structure, whereas its alpha form
has BCC crystal lattice structure. Assuming closest packed arrangement of iron
atoms, what will be the ratio of density of Austenite to that of alpha iron?
4. Sodium crystallizes in the body-centered cubic structure with a=0.424 nm.
Calculate the theoretical density of Na in kg/m3.
5. Find the distance (in nm) between the body-centered atom and one corner atom
in Na, given a=0.424 nm.
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Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Compare and contrast the 7 crystal system.
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Activity 2. Compare and contrast the 3 Bravais lattice of the cubic crystal system.
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In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Illustrate the: (a) simple cubic, body-centered, and face-centered cubic of the
cubic crystal system; and (b) hexagonal crystal system.
Activity 2. How is learning crystal structure relevant in the study of engineering?
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Keywords Index
Lattice Crystallographic Face-centered Space Coordination

parameters axes cubic lattice number
Void space Cystalline Primitives Unit cell Density
Amorphous Bravais lattice Crystal lattice Density Simple cubic
Atomic Interfacial Hexagonal Body-centered
Packing Factor angles close-packed cubic
References
Atkins, P., & de Paula, J. (2006). Atkins’ Physical Chemistry 8th ed. Oxford University
Press. Chapter 20: Materials 2: The Solid State
Callister, W. (2002). Materials Science and Engineering (6th ed.). San Francisco, CA: John
Wiley and Sons.
Ellis, Arthur B.; et al. (1995). Teaching General Chemistry: A Materials Science
Companion (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for surface
scientists and nanoscientists. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131386643/9651CF2002EF494EPQ/4
?accountid=31259. Chapter 2 Bulk Crystals: Three-Dimensional Lattices pp 7-90
Moore, Lesley E.; Smart, Elaine A. (2005). Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction (3rd
ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis, CRC.
Schaffer; Saxena; Antolovich; Sanders; Warner (1999). The Science and Design of
Engineering Materials (2nd ed.). New York, NY: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Differentiate metals and non-metals by

understanding their characteristics
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study
of metals to demonstrate ULOb will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in case
you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
Actinides any of the series of fifteen metallic elements from actinium (atomic
number 89) to lawrencium (atomic number 103) in the periodic table.
They are all radioactive, the heavier members being extremely
unstable and not of natural occurrence.
Alkali metals the metals in Group 1 of the periodic table of elements
Alkaline
earth metals metals which belong to group 2 in the periodic table
Alloy a mixture of a metal with at least one other element, usually another
metal
Amalgam an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings because
it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Brass an alloy of copper and zinc; does not tarnish and is used for door knobs,
buttons and musical instruments.
Corrosion a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically-
stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual
destruction of materials by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction
with their environment.
Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic
deformation before rupture, which may be expressed as percent
elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test.
Electrical
conductivity the degree to which a specified material conducts electricity.
Lanthanides are a group of 15 chemical elements, with atomic numbers 57 through
71. All of these elements have one valence electron in the 5d shell.
Luster is a gentle sheen or soft glow, especially that of a partly reflective
surface.
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Malleability is a physical property of metals that defines the ability to be hammered,

pressed or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
Ore a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable

mineral can be profitably extracted.
Reactivity the ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with
other elements and compounds
Rusting the specific name given to the corrosion of iron; a chemical reaction
between iron, oxygen and water.
Solder an alloy of zinc and lead; is used in electronics to attach components to
circuit boards.
Sonority is a nonbinary phonological feature categorizing sounds into a relative
scale.
Steel an alloy containing iron and other elements

Thermal is the rate at which heat passes through a specified material, expressed
conductivity as the amount of heat that flows per unit time through a unit area with
a temperature gradient of one degree per unit distance.
Transition
metals the elements in Groups 3 through 12 in the periodic table
Essential Knowledge
A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a
lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are
typically malleable (they can be hammered into thin sheets) or ductile (can be drawn
into wires). A metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an alloy such as stainless
steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride (Gaffney & Marley,
2018).
Approximately three-quarters of all known chemical elements are metals. The
most abundant varieties in the Earth’s crust are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium,
potassium, and magnesium. The vast majority of metals are found in ores (mineral-
bearing substances), but a few such as copper, gold, platinum, and silver frequently
occur in the free state because they do not readily react with other elements.
Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively
simple crystal structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree of
symmetry. Typically, the atoms of metals contain less than half the full complement of
electrons in their outermost shell. Because of this characteristic, metals tend not to
form compounds with each other. They do, however, combine more readily with
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nonmetals (e.g., oxygen and sulfur), which generally have more than half the maximum
number of valence electrons.
Metals, as chemical elements, comprise 25% of the Earth's crust and are present
in many aspects of modern life. The strength and resilience of some metals has led to
their frequent use in, for example, high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as
most vehicles, many home appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks. Precious
metals were historically used as coinage, but in the modern era, coinage metals have
extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements (Roe, 1992).
Physical Properties of Metals

The physical properties of metals include shininess/luster, malleability, ductility,
and conductivity. A malleable material is one that can be hammered or rolled into flat
sheets and other shapes. A ductile material is one that can be pulled out, or drawn, into
a long wire. For example, copper can be made into thin sheets and wire because it is
malleable and ductile. Conductivity is the ability of an object to transfer heat or
electricity to another object. Most metals are good conductors. In addition, a few metals
are magnetic. For example, iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) are attracted to
magnets and can be made into magnets. Most metals are also solids at room
temperature. However, one metal—mercury (Hg)—is a liquid at room temperature
(Holleman & Wiberg, 2001).
Chemical Properties of Metals
The ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with other
elements and compounds is called its reactivity. Metals usually react by losing electrons
to other atoms. Some metals are very reactive. For example, you read that sodium (Na)
reacts strongly when exposed to air or water. To prevent a reaction, sodium and metals
like it must be stored under oil in sealed containers. By comparison, gold (Au) and
platinum (Pt) are valued for their lack of reactivity and because they are rare. The
reactivities of other metals fall somewhere between those of sodium and gold. Iron, for
example, reacts slowly with oxygen in the air, forming iron oxide, or rust. If iron is not
protected by paint or plated with another metal, it will slowly turn to reddish-brown
rust. The destruction of a metal through this process is called corrosion (Mortimer,
1975).
Corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal due to reactions with other
chemicals in its environment. Over time, corrosion changes the appearance of the metal
as it breaks down and it becomes weaker. Corrosion can seriously damage metallic
objects and structures. Coating the surface of a metal with paint and certain chemicals
can protect it from corrosion.
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Figure 1. Example of corrosion.
Do all metals corrode?

Metals behave differently when exposed to the environment. Gold is an unreactive
metal and does not corrode easily. In many cultures, gold is considered a precious metal
and is used to make sacred and decorative objects. Items made from gold can survive for
thousands of years and have even been found in good condition underwater. In general,
objects made from metals that corrode easily do not survive for as long.
Why doesn’t aluminum corrode?
Aluminum is a very reactive metal. However, it does not corrode in the presence
of oxygen. The outer aluminum atoms react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This forms
a thin layer of aluminum oxide on the metal’s surface, which protects the metal from
corrosion.
Figure 2. Mechanism why aluminum doesn’t corrode.

What is rusting?
Rusting is the specific name given to the corrosion of iron. It is a chemical
reaction between iron, oxygen and water. The chemical name for rust is hydrated iron
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oxide. Rust can form on cars and buildings, making them unsafe. It is an expensive
problem. Salt can increase the rate of rusting. This iron bolt is on a seaside structure and
is nearly completely corroded.
iron + oxygen + water → hydrated iron oxide
Metals in the Periodic Table
The metals in a group, or family, have similar properties, and these family
properties change gradually as you move across the table (Walther, 2013). The
reactivity of metals tends to decrease as you move from left to right across the periodic
table.
Alkali Metal
The metals in Group 1, from lithium to francium, are called the alkali metals. They
have low melting point and boiling point compared to other metals. They are very soft
and cut easily by knife. Also, they have low densities. The alkali metals have the high
thermal and electrical conductivity, ductility, and malleability that are characteristics of
a metal. Every alkali metal atom has a single electron in its outermost shell. Sodium,
Lithium, Potassium, Rubidium, and Cesium are Alkali Metals.
Alkaline Earth Metal
The Alkaline Earth Metals are all of the elements in the second column (column
2A) of the periodic table. Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and
Radium belong to this group. These metals have two electrons in their outermost
electron layer. Alkaline Earth Metals in their pure forms are generally shiny and silvery.
Transition Metals
Transition metals are the elements that feature atoms that have an incomplete
d sub-shell. D-block simply implies that the element d-blocks are the final element to
build up all accords to building up principle. They give off electrons from their outer s
orbital but mostly they lose electrons on d orbital. They are unique from all other
elements because of their common properties. One property is they form a lot of
compounds in a quite amount few states of oxidation. Another property is they are
famous for their tendency to form a lot of paramagnetic compounds. This is mainly due
to their low reactivity of their d unpaired electrons (Yonezawa, 2017).
For the most part they are good source of conductors. They are malleable,
ductile, lustrous & silver-white in color. But exception of it is the copper which is
brownish red in color.
A great characteristic is they easily mix. The reason for it is because they have
the same atomic size. This results in more proficient mixture of one another in a crystal
lattice. When two or more metals mix or replace each other, we call the new name of a
metal an alloy.
They can be found anywhere on earth at various amount. They are mostly not
found on pure substance, but rather on the certain compounds on earth’s crust. This
signifies that we need to extract the metals on an existing compound in one or two ways:
pyrometallurgical which uses high temperature and hydrometallurgical which uses
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aqueous solution. They can also be sold at higher prices because of their rarity on the
market. One of the examples is the gold which is also known as shining dawn.
Lanthanides
Two rows of elements are placed below the main part of the periodic table. This
makes the table more compact. The elements in the top row are called the lanthanides.
Lanthanides are soft, malleable, shiny metals with high conductivity. They are mixed
with more common metals to make alloys. An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least
one other element, usually another metal. Different lanthanides are usually found
together in nature. They are difficult to separate from one another because they all share
very similar properties.
Actinides
Actinides are composed of 15 elements which ranges from number 89 to 103,
which are composed from actinium to lawrencium. The name of this certain metal
derives from its first element which is the actinium. While mostly of the actinides are
synthetic elements, small amount of uranium and thorium can be found on nature.
Another property that is possessed by these elements is radioactivity. Examples are the
plutonium, thorium and uranium which are utilized on building nuclear reactors or
weapons.
For many years the chemical elements reach its bottleneck and ended with a
number of 92, uranium. The scientists are uncertain of whether there is any other heavy
element than uranium. Until a discovery made by the scientists of University of
California physicists by Edwin McMillan (1907–1991) and Philip Abelson (1913–2004)
on their study on nuclear fission. (Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic nucleus, a
process that releases large amounts of energy. Atomic bombs and nuclear power plants
operate on nuclear fission.). During their experiments on nuclear fission, they found new
evidence that support the research of another heavier element with an atomic number
of 94.
They have found new elements which are the transuranium elements heavier
than uranium. The first discovery named as neptunium, comes from the planet Neptune.
Just as the name uranium derives from Uranus. Later on, another discovery of
transuranium found which is the plutonium, which was named after Pluto. Later on
more discoveries founded on transuranium: americium (number 95) and curium
(number 96) in 1944; berkelium (number 97) in 1949; californium (number 98) in
1950; einsteinium (number 99) and fermium (number 100) in 1952; mendelevium
(number 101) in 1955; nobelium (number 102) in 1958; and lawrencium (number 103)
in 1961.
Metalloids
They often create amphoteric oxides and behave in the same manner as
semiconductors. The usually considered elements on this group are boron, silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony & tellurium. They more likely behave as non-metals
when they cooperate with metals and behave as metals when they react with non-
metals. Hence, they are known as semi-metals. The uncommon elements polonium and
astatine are sometimes considered as metalloids.
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Other metals
They are metals that can be based on two criterion: Each of these elements can
be classified as a metal or a non-metal based on the characteristics on their general
chemical and physical properties. These are group of elements that can be found on the
right corner of the transition metals on periodic table and also known as the post-
transition metals. The elements classed as "other metals" generally have the following
properties in common: strong, ductile and malleable, good conductors of heat and
electricity, have a relative high density, and opaque.
Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element. Steel is a common
example of an alloy. It contains iron mixed with carbon and other elements. Adding other
elements to a metal changes its structure and so changes its properties. The final alloy
may have very different properties to the original metal. By changing the amount of each
element in an alloy, material scientists can custom-make alloys to fit a given job
(Shamsuddin, 2016).
Alloys have been used for thousands of years. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin,
was commonly used by civilizations before iron extraction methods were developed.
Other well-known alloys include:
 brass: an alloy of copper and zinc. It does not tarnish and is used for door knobs,
buttons and musical instruments.
 solder: an alloy of zinc and lead. It is used in electronics to attach components to
circuit boards.
 amalgam: an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings
because it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Is gold an alloy?
Although pure gold is sometimes used in electronics, gold jewellery is always a
mixture of gold and other metals. Pure gold is actually quite soft. Adding small amounts
of other metals makes the gold hard enough to use in jewellery. Alloying gold with
different metals also affects its colour. The familiar yellow gold is an alloy of gold with
copper and silver. Adding more copper than silver gives redder shades. White gold is an
alloy of gold with nickel, platinum or palladium. Around 12% of people may be allergic
to the nickel in white gold.
When is a copper coin not a copper coin?
A copper coin is not a copper coin when it is a copper-coated alloy!
Copper coins used to be made from pure copper but most ‘copper’ coins used
around the world are now made from copper alloys. Previously, as the value of copper
increased, the metal used to make the coin became worth more than the actual coins. A
melted-down, pure copper coin could have been sold for more than the face value of the
coin! Since 1992, UK copper coins have been made from copper-plated steel and are
magnetic. A magnet can be used to separate copper coins by age.
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Steel
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon, nickel and
chromium. Steel is stronger than pure iron and can be used for everything from sauce
pans to suspension bridges. The atoms in pure iron are arranged in densely-packed
layers. These layers can slide over each other. This makes pure iron a very soft material.
The atoms of other elements are different sizes. When other elements are added to iron,
their atoms distort the regular structure of the iron atoms. It is more difficult for the
layers of iron atoms in steel to slide over each other and so this alloy is stronger than
pure iron.
Figure 3. Sauce pan.
Figure 4. Suspension bridge.

Steel can contain up to 2% carbon. Varying the amount of carbon gives steel
different properties. For example, a higher carbon content makes a hard steel. Different
types of steel are classified by how much carbon they contain.
 low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon
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 high carbon steel contains more than 0.5% carbon.

Two other important types of steel are:
 stainless steel – an alloy of iron that contains at least 11% chromium and smaller
amounts of nickel and carbon
 titanium steel – an alloy of iron and titanium.
Smart Alloy
A smart material can change one or more of its physical characteristics under the
influence of an external stimulus. Shape memory alloy is a type of smart material made
from metals that returns to its original shape after being deformed. Nitinol is a type of
shape memory alloy made from nickel and titanium. This material can be used to make
a pair of glasses that ‘remembers’ its shape and does not break when crushed. Nitinol
has also been used to hold badly broken bones in place while they heal.
Figure 5. A smart alloy made of nitinol.
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson:
Shamsuddin, M., & TMS (2016). Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes. Retrieved
from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135961388/8194550C103C4BA4PQ/1?
accountid=31259. Chapter 1 Introduction pp 1-38.
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Let’s Check
1. What is stainless steel?
2. What are the most common metals used in construction?
3. What is the difference between Iron and Steel?
4. Why isn’t steel termed as a metal?
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Let’s Analyze
1. Differentiate metals from non-metals.
2. What makes stainless steel stainless? Explain.
3. Which is stronger, Steel or Titanium? Explain.
4. What are the 4 types of steel?
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In a Nutshell
1. Construct a vis-à-vis comparison of different alloyed materials. Cite the

advantages, disadvantages, and its best application.
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Keywords Index
Actinides Alkali metals Ductility Alloy Brass

Steel Corrosion Solder Sonority Lanthanides
Luster Malleability Ore Reactivity Rusting
Alkaline earth Electrical Alloy Thermal Transition
metals conductivity conductivity metals
Amalgam
References
Gaffney, J., & Marley, N. (2018). General chemistry for engineers. Elsevier Inc.
Holleman, A.F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001.
Mortimer, Charles E. (1975). Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach (3rd ed.). New York: D.
Van Nostrad Company.
Roe, J; Roe, M (1992). "World's coinage uses 24 chemical elements". World Coinage
News. 19 (4, 5): 24–25, 18–19.
Shamsuddin, M., & TMS (2016). Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes. Retrieved
from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135961388/8194550C103C4BA4PQ/
1?accountid=31259.
Walther, John V. (2013). Earth's Natural Resources. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Yonezawa, F (2017). Physics of Metal-Nonmetal Transitions. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. Explain the concept of polymers
Metalanguage
of polymers to demonstrate ULOc will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in
case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
Copolymers molecules which are built up of at least two different kinds of monomer
Crosslinking process of forming covalent bonds or relatively short sequences of
chemical bonds to join two polymer chains together.
Elastomer a natural or synthetic polymer having elastic properties, e.g. rubber.
Homopolymers polymers consisting of monomer of identical chemical structure
Kevlar a heat-resistant and strong synthetic fiber, related to other aramids such
as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at DuPont in
1965, this high-strength material was used first commercially in the early
1970s as a replacement for steel in racing tires.
Monomer 1. a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form
a polymer.
Polymer a large molecule which is formed by repeated linking of small molecules
called "monomers"
Polymerization the process by which simple (monomer) molecules join together to form
very large (polymer) molecules.
Resin a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is
typically convertible into polymers.
Thermoplastic a material, usually a plastic polymer, which becomes more soft when
heated and hard when cooled.
Thermoset a polymer that is irreversibly hardened by curing from a soft solid or
viscous liquid prepolymer or resin.
Vulcanization a process of treating natural rubber with sulphur
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Essential Knowledge
POLYMERS
According to (Chang, 2008), a polymer is a molecular compound distinguished
by a very high molar mass, ranging into thousands and millions of grams, and is made
up of many repeating units. The physical properties of these so-called macromolecules
vary greatly from those of small ordinary molecules and special techniques are required
to study them.
This statement is true. Polymers are not like an ordinary compound. They involve
complex chemical reactions to form. The words polymer comes from the Greek prefix
poly- “Many” and mers- “Parts”, thus many parts. Though, the word polymer is equated
to the word macromolecules (giant molecules). It is after a German Physicist, Hermann
Staudinger, who clearly prove that such giant molecules exist and called it
macromolecules (Chang, 2008).
Monomer, Mer And Polymer
The process on which the formation of polymers undergoes is called
polymerization, which involves the chemical combinations of many small chemical units
known as monomers “single parts” (Winslow, 1979), a mer “repeating units” and a
polymer “the macromolecule”. The diagram below shows the molecular structure of
polyethylene, an example of a polymer.
(POLYMERS)
POLYETHYLENE
ETHYLENE
Characteristics of Polymers
Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the
following attributes. First, polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Many chemicals
we are using today such as muriatic acid, chlorine and many more are so strong that it
even damages our skin. The characteristics of plastics provide safe, non-breakable
packages for aggressive solvent. Second, polymers can be both thermal and electrical
insulators. A walk through your house will reinforce this concept, as you consider all
the appliances, cords, electrical outlets and wiring that are made or covered with
polymeric materials. Polymers (e.g. kitchenware made of Teflon) can resist extreme
heat. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of polypropylene and the
fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester. Third, generally, polymers are very
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light in weight with significant degrees of strength. Kevlar is one example of this which
is really strong yet light in weight. Fourth, polymers can be processed in various ways.
Injection Molding - plastic is melted in a heating chamber and then forced by a plunger
into cold molds to set; and Extrusions - melted polymer is extruded through a die in
continuous form to be cut into lengths or coiled. Fifth, polymers are materials with a
seemingly limitless range of characteristics and colors, because polymers can mimic
cotton, silk, wool fibers, porcelain, marble, aluminum and zinc. Lastly, Polymers can be
used to make items that have no alternatives from other materials. Polymers are used in
many medical purposes such as Dacron for artificial artery of the heart and blood bag
used in blood transfusion. These were according to American Chemistry Council (2005)
and Smith (2005).
Polymers can be based on the ff.: origin, type of monomer involved, structure,
mode of polymerization, thermal response, and physical properties/application.
Polymers Based on Origin: Natural, Semi-synthetic and Synthetic Polymers
There are three types of polymers based on origin: natural, semi-synthetic and
synthetic polymers. Synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum oil, and made by
scientists and engineers. Examples of synthetic polymers include nylon, polyethylene,
polyester, Teflon, and epoxy. Natural polymers occur in nature and can be extracted.
They are often water-based. Examples of naturally occurring polymers are silk, wool,
DNA, cellulose and proteins (Natural vs Synthetic Polymers, 2016). Semi-synthetic
polymers are mostly derived from naturally occurring polymers by chemical
modifications. For example, cellulose is a naturally occurring polymer. Cellulose on
acetylation with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid forms cellulose
diacetate polymers. It is used in making thread and materials like films, glasses etc.
Vulcanized rubber is also an example of semisynthetic polymers used in making tires
etc.; gun cotton which is cellulose nitrate used in making explosive (Gouda, 2018).
Polymers Based Type of Monomer involved in the Structure: Homopolymer and
Copolymer
Polymers Based on Structure: Linear, Branched, Cross-Link and Network
There are two types of Monomer involved in the Structure of Polymers. First,
homopolymer- same monomer is repeated throughout the chain of polymer; and
copolymer- this is also known as heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more
different kinds of monomers.
Homopolymers
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Homopolymers can be classified as linear, branched, cross linked and network

homopolymers.
Linear polymers
Considered to be the simplest polymer, linear polymers have linear long
polymeric chain of same types of monomer units or simply a chain in which all of the
carbon-carbon bonds exist in a single straight line. Examples are HDPE (High-density
polyethylenes) and Teflon which is made from tetrafluoroethylene, a single strand of
units made from two carbon atoms and four fluorine atoms.
Branched Polymers
Branched polymers have short or long branches bonded on parent polymeric or
it occurs when groups of units branch off from the long polymer chain. These branches
are known as side chains and can also be very long groups of repeating structures. A
polymer with many branches is called dendrimers. Example is LDPE (Low- density
polyethylenes).
“HDPE (High-density polyethylenes) vs. LDPE (Low- density polyethylenes)”

High-density polyethylenes (HDPEs)
HDPEs are mostly linear molecules that pack closely together and can assume
fairly ordered crystalline structure. It’s rigid and has good tensile strength. Examples:
threaded bottles caps, toys, bottles and gallon milk jugs
Low- density polyethylenes (LDPEs)
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LDPEs have plenty of side chains branching off polymer molecules. It’s waxy,
bendable plastics that are lower melting than HDPE (Smith, 2005). Examples: Plastic
bags, plastic film, electric wire insulation, etc.
Cross linked and Network polymers
They form long chains, either branched or linear, that can form covalent bonds
between the polymer molecules. As a result, it produces a stronger and more stable
material, because cross-linked polymers form covalent bonds that are much stronger
than the intermolecular forces that attract other polymer chains. Important example of
this is when natural rubber is vulcanized.
Vulcanization
Vulcanization is a process where the rubber is heated so the sulfur molecules in
the rubber polymer chains form covalent bonds with each other. This process was
discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839, utilizing Hevea brasiliensis, a tree which
produces a liquid resin from the inner bark forming a natural rubber
- Chemically a polymer Isoprene, C5H8
Cis- from the latin word

“meaning “on the side”
From the book Chemistry the Central Science (8th Edition) author Theodore L. Brown.
Copolymers
According to Raymond Chang and Goldsby (2016), copolymers are also known
as heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more different kinds of monomers. It
has two major types, namely, polyamides and polyesters.
Polyamides are the condensation of carboxylic acid and amine monomers while
polyesters are the condensation of carboxyclic acid and alcohol monomers. Example of
polyamide is Nylon-66 produced by mixing equimolar amounts of a six-C diamine (1,6-
diaminohexane) and a six-C diacid (1,6- hexanedioic acid). Example of polyester is
Dacron, a popular polyester fiber, woven from 1,4 benzenedicarboxylic acid and
1,2 ethanediol. Blending these polyester fibers with various amounts of cotton gives
fabrics that are durable, easily dyed, and crease resistant. Another example is mylar
films, used for recording tape and food packaging.
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Copolymer can be further classified as alternating copolymer, block copolymer,

graft copolymer and random copolymers, gradient, periodic and aperiodic.
 Random Copolymer -the monomers are arranged in any order such as

AABAAABBBBAB.
 Block Copolymers - two blocks of homopolymers are joined together. It can be
represented as AAAAAAABBBBBBB.
 Alternating Copolymer - the two monomers are arranged in an alternative way
and can be represented as ABABABABAB.
 Graft Copolymer -The composition of the main chain is a preformed
macromolecule and is compositionally or configurationally different from the
side chains or branches w/ repeat units.
Kevlar
Kevlar is an extended application of Nylon and other polymers have stimulated a
strong demand for new “super” fibers with the heat resistance of asbestos, the stiffness
of glass, and strength much greater than steel. The average molecular mass of each
polymer chain is 10⁵ amu. Kevlar ropes can replace steel ropes and cables (offshore oil
drilling). In seawater, kevlar has 20 times the strength of steel. Kevlar is also used in
manufacturing bulletproof vests and high-performance sports gear. It’s very stable at
high temperature, thus, can be used as protective clothing by firefighters.
Classification of Polymers based on Molecular Forces: Thermoplastic and

Thermosets, Elastomers, Fiber-Forming Polymers
Thermoplastics and Thermosets
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Thermoplastics - polymers become soft on the application of heat and thus can be
molded in the desired shape.
Thermosets - polymers have individual chain bonded covalently during polymerization

by application of heat or chemical treatment. The shape cannot be changed and resist
subsequent mechanical deformation or heat softening or solvent attack.
Furthermore, thermoplastic can be classified as crystalline or amorphous according to

Institute of Applied Chemistry of NCTU.
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Glass transition temperature (Tg)

The glass–liquid transition, or glass transition, is the gradual and reversible
transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions within semi crystalline
materials) from a hard and relatively brittle "glassy" state into a viscous or rubbery state
as the temperature is increased. An amorphous solid that exhibits a glass transition is
called a glass. The reverse transition, achieved by supercooling a viscous liquid into the
glass state, is called vitrification.
The glass-transition temperature Tg of a material characterizes the range of
temperatures over which this glass transition occurs. It is always lower than the melting
temperature, Tm, of the crystalline state of the material, if one exists. Despite the change
in the physical properties of a material through its glass transition, the transition is not
considered a phase transition.
Above this temperature – polymer is rubbery and tough
 Materials with low Tg - if we want automobile tires to be tough and elastic
 Plasticizers- can make them more flexible and less brittle by lowering the
Tg
Below temperature - polymer is like glass - hard, stiff and brittle
 Materials w/ Tg values above room temperature - if we want plastic
substitutes for glass to be glassy
ELASTOMERS
Elastomers (or rubbers) are polymers with considerable extensions which are
reversible, examples are natural and synthetic rubbers. Synthetic rubbers are now used
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much more extensively and they are based on other polymers and produced from the
distillation of oil. Many components do not require great strength but they do require
softness, flexibility and reversible elongation. Thus, elastomers are ideal for such
applications as resilient floor coverings, footwear and vehicle tires.
Fiber-Forming Polymers
The fiber forming polymers are linear macromolecules that are usually suitable
for making man-made fibers. The term “synthetic fiber” will be used to denote all man-
made fibers manufactured from non-cellulosic raw materials. Examples are
hydrophobic polymer fibers like nylon and polyester often blended with cotton, viscose
or wool.
Polymer Recycling
According to Smith (2005), in recycling plastic in the United States, they
follow the “Big Six” Recycling code (1-6). The lower the number, the easier to recycle.
Polymerization
Polymerization s a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine
to form larger molecules that contain repeating structural units. It is usually formed with
the same type of repeating molecules (homopolymers) or form with two or more
different molecules (copolymer).
Types of Polymerization
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There are two general types of polymerization reactions: addition

polymerization and condensation polymerization. In addition, polymerization, the
monomers add to one another in such a way that the polymer contains all the atoms of
the starting monomers. Ethylene molecules are joined together in long chains (Chanda,
2017).
Chain-Reaction (Addition) Polymerization
The polymerization can be represented by the reaction of a few monomer units:
The bond lines extending at the ends in the formula of the product indicate that
the structure extends for many units in each direction. Notice that all the atoms—two
carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms—of each monomer molecule are incorporated
into the polymer structure. Because displays such as the one above are cumbersome, the
polymerization is often abbreviated as follows:
nCH2=CH2 → [ CH2CH2 ] n
During the polymeriation of ethene, thousands of ethene molecules join together

to make poly(ethene) - commonly called polythene. The reaction is done at high
pressures in the presence of a trace of oxygen as an initiator.
Step 1: Chain Initiation

The oxygen reacts with some of the ethene to give an organic peroxide. Organic
peroxides are very reactive molecules containing oxygen-oxygen single bonds which are
quite weak and which break easily to give free radicals. You can short-cut the process by
adding other organic peroxides directly to the ethene instead of using oxygen if you want
to. The type of the free radicals that start the reaction off vary depending on their source.
For simplicity we give them a general formula: Ra∙Ra∙
Step 2: Chain Propagation
In an ethene molecule, CH2=CH2, the two pairs of electrons which make up the
double bond aren't the same. One pair is held securely on the line between the two
carbon nuclei in a bond called a sigma bond. The other pair is more loosely held in an
orbital above and below the plane of the molecule known as a ππ bond.
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The sigma bond between the carbon atoms isn't affected by any of this. The free
radical, Ra , uses one of the electrons in the ππ bond to help form a new bond between
itself and the left hand carbon atom. The other electron returns to the right hand carbon.
You can show this using "curly arrow" notation if you want to:
This is energetically worth doing because the new bond between the radical and
the carbon is stronger than the ππ bond which is broken. You would get more energy
out when the new bond is made than was used to break the old one. The more energy
that is given out, the more stable the system becomes. What we've now got is a bigger
free radical - lengthened by CH2CH2. That can react with another ethene molecule in the
same way:
So now the radical is even bigger. That can react with another ethene – and so on
and so on. The polymer chain gets longer and longer.
Step 3: Chain Termination
The chain does not, however, grow indefinitely. Sooner or later two free radicals
will collide together.
That immediately stops the growth of two chains and produces one of the final
molecules in the poly(ethene). It is important to realize that the poly(ethene) is going to
be a mixture of molecules of different sizes, made in this sort of random way. Because
chain termination is a random process, poly(ethene) will be made up of chains of
different lengths.
Step-Reaction (Condensation) Polymerization
A large number of important and useful polymeric materials are not formed by
chain-growth processes involving reactive species such as radicals, but proceed instead
by conventional functional group transformations of polyfunctional reactants. These
polymerizations often (but not always) occur with loss of a small byproduct, such as
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water, and generally (but not always) combine two different components in an
alternating structure. The polyester Dacron and the polyamide Nylon 66, shown here,
are two examples of synthetic condensation polymers, also known as step-growth
polymers. In contrast to chain-growth polymers, most of which grow by carbon-carbon
bond formation, step-growth polymers generally grow by carbon-heteroatom bond
formation (C-O & C-N in Dacron & Nylon respectively). Although polymers of this kind
might be considered to be alternating copolymers, the repeating monomeric unit is
usually defined as a combined moiety.
Examples of naturally occurring condensation polymers are cellulose, the
polypeptide chains of proteins, and poly (β-hydroxybutyric acid), a polyester
synthesized in large quantity by certain soil and water bacteria. Formulas for these will
be displayed below by clicking on the diagram.
(Polymers and Polymerization Reactions, 2016)
In summary, the table below presents the classification of polymers.

Table 1. Classification of Polymers
Basis of Classification Polymer Types Examples

1. Origin (a) Natural (as available in Natural rubber, natural silk,
nature) cellulose, proteins, starch etc.
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(b) Semisynthetic Hydrogenated, halogenated and

cyclo (natural) rubber; cellulosics
(Man – made)
(cellulose
esters/ethers), etc.
(c) Synthetic Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-
styrene, polybutadiene, nylon poly-
(Man – made) amides, polycarbonates, phenolics,
amino resins, epoxy resins etc.
2. Thermal response (a) Thermoplastics (they Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-
soften or melt on heating and styrene, nylon polyamides, linear
harden on cooling over many polyester [poly (ethylene
cycles of terephthalate)] , etc.
heating and cooling and retain
solubility and fusibility).
(b) Thermosetting (they Phenolic resin, amino resins, epoxy
usually soften or melt initially resins, diene rubbers (vulcanized),
on heating, but fast undergo unsaturated polyesters.
chemical changes to finally
turn insoluble and infusible).
3. Mode of formation (a) Chain – Polyethylene and other polyolefins,
growth or Polystyrene and related vinyl
addition polymers etc.
(b) Step – Polyesters and polyamides,
growth or polycarbonates, phenol (urea,
condensation melamine) – formaldehyde resins,
epoxy resins etc.
4. Line Structure (a) Linear High density polyethylene (HDPE),
polyvinyls, bifunctional (polyesters
(having no branches)
and polyamides) etc.
(b) Branched Low density polyethylene (LDPE),
higher poly (α-olefins), phenolic
(having branches) resoles and resitols, poly (3-hydroxy
alkanoates) etc.
(c) Cross linked or network Phenolic C-stage (resite) resin, C-
(having a complex network stage amino (urea / melamine-
structure) formaldehyde) resins, cured epoxy
resin and
unsaturated polyester resin etc.
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5. Application and (a) Rubbers Natural rubber, (1, 4 cis poly

Physical properties isoprene) synthetic rubbers
Self-Help: You can also refer to the
(showing longsources below to help you further understand
– range
(polybutadiene, SBR, nitrile rubber,
the lesson: elasticity)
polychlo- roprene rubber,
polylacrylate rubber, polyurethane
rubbers, silicone rubbers etc.)
(b) Plastics Polyethylenes, polypropylene
(isotactic), polystyrene, poly (vinyl
(shapable under pressure,
chloride), nylon polyamides linear
aided by heat)
aromatic polyesters and polyamides,
polycarbonates, acetal resins etc.
(c) Fibres Cotton (cellulose), natural silk,
artificial silk (rayons), poly (ethylene
(available in fibrillar or terephthalate) fibre, nylon
filamentous form) polyamide fibres etc.
Chanda, M. (2017). Plastics technology handbook. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2133323950/66F3718BC0C64A70PQ/
5?accountid=31259. Chapter 1: Characteristics of Polymers and Polymerization
Processes pp 1-160
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Let’s Check
1. What is a polymer?
2. What are the classifications of plastics according to Society of Plastic Industry?
3. Give examples of synthetic polymers and indicate their uses.
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Let’s Analyze
1. How are plastics formed?

2. Differentiate thermoplastic from thermoset and give examples.
3. Why do different polymers have different properties?
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In a Nutshell
1. How does the molecular-level structure of polymers influence their physical

properties?
2. "Teflon" is the polymer that results from the polymerization of
tetrafluoroethylene. Write a chemical formula for this reaction. What are some of
the properties of Teflon?
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Keywords Index
Copolymers Crosslinking Elastomer Homopolymers Kevlar

Monomer Polymer Polymerization Resin Thermoplastic
Thermoset Vulcanization
References
American Chemistry Council, 2005 “The Basics: Polymer Definition and Properties”
Retrieved from http//www.plastics.americanchemistry.com/plastic
Brown, Theodore L. Chemistry the Central Science, 8th Edition Chapter 12,
pp. 440-448 “Modern Material”
Chanda, M. (2017). Plastics technology handbook. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2133323950/66F3718BC0C64A70PQ/5?
accountid=31259.
Chang, R. (2008). General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chang, Raymond & Goldsby Kenneth A. Chemistry, 12th Edition
McGraw-Hill International Edition 2016, Chapter 25, pp. 1059-1064 “Synthetic and
Natural Organic Polymers”
Hill, John W. and Kolb, Doris K. Chemistry for Changing Times, 9th Edition Chapter, pp
283-286 “Polymers”
Natural vs Synthetic Polymers. (2016). Retrieved August 27, 2018, from www.cmu.edu:
https://www.cmu.edu/gelfand/education/k12-teachers/polymers/natural-
synthetic-polymers/
Smith, Janice Gorzynski. Organic Chemistry, 5th Edition
McGraw-Hill Education International Edition, 2005. Chapter 30, pp. 1217-1221
“Synthetic Polymers”
Silverberg, Principles of General Chemistry, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill
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International Edition, Chapter 15 pp. 483-486 “ The Monomer- Polymer”

Winslow, F. B. (1979). MACROMOLECULES: The Introduction to Polymer Science. New
York: ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOd. Show understanding of the concept of

engineered nanomaterials
Metalanguage
of nanomaterials to demonstrate ULOd will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions
Bottom-up Approach includes the miniaturization of materials components (up to
atomic level) with further selfassembly process leading to the
formation of nanostructures
Buckminsterfullerene also known as buckyball, is a spherical close- caged structure
made of sixty sp2 carbons it has a highly symmetrical structure
which give it its electronic properties
Carbon nanotubes are tubes made of carbon with diameters typically measured in
nanometers; often refer to single-wall carbon
nanotubes (SWCNTs) with diameters in the range of a
nanometer.
Dendrimers are highly branched, star-shaped macromolecules with
nanometer-scale dimensions
Engineered materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and are intentionally
nanomaterials produced for specific product application
Fullerene an allotrope of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon atoms
connected by single and double bonds so as to form a closed or
partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven atoms.
The molecule may be a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, or many
other shapes and sizes.
Graphene a carbon-based nanomaterial derived from graphite through
exfoliation
Nanocomposites are materials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix
of standard material. The result of the addition of nanoparticles
is a drastic improvement in properties that can include
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mechanical strength, toughness and electrical or thermal

conductivity.
Nanomaterials materials that have structural components smaller than 1
micrometer in at least one dimension
Nanoparticles particles with at least one dimension smaller than 1 micron and
potentially as small as atomic and molecular length scales (~0.2
nm)
Nanotechnology the design, synthesis, and application of materials and devices
whose size and shape have been engineered at the nanoscale
Top-down Approach uses larger (macroscopic) initial structures, which can be
externally-controlled in the processing of nanostructures
Essential Knowledge
In our fast advancing technology, we are introduced to on-blink discoveries and
innovation. One of these is the introduction of the usage on nanomaterials in different
applications that make our lives more convenient and better. We will now discover what
nanomaterials are delving specifically to engineered ones. We will discuss its four main
types and some of their examples.
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are any material with any external dimension in the nanoscale
which ranges from 1-100 nanometers or internal or surface structure are in nanoscale
(IOS, 2015). Moreover, the European Commission (2011) defined a nanomaterial as any
natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particles in an unbound state or
as an aggregate where 50% or more of the particles’ size extends from 1-100 nm.
Fundamental Properties of Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials nucleate, grow, and dissolve via a set of elementary chemical
processes that spontaneously redistribute charge and mass at the atomic scale. These
processes include electron and proton transfer reactions that rearrange ions and
complexes into nanophases. They can be understood by using thermodynamic, kinetic,
and transition-state theory to describe intermediate states along reaction pathways on
free-energy landscapes. Classical nucleation theory describes ion-by-ion assembly to
form crystals, but nonclassical growth pathways are also important; these pathways
involve formation of intermediate multinuclear ion clusters and small nanomaterials
that can transition to relatively larger nanomaterials and bulk crystals by particle-based
crystallization (Yoreo et al 2015 & Van Driessche, 2017).
The distinct properties of all natural and anthropogenic nanomaterials stem
primarily from the comparatively high proportion of surface atoms relative to interior
ones. At times, these properties are best described using quantum mechanics. Smaller
particles have fewer atoms, which translates to fewer electron energy levels. Therefore,
electron energy bands become discrete electron energy states, of energies that are
sensitive to particle size, a condition known as quantum confinement. Nevertheless,
however “nano” is defined or considered, size and shape are essential characteristics
because they exert primary control over reactivity and transport physics. Size and shape
also determine the types and distributions of reactive surface sites capable of chemical
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transformations and, at times, the toxicity of nanomaterials. Owing to the high

proportion of surface versus bulk atoms, even the smallest variations in surface
structures may control the fate and reactivity of nanomaterials in air, water, soil, or
biota. Through their influence on surface charging behavior, size and shape also control
the tendency for aggregation, a critically important aspect that can blend or obscure the
characteristics of individual particles as they adopt new characteristics in
nanocomposites.
The interplay between growth, dissolution, evaporation, and aggregation are key
aspects of nanomaterials in the environment (Fig. 1). Oriented aggregation can result in
the formation of larger particles with complex shapes (Penn et al, 1998). But because of
the complexity of natural settings, most nanomaterials are found in heteroaggregated
composites of different inorganic and organic materials. These aggregates can diverge
markedly from spherical shapes and may even form highly branched or fractal
structures, thereby fundamentally affecting transport properties and reactivities. Rates
of particle dissolution, although known or experimentally measurable for many pure-
phase nanomaterials in a well-dispersed state (Cwiertny et al 2009 & Schoepf Schoepf
et al 2017), are challenging to predict for complex nanomaterial aggregates that have
substantial internal surface areas with limited accessibility (Liu et al, 2008).
Furthermore, these physical associations change as the nanomaterials encounter and
transition through different local environments. Only in relatively simple systems can
the evolution of particle size, shape, and aggregation state, and thus the distribution of
effective particle diameters, be predicted with reasonable accuracy (Mullaugh & Luther,
2011).
Figure 1. Conceptual free-energy landscape for the formation and interactions that
define the typical state of nanomaterials in the environment.
Shown are chemical formation mechanisms of nanomaterials, from complexes to
clusters and beyond, within aqueous solutions. This creates nanomaterials (teal solid
curve) that are more stable than the product of continuous growth (teal dashed curve),
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which results in larger bulk crystals (represented here as a precipitated single crystal or
a crystal formed by oriented attachment of nanocrystals, OA) that have a free energy
represented by the horizontal red dotted line. Moving across the graphic from left to
right, as shown by the curved arrow, symbolizes the myriad interactions of stable
nanomaterials in environmental media. Individual nanoparticles at an energy
represented by the horizontal purple dotted line tend to form heteroaggregates at an
even lower free-energy state. Here, net attractive interactions with unlike particles and
compounds (green curve) tend to outcompete processes that could lead to single-phase
bulk crystals assembled by, for example, OA (green dashed curve), producing, instead,
long-lived composites of complex composition and structure.
Engineered Nanoparticles
Engineered nanomaterials are materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and are
intentionally produced for specific product applications. Furthermore, they possess
different chemical and physical properties from those larger forms of the same material
(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2018).
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007), there are
four main types of engineered nanomaterials. These are mainly Carbon-Based, Metal-
Based, Dendrimers, and Nanocomposites.
 Carbon- Based Nanomaterials (CBNs)
From its name, carbon- based nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon
which may form hollow spheres, ellipsoids or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon
nanomaterials are generally called fullerenes whereas cylindrical ones are called
nanotubes. These particles are best used in improved films and coatings, stronger and
lighter materials and electronics application. Some examples of Carbon- Based
Nanomaterials are as follows:
Carbon Nanotubes
It is referred as the most widely used CBN. It is known for its tunable physical
properties such as diameter, length, surface functionalization and chirality. It is
produced through arc discharge or chemical water deposition of graphite. Carbon
nanotubes have cylindrical carbon structure and wide range of electrical and optical
properties (Saito, et al, 1998).
Figure 2. Carbon nanotube

Graphene
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Graphene is the latest CBN to burst into the scene. It is derived from graphite
through exfoliation, a method introduced by Geim and Novoselov (2007). In addition,
graphene is extraordinarily strong and is famed as the strongest material ever known
and tested. It is supernaturally light and electrically super conductive (Science 321, 385
and Changu, 2008).
Figure 3. Graphene
Fullerenes
Fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Rice University’s researchers and was
named after Buckminster Fuller. Spherical fullerenes are called buckyballs, the C60
variant which resembles a typical black and white soccer ball. On the other hand,
cylindrical ones are called buckytubes (Science Daily, 2018).
Buckminsterfullerene
Also known as buckyball, is a spherical close-caged structure made of sixty sp2
carbons. It has a highly symmetrical structure which gives it its electronic properties
(Kroto, et al, 1985).
Figure 4. Buckyball
 Metal- Based Nanomaterials
These are nanomaterials made up of metals, semiconductors and oxides. They
have very interesting mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical and chemical properties
(Stephenson and Hubler, 2015). Metal- based nanomaterials may include quantum dots,
nanogold, nanosilvers and metal oxides. Some examples of Metal-Based Nanomaterials
are as follows:
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Nanoparticles
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Iron oxide is one of the three main oxides of iron. It is a reddish brown, inorganic
and is paramagnetic in nature delivery and imaging, molecular and cellular tracking,
detection of cancer, diabetes, etc. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are
known for their magnetic properties and biocompatibility. Due to these properties, iron
oxide nanoparticles are used in biomedical applications such as for enhanced resolution
content agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). (Morales, et al, 2003)
Gold Nanoparticle (Colloidal Gold)
Gold nanoparticles also known as colloidal gold are suspension or colloid of
nanomaterial particles of gold (Giljohan, et al, 2010). Colloidal gold solutions have either
intense red color or dirty yellowish color (Murphy, et al, 2008). According to Link, et al.
(1999), the properties and applications of gold nanoparticles depend upon its shape.
 Dendrimers
Dendrimers are nanosized polymers built from branched units. Their surfaces
have numerous chains which can be tailored to perform a specific chemical function.
Moreover, this is also the reason for being useful in catalysis. They may also be used for
drug delivery due to its interior cavities which other molecules could be placed. This is
particular for three-dimensional dendrimers. Some types of Dendrimers are as follows:
Polyamidoamine (PAMAM)
Perhaps, the most well-known dendrimer. PAMAM has a diamine core,
commonly ethylenediamine which is reacted with methyl acrylate. Then, another
ethylenediamine is reacted to make the generation-0 (G-0). Eventually successive
reactions create higher generations (Hermanson, 2008).
Figure 5. PAMAM dendrimer

Peptide Dendrimers
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These are dendrimers which held amino acid as branching or interior units.
Diagnostic purposes and vaccine delivery are some of its applications (Yasukawa, et al,
2008).
Multilingual Dendrimers
Dendrimers which hold multiple copies of functional group on their surface
(Pushkar, et al, 2006).
 Nanocomposites
These are nanomaterials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix of a
standard material. The potential effect of this addition are mechanical strength and
electrical and thermal conductivity. They work as thin-film capacitors for computer
chips, solid polymer electrolytes for batteries, impellers, oxygen and gases barriers and
many more (AzoNano, 2015)
Types of Nanocomposites (according to matrix)
Ceramic-Matrix Nanocomposite
In this type of nanocomposite, the main part or the matrix is a ceramic (a
chemical compound from the group of oxides, nitrides, borides, etc.). Usually, ceramic-
matrix nanocomposites have metal as the second component. The two components are
finely dispersed in each other to create a particular nanoscopic properties (Kruis, et a,
1998).
Metal-Matrix Nanocomposites
Also defined as reinforced metal matrix composites, having metal as the primary
component. The best example is the Carbon nanotube metal-matrix composite (Janas
and Liszka, 2007). Other examples are boron nitride reinforced metal matrix
nanocomposites and carbon nitride metal-matrix nanocomposites (Bakshi, et al, 2010).
Polymer-Matrix Nanocomposites
This type of nanocomposite can be produced by adding a nanoparticle to a
polymer matrix to enhance performance, functions, and properties. These are
sometimes called nanofilled polymer composites (Manias, 2007). Nanoparticles such as
carbon nanotubes, graphene, molybdenum, disulfide and tungsten disulfide are usually
used as reinforcing agents (Rafiee, et al, 2009).
Generally, the realm of engineered nanomaterials is considerably vast as well as
their applications. They were categorized according to composition and those categories
were further divided into types. To sum up, there are four main types of engineered
nanomaterials, namely, Carbon-Based Nanomaterials, Metal-Based Nanomaterials,
Dendrimers and Nanocomposites. Some of the types and examples are recognized in this
section to give a brief outlook in the bigger and wider concept of engineered
nanomaterials.
Synthesis of Engineered Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials Production
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Materials in the nanometer size are in demand for production for the past years.
It is used in a broad variety of applications. So as years continue to pass by, so is the
production of nanomaterials. Its production rate continues to immerse that almost all
materials were made after it. It has been compromising many products and is used in
various technologies. For example, the Carbon Black, has been used in tires since 1930
and as of now it is still being used by companies to produce tires. Moreover, most
nanoproducts are required to be processed through a series of production that inhabits
a precisely defined, narrow range of particle sizes (monodispersity) to attain a result.
The said series of processes are used to produce diverse nanoparticles, coatings,
dispersions or composites that are needed to make an engineered nanomaterial. This
production involves a thorough defined production and reaction conditions for
obtaining such size-dependent particle features. Particle size, chemical composition,
crystallinity and shape can be controlled by temperature, pH-value, concentration,
chemical composition, surface modifications and process control.
Approaches in the Synthesis on Nanomaterials
There are two approaches in the production of nanomaterials:
1. Top-Down Approach
It is a mechanical-physical particle synthesis based on the principles of
Microsystems technology. From its name Top-Down, it merely means that the
process is done from top (bigger) up to its base (lesser). Its production is done
through the mechanical crushing of the source material using a milling process
or a chemical technique like engraving metals by acids to obtain desired particles.
This approach also seeks to make a small strategy by using the larger ones to
address the making of the particles. Examples of this approach are the High
Energy Ball Milling, Laser Ablation, and Lithography (Zabara, 2016)
2. Bottom-Up Approach
This approach is patterned on physicochemical principles of molecules or
atomic self-organization. Its production begins with that of the atom of a specific
material by chemical processes based on its alteration in different mediums such
as a solution medium or gaseous medium (Zabara, 2016). This kind of synthesis
manufactured selected and more complex structures from atoms or molecules,
better controlling sizes, shapes and size ranges. The production seeks to arrange
smaller components into more complex groups.
This approach also depends merely on the chemical variation to come up
with the desired designs in manufacturing engineered nanomaterials. This
includes the Gas (Vapor) Phase Fabrication like the Pyrolysis and the Liquid
Phase Fabrication such as Solvothermal Reaction and Sol-Gel.
Synthesis in the Top-Down Approach

A. High Energy Ball Milling
It is a milling process in which a powder mixture is placed in a ball mill that
is subjected to have high-energy collision from the balls. This process was coined
by Benjamin and his co-workers at the International Nickel Company on 1960.
They found out that this method, termed mechanical alloying, could successfully
produce fine, uniform dispersions of oxide particles (Al2O3, Y2O3, and ThO2) in
nickel-based superalloys that the conventional powder metallurgy method can’t
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do. With this kind of production, the Engineered Nanomaterials came to life for
its production are not easy to produce for its unique size. This had changed the
traditional method in which production of materials is carried out by high
temperature. (Cao, 2007).
This method is using different kinds of instrument to produce such
production such as attritor, planetary mill or a horizontal ball mill. The principle
of this procedure is merely to establish the nanomaterials. Planetary ball mill is
the most frequently used system for mechanical alloying since only a very small
amount of powder is required. Therefore, the system is particularly suitable for
research purposes in the laboratory. The ball mill system consists of one turn disc
(turn table) and two or four bowls. The turn disc rotates in one direction while
the bowls rotate in the opposite direction. The centrifugal forces, created by the
rotation of the bowl around its own axis together with the rotation of the turn
disc, are applied to the powder mixture and milling balls in the bowl. The powder
mixture is fractured and cold welded under high energy impact. (Cao, 2007).
B. Laser Ablation
Laser ablation has been studied for various applications in the late 1963
but has been employed for synthesizing nanomaterials in the mid 1990s. Laser
ablation means the removal of materials from a surface by means of laser
irradiation. The word “Laser ablation” is used to emphasize the non-equilibrium
vapor or plasma conditions that is created at the surface by laser pulse, to
distinguish from “laser evaporation,” which is heating and evaporation of
material in condition of thermodynamic equilibrium. Briefly, there are two
essential parts in the laser ablation device: a pulsed laser (CO2 laser, Nd-YAG
laser, ArFexcimer laser, or XeClexcimer laser) and an ablation chamber. The high
power of the laser beam induces large light absorption on the surface of target,
which makes temperature of the absorbing material increase rapidly.
As a result, the material on the surface of target vaporizes into laser plume.
In some cases, the vaporized materials condensate into cluster and particle
without any chemical reaction. In some other cases, the vaporized material reacts
with introduced reactants to form new materials. The condensed particle will be
either deposited on a substrate or collected through a filter system consisting of
a glass fiber mesh. Then, the collected nanoparticle can be coated on a substrate
through drop-coating or screen-printing process. (Cao, 2007).
Synthesis in the Bottom-Up Approach

A. Pyrolysis
A technique usually classified as vapour phase synthesis process in the
production of the nanomaterials. It is considered a chemical synthesis for it uses
chemical reactions to obtain its specific objective in synthesizing nanoparticles
to produce nanomaterials. The routes of this synthesis are: the Nanomaterial
starts abruptly when a sufficient degree of supersaturation of condensable
products is reached in the vapour phase. When the nucleation occurs, fast
particle growth takes place by coalescence/coagulation rather than further
nucleation. At sufficiently high temperatures, particle coalescence (sintering) is
faster than coagulation and spherical particles are formed. At lower
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temperatures, coalescence slows down and partially sintered, non-spherical

particles and/or loose agglomerates of particles are formed.
It follows that, to prepare small, spherical particles, it is necessary to create
a high degree of supersaturation for inducing the formation of a high density of
nuclei and then quickly quench the particle growth either by removing the source
of supersaturation or by slowing down the kinetics. The products that resulted
from this process are done thoroughly to achieve the best engineered
nanomaterials we’re aiming for (Zabara, 2016).
B. Solvothermal Reaction
Solvothermal Reaction is a method for preparing engineered
nanomaterials such as nanobots and nanorods. A liquid phase synthesis that
involves the use of solvent under moderate to high pressure typically between 1
atm and 10,000 atm and temperature typically between 100 °C and 1000 °C that
is responsible for the interaction of precursors during synthesis. The formation
of nanocrystal is controlled by manipulating the solvent supersaturation,
chemical of interest concentration, and kinetic control. This method can be used
to prepare thermodynamically stable and metastable states including novel
materials that cannot be easily formed from other synthetic routes. Over the last
decade, a majority (~80%) of the literature concerning solvothermal synthesis
has focused on nanocrystals. If water is used as the solvent, the method is called
“hydrothermal synthesis.” The synthesis under hydrothermal conditions is
usually performed below the supercritical temperature of water (374 °C). The
process can be used to prepare much geometry including thin films, bulk
powders, single crystals, and nanocrystals to produce engineered nanomaterials
(Zabara, 2016).
C. Sol-Gel
A well-established colloidal chemistry technology, which offers possibility
to produce variety of nanomaterials with novel, predefined characteristics in a
simple process at a low cost. The term “sol” originated from the name of a
colloidal solution made of solid particles few hundred nm in diameter, suspended
in a liquid phase, while the gel refers to the solid macromolecule immersed in a
solvent. Sol-gel process consists in the chemical transformation of a liquid (the
sol) into a gel state and with subsequent post-treatment and transition into solid
oxide material. The main benefits of sol–gel processing are the high purity and
uniform nanostructure achievable at low temperatures (Zabara, 2016).
Applications of Engineered Nanomaterial

Types of Carbon-Based Nanomaterials
1. Graphene
Graphene can be used as energy storage and it is being studied and
developed to be used in manufacture of super capacitors which are able to be
charged very quickly. Also it can be able to store a large amount of electricity.
Graphene – enhanced lithium ion batteries could be used in much higher energy
usage application such as electricity powered vehicles, smart phones, laptops,
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and tablets PCs but at significant lower level of size and weight (La Fuente, n.d.).
2. Nanodiamonds
The nontoxicity and biocompatibility of nanodiamonds (NDs) in their
excellent physical performance have rendered them attractive candidates for
biomedical applications. Nanodiamonds have great potential in drug nano
formulations because of its small size compared with any carbon-based
nanomaterial. Nanodiamonds are nontoxic so they have the excellent absorption
properties that can be formulated into skin care products. Other application of
nanodiamond is for skin care meditation and wound healing.
3. Nanofiber
Nanofiber layers produced from biopolymers (chitosan, gelatin, collagen,
polykaprolakton and etc.) can be used as wound healing for significant support
of the wound healing process. Also, it is possible to add antibacterial material and
drugs to the nanofiber structure that can be used in contaminated wounds.
4. Fullerenes
Fullerenes belong to the class of inorganic molecules and show wide
availability due to their small size and biological activity. The fullerene core is
hydrophobic and the functional group is attached to its core. By attaching
hydrophilic moieties, fullerene become water-soluble and capable of carrying
drugs and gene for the cellular delivery. Derivatized fullerene can cross the cell
membrane and bind to the mitochondria (Folley, 2002).
5. Carbon Nanotubes
Carbon nanotubes or (CNTs) have the intrinsic characteristics desired in
materials used as electrodes in batteries and capacitors. They have tremendously
high surface area that’s good for electrical conductivity, their linear geometry
makes their surface highly accessible to the electrolyte. Aside from good
electrical conductivity, they also have good mechanical properties which lead to
wealth application including advanced components.
Types of Metal-Based Nanomaterial

1. Quantum Dots
Quantum dots can be used for producing images of cancer tumors and it is
used to evaluate the performance of cancer treatments. Also, it is used to produce
miniature laser to be used in communication devices. The advantage of this laser
is its high speed data transfer with low power consumption. Quantum dots can
be used in computer or TV displays. Using quantum dot display should be
thinner, lower than current displays as well as able to be flexible.
2. Nanogold
The application of nanogold conjugated with therapeutic agents improve
the pharmacokinetics of the “free” drug and sustain release properties that
makes it an attractive tool for drug delivery and gene delivery.
Large surface area to volume ratio of gold nanoparticles enables their
surface to be coated with hundreds of molecules including therapeutics, targeting
agents, and anti-fouling polymers. Also, in DNA combined assembly, gold
particles are used as efficient gene transfection tools.
3. Nanosilvers
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Nanosilvers have antibacterial and conductive applications. For

antibacterial application, nanosilvers are used for wound dressing, appliances
and cosmetics. For conductive application, they are used as conductive inks and
integrated into composites to enhance thermal and electrical conductivity
(Oldenburg, n.d.).
Dendrimers
The most promising potential of dendrimers is in their possibility to perform
controlled and specified drug delivery, which regards the topic of nanomedicine. One of
the most fundamental problems that are set toward modern medicine is to improve
pharmacokinetic properties of drug for cancer (Sampathkumar and Yarema, 2007).
There are many other areas of biological chemistry where application of
dendrimer system may be useful. One example is cellular delivery using carrier dendritic
polymer used in the purification of water dendrimer-based product (Tiwari, 2008).
PAMAM dendrimers have several applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical
fields. It has also been used for gene delivery and delivery of diagnostic agents. PAMAM
dendrimers are nonimmunogenic, are water soluble, and possess terminal functional
groups for binding various targeting or guest molecules (Araújo et al, 2018).
Polyadoamine (PAMAM) is a type of dendrimer, containing variety of molecules, such as
drugs and therapeutic agents that can be loaded in the interior space and also in the
surface of PAMAM dendrimers to control the rate of release of these agents into the
body.
Types of Composites
1. Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites
Carbon nanotube is used to give more applications in nanocomposites.
Ceramic matrix nanocomposites are good in applications that require good
thermal and electrical properties. They are used as medical devices and implants,
automotive, aerospace and power generation, tool and die material (Soutter,
2013).
2. Metal Matrix Nanocomposites
The other example is metal matrix nanocomposites. With the use of carbon
nanotube, they can be used in different industries, such as in sports: badminton,
tennis racket and light weight bicycle; aerospace: landing gears and aircraft
brakes; automobile: gears, break shoes, piston rings and cylinder liners.
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:
Kumar, N., & Kumbhat, S. (2016). Essentials in nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135420731/2FD5DC110D374426PQ/
1?accountid=31259. Chapter 1: Introduction pp xlv-lxxiii
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Let’s Check
1. What is nanotechnology?
2. What are engineered nanomaterials? Give examples and discuss each.
3. What analytical techniques are used to characterize nanomaterials?
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Let’s Analyze
1. Compare nanomaterials with microplastics.

2. What active ingredient/s in sunscreen is/are considered nanomaterial? Why
does sunscreen contain nanomaterials in the first place?
3. Can nanomaterials used in sunscreen cross the skin barrier and enter the body?
4. Is the UV-protection in nanomaterial-containing sunscreens only effective if the
nanomaterials enter the skin and how are they excreted later?
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In a Nutshell
1. What are the environmental implications of nanotechnology?

2. How can you ascertain the release of nanomaterials from products into the
environment?
3. How can you differentiate between natural and engineered nanoparticles in the
environment?
4. Is it possible to specifically recycle nanomaterials from products?
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Keywords Index
Bottom-up Buckminsterfullerene
Approach
Fullerene Graphene
Engineered Nanocomposites
nanomaterials
Nanoparticles Nanomaterials
Carbon Nanotechnology
nanotubes
Dendrimers Top-down Approach
References
A. E. S. Van Driessche, T. M. Stawski, L. G. Benning, M. Kellermeier, in New Perspectives
on Mineral Nucleation and Growth: From Solution Precursors to Solid Materials,
A. E. S. Van Driessche, M. Kellermeier, L. G. Benning, D. Gebauer, Eds. (Springer,
2017), pp. 227–256.
Araújo, R., Santos, S., Igne Ferreira, E., & Giarolla, J. (2018). New Advances in General
Biomedical Applications of PAMAM Dendrimers. Molecules, 23(11),
2849. doi:10.3390/molecules23112849
AzoNano. (2015). Nanocomposites- An overview of properties, application and
definition.
Bakshi, S.R, et al. (2010). Carbon nanotube reinforced metal matrix composites. A
review, International Materials Reviews, vol. 55
Cao, W., (2007) “Synthesis of Nanomaterials by High Energy Ball Milling” Retrieved
from: https://www.understandingnano.com/nanomaterial-synthesis-ball-
milling.html
D. M. Cwiertny, G. J. Hunter, J. M. Pettibone, M. M. Scherer, V. H. Grassian, Surface
chemistry and dissolution of α-FeOOH nanorods and microrods: Environmental
implications of size-dependent interactions with oxalate. J. Phys. Chem.
C 113, 2175–2186 (2009). 10.1021/jp807336t
Folley, S., et.al. (2002). Cellular localization of a water soluble fullerene derivative.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun
Geim, A.K; Novoselov, K.S. (2007). The rise of graphene. Nat Mater. 6: 183-189
Giljohan, et al. (2010). Gold nanoparticles for biology and medicine.
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Hermanson, Greg T. (2008). “7”. Bioconjugate techniques (2nd ed). Academic Press
of Elsevier: London.
International Organization for Standardization. (2015). Nanotechnologies-
Vocabulary- Part 1: Core Terms.
Janas, Dawid; Liszka, Barbara. (2017). Copper matrix nanocomposites based on
carbon nanotubes or graphene.
J. J. De Yoreo, P. U. P. A. Gilbert, N. A. J. M. Sommerdijk, R. L. Penn, S. Whitelam, D. Joester,
H. Zhang, J. D. Rimer, A. Navrotsky, J. F. Banfield, A. F. Wallace, F. M. Michel, F. C.
Meldrum, H. Cölfen, P. M. Dove, Crystallization by particle attachment in synthetic,
biogenic, and geologic environments. Science 349, eaaa6760 (2015).
10.1126/science.aaa6760pmid:26228157
J. J. Schoepf, Y. Bi, J. Kidd, P. Herckes, K. Hristovski, P. Westerhoff, Detection and
dissolution of needle-like hydroxyapatite nanomaterials in infant formula.
NanoImpact 5, 22–28 (2017). 10.1016/j.impact.2016.12.007
J. Liu, D. M. Aruguete, J. R. Jinschek, J. Donald Rimstidt, M. F. Hochella Jr., ., The non-
oxidative dissolution of galena nanocrystals: Insights into mineral dissolution rates
as a function of grain size, shape, and aggregation state. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
72, 5984–5996 (2008). 10.1016/j.gca.2008.10.010
K. M. Mullaugh, G. W. Luther, Growth kinetics and long-term stability of CdS
nanoparticles in aqueous solution under ambient conditions. J. Nanopart. Res. 13,
393–404 (2011). 10.1007/s11051-010-0045-9
Kroto, H.W, et al. (1985). Buckminsterfullerene. Nature. 318: 162-1623.
Kruis, F.E, et al. (1998). Synthesis of nanoparticles in the gas phase for electronic,
optical and magnetic applications.
La Fuente, J. (n.d.). Graphene Application and Uses. Retrieved from
https://www.grapehenea.com/pages/grapehene-uses-
applications#.w37yeqSFPIU
Link, et al. (1999). Simulation of the optical absorption spectra of gold nanorods as a
function of their aspect ratio and the effect of the medium dielectric constant.
Manias, Evangelos. (2007). Nanocomposite: Stiffer by design. Nature Materials
Morales, et al. (2003). Contrast agent for MRI based on iron oxide nanoparticles
prepared by laser pyrolysis.
Murphy, CJ, et al. (2008), Gold nanoparticles biology: beyond toxicity to cellular
imaging
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during the handling of nanomaterials.

Oldenburg, S. (n.d.). Silver Nanoparticles: Properties and Application. Retrieved from
https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/technical-documents/articles/materials-
science/nanomaterial/silver-nanoparticles.html
Pushkar, et al. (2006). Dendrimers: Nanotechnology derived field, polymers in drug
delivery. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research.
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free nanocrystals. Science 281, 969–971 (1998).
10.1126/science.281.5379.969pmid:9703506
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formation of metastable phases: Insights from nanocrystalline TiO2. Am. Mineral.
83, 1077–1082 (1998). 10.2138/am-1998-9-1016
Refiee, M.A, et al. (2009). Enhanced mechanical properties of nanocomposites at low
graphene content.
Saito, R, et al. (1998). Physical properties of carbon nanotubes. Imperial CollegePress,
London.
Sampathkumar, SG., Yarema, KJ. (2007). Nanomaterials for Cancer Diagnosis and
Theraphy. Nanotechnologies for the Life Sciences. Volume 6: pp 1-47.
Science 321, 385 (2008); Changu, Lee, et al. Measurement of the elastic properties and
intrinsic strength of monolayer graphene.
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Soutter, W. (2013). Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites with Carbon Nanotube.
Stephenson, C and Hubbler, A. (2015). Stability and conductivity of self-assembled wires
in a transverse electric field.
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Tiwari, DK., et.al. (2008). Application of nanoparticles in waste water management.
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United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2007). Classification of
nanomaterials, the four main types of intentionally produced nanomaterials
Yasukawa, et al. (2004). Drug Delivery Systems for vitro Retinal Diseases. Progress in
Retinal and Eye Research
Zabara, M., (2016) “Metallic Nanoparticles, part II (Top- Down and Bottom-
Up)” Retrieved from: https://nanografi.com/blog/metallic-nanoparticles-part-
ii-top- down-and-bottom up/
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Schedule of Activities Week 1-3

This section calendars all the activities and exercises including readings and
lectures, as well as time for making assignments and doing other requirements in a
programmed schedule by days and weeks, to help the students in SDL pacing regardless
of mode of delivery (OBD or DED).
Activity Date Where to submit
Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
First Exam September 4, 2020 BlackBoard
NOTE: Please be aware of the deadline for the submission of the activities in this manual.
Further instructions will be given in your respective blackboard account.
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Big Picture II
Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected to
a. demonstrate understanding on the chemistry of atmosphere;
b. explain the chemistry of water;
c. show understanding of the concept of soil chemistry.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. demonstrate understanding on the chemistry of

atmosphere
Metalanguage
of the chemistry of atmosphere to demonstrate ULOa will be reviewed. Please refer to
these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding
educational concepts.
Acid Rain rain, or precipitation, with a pH of 5.6 or lower. It is caused by the

pollutants sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides.
Ammonification a process when an organism excretes waste or dies, the nitrogen in
its tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen (e.g. amino acids, DNA)
Assimilation the formation of organic nitrogen compounds like amino acids from
inorganic nitrogen compounds present in the environment.
Organisms like plants, fungi and certain bacteria that cannot fix
nitrogen gas depend on the ability to assimilate nitrate or ammonia
for their needs.
Combustion or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical
reaction between a fuel and an oxidant, usually atmospheric oxygen,
that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a mixture termed
as smoke.
Conduction the transfer of heat energy through matter from particle to particle;
most effective in solids
Convection the transfer of heat energy in gases or liquids due to density
differences
Coriolis Effect an effect whereby a mass moving in a rotating system experiences a
force (the Coriolis force) acting perpendicular to the direction of
motion and to the axis of rotation. On the earth, the effect tends to
deflect moving objects to the right in the northern hemisphere and
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to the left in the southern and is important in the formation of

cyclonic weather systems.
Denitrification the process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing
bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere
Exosphere a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural
satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body, but
where the density is too low for them to behave as a gas by colliding
with each other.
Humidity the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given location on
Earth’s surface
Ionosphere the layer of the earth's atmosphere that contains a high
concentration of ions and free electrons and is able to reflect radio
waves. It lies above the mesosphere and extends from about 50 to
600 miles (80 to 1,000 km) above the earth's surface.
Latitude an angle (defined below) which ranges from 0° at the Equator to 90°
(North or South) at the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or parallels,
run east–west as circles parallel to the equator.
Longitude a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a
point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a celestial body. It is an
angular measurement, usually expressed in degrees and denoted by
the Greek letter lambda. Meridians connect points with the same
longitude.
Mesosphere the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere
and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere,
temperature decreases as altitude increases.
Nitrification the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate
Nitrogen the process of converting N2 into biologically available nitrogen
fixation
Ozone also called trioxygen; an inorganic molecule with the chemical
formula O₃; a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell.
Radiation waves that directly transport energy through space; brings heat to
our planet.
Smog fog or haze combined with smoke and other atmospheric pollutants.
Soot a black powdery or flaky substance consisting largely of amorphous
carbon
Stratosphere the second layer of the atmosphere, it is just above the troposphere
Thermosphere the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the mesosphere
and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the atmosphere,
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ultraviolet radiation causes photoionization/photodissociation of

molecules, creating ions in the ionosphere.
Troposphere the lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere
Essential Knowledge
Atmospheric Chemistry
According to Dharmesh Patel (2016), atmospheric chemistry studies the
chemical composition of the natural atmosphere, the way gases, liquids, and solids in the
atmosphere interact with one another and with the Earth's surface and associated biota.
This field is also concerned with how the activities of the human race changed or
is changing the both physical and chemical characteristics of the atmosphere. It is a
multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on: Environmental Chemistry,
Physics, Meteorology, Computer Molding, Oceanography, Geology, Volcanology and etc.
The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural processes
such as volcano emissions and lightning. But it has also been changed by human activity
and these changes are harmful to human health, crops, and, ecosystems. Some of the
problems addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain, ozone depletion,
photochemical smog, greenhouse gases, and global warming.
Layers of The Atmosphere
The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere is referred to Troposphere. It harbors
about every single living thing and almost all human activity. It is also the area of
atmosphere where the weather occurs. The temperature in this area decreases as the
altitude increases.
Stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere; it is just above the
troposphere. It is also where the ozone can be found. Unlike the troposphere,
stratosphere temperature increases as the altitude decreases.
The third layer of the atmosphere is Mesosphere. Similar to troposphere, as you
get higher, the temperature gets colder.
Thermosphere is the next layer above the mesosphere. It has a very thin air. It is
also where the ionosphere located. Ionosphere is full of electrically charged ions. The UV
rays ionizes these gases.
Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It extends up to 10,000 km
above the surface. (Cassie’s Chemistry)
Composition of The Atmosphere
Early Atmosphere
Around 4.7 billion years ago, volcanic activity formed the Earth’s atmosphere and
mainly composed of carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O), methane (CH4), and
ammonia (NH3).
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As the Earth cooled, the water vapour (H2O) condensed and formed the oceans.
This result to bacteria, algae and small organism to evolve and carried out the process
called photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolved in the oceans and was taken by
organism and eventually "locked up" in sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels.
As plant evolved, photosynthesis took CO2 and produced O2.
Other gases such as methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) decreased as they reacted with
oxygen. As for nitrogen (N2), it is very unreactive so it has built up over time.
Today’s Atmosphere
The changes in the early atmosphere resulted to the atmosphere in the present.
The atmosphere today is mostly nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) with very small amounts
of other gases such as water vapor (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and noble gases such as
argon, neon, xenon, and krypton.
The Pie chart shows the percentage by mass of the composition of a dry air atmosphere.
Nitrogen Cycle
Nitrogen (N2) molecules can't be utilized straightforwardly by plant or creatures.
It also held by a very strong triple bond. Thus, there is a process that an organism needed
to do. (Hill, 2013)
According to Bernhard (2010), the major transformations of nitrogen are
nitrogen fixation, assimilation, nitrification, denitrification, and ammonification.
Nitrogen Fixation is the process of converting N2 into biologically available
nitrogen. Although most nitrogen fixation is done by prokaryotes, some nitrogen can be
settled abiotically by lightning or certain modern procedures, including the burning of
fossil fuels.
In Assimilation, plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil by their
root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium
ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. In plants that
have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is assimilated in the form of
ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a more complex
cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant provides
amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the
bacteroids pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus
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forming an interdependent relationship. While many animals, fungi, and other

heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by ingestion of amino acids, nucleotides, and
other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs (including many bacteria) are able to
utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N sources. Utilization of various
N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.
Nitrification is the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate.
Anammox bacteria oxidize ammonia by utilizing nitrite as the electron acceptor to
produce gaseous nitrogen.
Denitrification the process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing
bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere.
Ammonification, it is a process when an organism excretes waste or dies, the
nitrogen in its tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen (e.g. amino acids, DNA). Various
fungi and prokaryotes then decompose the tissue and release inorganic nitrogen back
into the ecosystem as ammonia.
Oxygen Cycle
Plants are the main creators of oxygen in the atmosphere through the process of
photosynthesis. Plant uses sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce energy and releases
oxygen. Animals breathe in the oxygen and then breathe out carbon dioxide. The plant
can then use this carbon dioxide and the cycle is complete.
Processes That Use Oxygen:
Respiration - animals and plants use up oxygen when they breathe.
Decomposing - When plants and animals die, they decompose. This process uses up
oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
Rusting - This is also called oxidation. When things rust they use up oxygen.
Combustion - There are three things needed for fire: oxygen, fuel, and heat. Without
oxygen you can't have a fire. When things burn, they use up oxygen and replace it with
carbon dioxide.
Photochemical Reaction in the Atmosphere
Photochemical reaction is a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of
energy in the form of light. The upper atmosphere forms outer defense against radiation
and high energy particles that continuously bombard the Earth. These causes to two
chemical changes: photodissociation and photoionization.
Photodissociation is a chemical reaction that degrades compounds by
bombarding the molecule with photons. Photodissociation of O2 formed atomic oxygen
(O). Photoionization is when a molecule in the upper atmosphere absorbs solar
radiation, it ejects an electron to form cation (Brown, et al., 2012).
Ozone in the Atmosphere
Ozone shapes a sort of layer in the stratosphere, where it is more focused than
anyplace else and this generally high fixation is referred to "ozone layer" or "ozone
shield"
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Ozone and oxygen atoms in the stratosphere ingest bright light from the Sun,
giving a shield that keeps this radiation from going to the Earth's surface. While both
oxygen and ozone together absorb 95 to 99.9% of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, only
ozone effectively absorbs the most energetic ultraviolet light, known as UV-C and UV-B.
This ultraviolet light can cause biological damage like skin cancer, tissue damage to eyes
and plant tissue damage.
Acid Rain
It is also called as Acid Deposition. It is any kind or form of precipitation that
contains acidic components such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid that falls into the ground
from the atmosphere (United States Environment Protection Agency, 2017).
It is the result when sulfuric dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides are released into
the atmosphere. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals that is
present in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acids. Small portions of the SO2
and NOX that cause acid rain is from that natural sources such as volcanoes but majority
of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels in the industrial plants.
The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
 Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity.
 Vehicles and heavy equipments. and
 Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
 SO2 and NOX can be blown by the winds over long distances and across
borders, making it not only the problem of those people who live close to
the source but for everyone in general.
 Forms of Acid Deposition
 Dry Deposition
A form of acid deposition. This is when gases and dust particles
become acidic. The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that deposits to
earth through dry deposition depends on the amount of rainfall an area
receives.
 Wet Deposition
Is what we commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric acid and
nitric acids fall to the ground mixed in rain, snow, fog, or hail.
 Measuring Acid Rain
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Ozone depletion
According to the National Geographic (2009), the deteriorating of the ozone layer
is due to the emission of pollution that contains Bromine (Br) and Chlorine (Cl). This
deterioration allows large amount of ultraviolet (uv) B rays to reach Earth, which can
cause harm to animals and skin cancer and cataracts in human.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) are the primary culprit of the ozone layer
deterioration. When CFC’s reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to ultraviolet
rays, which causes them to breakdown into substances. The chlorine in the CFC reacts
with oxygen atoms in ozone and rips apart the ozone molecule.
The ozone layer, particularly the layer above the Antarctic has been impacted by
the pollution since the mid-1980’s. About 90 percent of the CFC’s currently in the
atmosphere were emitted by the industrialized countries in the Northern Hemisphere,
including the United States and Europe.
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Seinfeld, J. H., & Pandis, S. N. (2016). Atmospheric chemistry and physics : From air
pollution to climate change. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2130891422/D95F6363E04B4AC6PQ/
1?accountid=31259. Part I: The Atmosphere and Its Constituents pp 1-66
Casparian, A. S., & Sirokman, G. (2016). Applied chemistry for environmental engineering.
Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131182488/10450024B2084AFBPQ/
1?accountid=31259. Chapter 2: The Atmosphere and the Chemistry of Air pp 21-
44
Let’s Check
1. What are the compositions of air?

2. Differentiate climate from weather.
3. What are examples of greenhouse gases? Discuss each.
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Let’s Analyze
1. The amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's early atmosphere decreased because
it was used by plants and algae for photosynthesis, dissolved in the oceans and
formed fossil fuels. Give one other way that the amount of carbon dioxide in the
Earth's early atmosphere decreased.
2. A student burned a hydrocarbon fuel and collected the products of combustion
by placing a funnel over the burning fuel. Air was sucked through the funnel using
a pump. The student saw that soot had collected inside the funnel. Explain why
soot forms.
3. A student is investigating the energy released during the combustion of different
alcohols. The student notices that a black substance forms on the bottom of the
beaker which is held above the burning fuel. What is the identity of the black
substance and why was it produced during the combustion of the alcohols?
4. Sulfur is burned in oxygen. The gas produced is then mixed with water which
contains some universal indicator. Describe the colour change that you would
expect to see due to the indicator and explain your answer.
5. Whilst investigating the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, a student collected the
gases released and passed them through limewater. Describe the change in the
appearance of the limewater and explain why this happens.
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In a Nutshell
1. The vast majority of scientists believe that human activities are causing global
warming. Describe some of the human activities which release greenhouse gases.
Suggest changes that humans could make to reduce global warming.
2. Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate carbon are all atmospheric
pollutants. Describe the causes and effects of these pollutants.
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Keywords Index
Acid Rain Ammonification Assimilation Combustion

Conduction Convection Coriolis Effect Denitrification
Exosphere Humidity Ionosphere Latitude
Longitude Mesosphere Nitrification Nitrogen fixation
Ozone Radiation Smog Soot
Stratosphere Thermosphere Troposphere
References
Bernhard, A. (2010) The Nitrogen Cycle: Processes, Players, and Human Impact. Nature
Education Knowledge 3(10):25
Brown, T, et al, (2012), Chemistry: the central science, Library of Congress Cataloging-
in-Publication Data
Hill,J, et al., (2010) Chemistry for Changing Times, International EditioLayers Of The
Atmosphere retrieved from:
http://chemistrycassiestarzyk.weebly.com/atmosphere.html
Patel D. (2016). Atmosphere Chemistry. Retrieved from
https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/DharmeshPatel200/atmosphere-
chemistry
United States Environment Protection Agency (2017). What is Acid Rain?. Retrieved
from https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain
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National Geographic (2009). Ozone Depletion: How is Earth's Atmosphere Losing its
most important layer?. Retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/ozone-
depletion/
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. explain the chemistry of water
Metalanguage
of the chemistry of water to demonstrate ULOb will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.
Adhesion refers to the tendency of some substances to cling to other

substances. It comes from the root words “ad” for “other” and
“hesion” for “to stick to.” Adhesion is usually caused by
interactions between the molecules of the two substances.
Capillary action a reaction that results from adhesion that enables water to
“climb” upwards through thin glass tubes (called capillary tubes)
placed in a beaker of water.
Cohesion a measure of how well molecules stick to each other or group
together. It is caused by the cohesive attractive force between like
molecules.
Condensation the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid
water.
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Desalination the process of removing excess salt and minerals from water in
order to produce fresh or potable water that is suitable for both
humans and animals to consume and for irrigation.
Diffusion the tendency of substances to move from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration
Dissolved Oxygen the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water.
Epilimnion the upper layer of water in a stratified lake.
Eutrophication excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water,
frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense
growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.
Evaporation the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state back
into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor.
Evapotranspiration the process by which water is transferred from the land to the
atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces and
by transpiration from plants.
Hydrosphere the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the
surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite.
Hypolimnion the lower layer of water in a stratified lake, typically cooler than
the water above and relatively stagnant.
Osmosis the net movement of water across a selectively permeable
membrane driven by a difference in solute concentrations on the
two sides of the membrane
pH a scale used to specify how acidic or basic (or alkaline) a water-
based solution is. Acidic solutions have a lower pH, while basic
solutions have a higher pH.
Precipitation water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain, sleet,
snow, or hail.
Runoff the draining away of water (or substances carried in it) from the
surface of an area
Salinity the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water.
Surface Tension a physical property equal to the amount of force per unit area
necessary to expand the surface of a liquid.
Thermal when an appreciable temperature difference exists between the
stratification two layers, they do not mix, but behave independently and have
very different chemical and biological properties
Thermocline a steep temperature gradient in a body of water such as a lake,
marked by a layer above and below which the water is at different
temperatures.
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Transpiration the process in which some water within plants evaporates into
the atmosphere
Essential Knowledge
Chemistry of Water
Water is very essential no one has ever proclaimed that they do not need water.
Approximately 3/4 of the world is water, 72.8% of it is saltwater and therefore is
undrinkable and the remaining 21.2% is the freshwater. Approximately 60% of the
freshwater is the glaciers, 30% of it is the freshwater on ground and 10% is beneath.
About 60-70% of our body is made up of water (Khan Academy,2018). Not just humans
but most of the other animals needed water. Even bacteria are made up of water.
Water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen.

Properties of Water:
1. Polarity
Khan Academy (2018) states that water is a "polar" molecule which means
that it has an uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial negative
charge near the oxygen atom due the unshared pairs of electrons, and partial
positive charges near the hydrogen atoms. An electrostatic attraction between
the partial positive charge near the hydrogen atoms and the partial negative
charge near the oxygen results in the formation of a hydrogen bond as shown in
the illustration. The ability of ions and other molecules to dissolve in water is due
to polarity. For example, in the illustration below sodium chloride is shown in its
crystalline form and dissolved in water.
2. Hydrogen Bonding
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Due to their polarity, water molecules attract each other. The positive end
of a hydrogen atom associates with the negative end of another oxygen atom.
Hydrogen bonds, weak interactions that form between a hydrogen with a partial
positive charge and a more electronegative atom, such as oxygen. The hydrogen
atoms involved in hydrogen bonding must be attached to electronegative atoms,
such as O, N, or F (Khan Academy, 2018).
3. Cohesion
According to Khan Academy (2018), cohesion refers to the attraction of
molecules for other molecules of the same kind, and water molecules have strong
cohesive forces due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with one another.
This will result into forming surface tension.
 SURFACE TENSION, the tendency of a liquid’s surface to resist rupture
when placed under tension or stress. Water molecules at the surface (at
the water-air interface) will form hydrogen bonds with their neighbors,
just like water molecules deeper within the liquid. However, because they
are exposed to air on one side, they will have fewer neighboring water
molecules to bond with, and will form stronger bonds with the neighbors
they do have. Surface tension causes water to form spherical droplets and
allows it to support small objects, like a scrap of paper or a needle, if they
are placed carefully on its surface.
4. Adhesion
Khan Academy (2018), defines that adhesion is the attraction of molecules
of one kind for molecules of a different kind, and it can be quite strong for water,
especially with other molecules bearing positive or negative charges.
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 CAPILLARY ACTION is a reaction that results from adhesion that enables

water to “climb” upwards through thin glass tubes (called capillary tubes)
placed in a beaker of water. This upward motion against gravity, known
as capillary action, depends on the
attraction between water molecules and
the glass walls of the tube (adhesion), as
well as on interactions between water
molecules (cohesion).
5. Density
Water has lower density in its solid form due to the way hydrogen bonds
are oriented as it freezes. Specifically, in ice, the water molecules are pushed
farther apart than they are in liquid water. That means water expands when it
freezes. You may have seen this for yourself if you've ever put a sealed glass
container containing a mostly-watery food (soup, soda, etc.) into the freezer, only
to have it crack or explode as the liquid water inside froze and expanded (Khan
Academy, 2018).
6. Heat Capacity
Water has a high specific heat capacity, which is defined as the amount of
heat needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree
Celsius. The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g water by 1 °C
is has its own name, the calorie. Because of its high heat capacity, water can
minimize changes in temperature (Khan Academy,2018).
7. Evaporative Cooling
Water has a high heat of vaporization, the amount of energy needed to
change one gram of a liquid substance to a gas at constant temperature. Water’s
heat of vaporization is around 540 cal/g at 100 °C, water's boiling point. Note
that some molecules of water – ones that happen to have high kinetic energy –
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will escape from the surface of the water even at lower temperatures. As water
molecules evaporate, the surface they evaporate from gets cooler, a process
called evaporative cooling (Khan Academy, 2018).
8. Universal Solvent
Khan Academy (2018) states that water can form electrostatic interactions
(charge-based attractions) with other polar molecules and ions. The polar
molecules and ions interact with the partially positive and partially negative ends
of water, with positive charges attracting negative charges (just like the + and -
ends of magnets). When there are many water molecules relative to solute
molecules, as in an aqueous solution, these interactions lead to the formation of
a three-dimensional sphere of water molecules, or hydration shell, around the
solute. Hydration shells allow particles to be dispersed (spread out) evenly in
water. If you stir table salt into water, the crystal lattice of NaCl will begin to
dissociate into Na+ and Cl- ions. (Dissociation is just a name for the process in
which a compound or molecule breaks apart to form ions.) Water molecules form
hydration shells around the ions: positively charged Na+ ions are surrounded by
partial negative charges from the oxygen ends of the water molecules, while
negatively charged Cl- ions are surrounded by partial positive charges from the
hydrogen ends. As the process continues, all of the ions in the table salt crystals
are surrounded by hydration shells and dispersed in solution.
9. Acids and Bases
According to Khan Academy (2018), solutions are classified as acidic or
basic based on their hydrogen ion concentration relative to pure water. Acidic
solutions have a higher H+ concentration than water (greater than 1 × 10^ (-7)),
while basic (alkaline) solutions have a lower H+ concentration (less than 1 ×
10^(-7)) Typically, the hydrogen ion concentration of a solution is expressed in
terms of pH.
10. pH Scale
The pH scale is used to rank solutions in terms of acidity or basicity
(alkalinity). Since the scale is based on pH values, it is logarithmic, meaning that
a change of 1 pH unit corresponds to a ten-fold change in H+ ion concentration.
The pH scale is often said to range from 0 to 14, and most solutions do fall within
this range, although it’s possible to get a pH below 0 or above 14. Anything below
7.0 is acidic, and anything above 7.0 is alkaline, or basic (Khan Academy, 2018).
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11. Buffers
Buffers, solutions that can resist changes in pH, are key to maintaining
stable H+ start superscript, plus, end superscript ion concentrations in biological
systems. When there are too many H+ ions, a buffer will absorb some of them,
bringing pH back up; and when there are too few, a buffer will donate some of its
own H+ ions to reduce the pH. Buffers typically consist of an acid-base pair, with
the acid and base differing by the presence or absence of a proton (a conjugate
acid-base pair) (Khan Academy, 2018).
Freshwater
Fresh water is vital to life and yet it is a finite resource. Of all the water on Earth,
just 3% is fresh water. Although critical to natural and human communities, fresh water
is threatened by a myriad of forces including overdevelopment, polluted runoff and
global warming. With this in mind, WWF partners with communities, businesses and
others to decrease pollution, increase water efficiency and protect natural areas to
ensure enough clean water exists to conserve wildlife and provide a healthy future for
all.
Water Cycle
Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the continuous
circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved in
the water cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation,
precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains
essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually
changing.
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Process of Water Cycle

Evaporation
Evaporation is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid
state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor. Studies have shown that
the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers provide nearly 90 percent of the moisture in the
atmosphere via evaporation, with the remaining 10 percent being contributed by
plant transpiration (Perlman, 2016).
Condensation
Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed
into liquid water. Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible
for the formation of clouds. These clouds may produce precipitation, which is the
primary route for water to return to the Earth's surface within the water cycle.
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation (Perlman, 2016)
Precipitation
Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing
rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides
for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain
(Perlman, 2016).
Water on Earth
Types of Water
1. Ocean
The ocean is a continuous body of saltwater that covers more than 70
percent of the Earth's surface. Ocean currents govern the world's weather and
churn a kaleidoscope of life. Humans depend on these teeming waters for comfort
and survival, but global warming and overfishing threaten to leave the ocean
agitated and empty.
2. Ice/Icebergs
An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has
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broken off a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water. It may
subsequently become frozen into pack ice (one form of sea ice). As it drifts into
shallower waters, it may come into contact with the seabed, a process referred to
as seabed gouging by ice. About 90% of an iceberg is below the surface of the
water.
3. River and Lakes
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing
towards an ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the
ground and becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body
of water.
4. Groundwater
Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in
soil, sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations
of soil, sand and rocks called aquifers.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen is the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in the
water. Oxygen enters the water by direct absorption from the atmosphere, by rapid
movement, or as a waste product of plant photosynthesis. Water temperature and the
volume of moving water can affect dissolved oxygen levels.
Importance of Dissolved Oxygen in Aquatic Life
According to Zactruba (2009), dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms of life
including fish, invertebrates, bacteria and plants. These organisms use oxygen in
respiration, similar to organisms on land. Fish and crustaceans obtain oxygen for
respiration through their gills, while plant life and phytoplankton require dissolved
oxygen for respiration when there is no light for photosynthesis. The amount of
dissolved oxygen needed varies from creature to creature. Bottom feeders, crabs,
oysters and worms need minimal amounts of oxygen (1-6 mg/L), while shallow water
fish need higher levels (4-15 mg/L).
Where Does DO Come From?
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Dissolved oxygen enters water through the air or as a plant by-product. From the
air, oxygen can slowly diffuse across the water’s surface from the surrounding
atmosphere, or be mixed in quickly through aeration, whether natural or man-made.
The aeration of water can be caused by wind (creating waves), rapids, waterfalls, ground
water discharge or other forms of running water. Man-made causes of aeration vary
from an aquarium air pump to a hand-turned waterwheel to a large dam.
Eutrophication Process
Eutrophication is the excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of
water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant life
and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.
Different Methods of Analysis
Field and lab meters to measure dissolved oxygen have been around for a long
time. As this picture shows, modern meters are small and highly electronic. They still
use a probe, which is located at the end of the cable. Dissolved oxygen is dependent on
temperature (an inverse relation), so the meter must be calibrated properly before each
use.
Water Quality
Water quality is fundamental for good river health. Water quality sustains
ecological processes that support native fish populations, vegetation, wetlands and
birdlife.
Water Properties: Dissolved Oxygen
Millions of measurements and analyses have been made. Some measurements,
such as temperature, pH, and specific conductance are taken almost every time water is
sampled and investigated, no matter where in the U.S. the water is being studied.
Another common measurement often taken is dissolved oxygen (DO), which is a
measure of how much oxygen is dissolved in the water - DO can tell us a lot about water
quality.
pH -- Water Properties
The pH of water determines the solubility (amount that can be dissolved in the
water) and biological availability (amount that can be utilized by aquatic life) of
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chemical constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) and heavy
metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.).
Measuring pH
Ocean Water
Ocean waters are waters are from the ocean and seas that covers more than 70
percent of the surface of our planet. About 97 percent of the Earth’s water are from the
ocean and two percent of it are glaciers and ice caps. Less than one percent of all the
water is fresh.
Composition of Ocean Water
The ocean water is composed of various minerals namely Chloride (55%), Sodium
(31%), Magnesium (7.7%), Sulfur (3.7%), Calcium (1.2%) and others (1.4%) (NOAA,
2018).
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATER
Salinity is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water. Ocean water’s
salinity differs on the environment that the body of water is located at. The Red Sea is
considered the most saline sea among the ocean water. The red sea is very saline
because of its high temperature and confined circulation which results in high rates of
surface evaporation (high evaporation means high salinity because in evaporation, the
water vapor or the water that is evaporated into the air are tiny droplets that has no
minerals or salt thus the water that is left in the sea was left with all the minerals and/or
salt making the sea more saline with every evaporation).
Effects of Salinity in Ocean Water
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Salinity in ocean water affects the water in it in many different ways. The ocean
water is affected in its phase change, buoyancy and density. In phase change, the more
saline an ocean water is, it is more difficult to freeze it since the salt in the ocean water
disrupts the crystal formation. In buoyancy, the higher the salinity of water the higher
its buoyancy is, making less dense object float. (This is the reason why people float in
Red Sea) and higher buoyancy means higher density.
Desalination Processes
Since less than one percent of the total amount of water in the surface of the Earth
is fresh water, scientists and researchers found ways to desalinate ocean waters to
produce potable water that is needed for residential homes, agricultural and industrial
purposes.
Desalination is the process of removing excess salt and minerals from water in
order to produce fresh or potable water that is suitable for both humans and animals to
consume and for irrigation.
Two Methods of Desalination Processes
There are two methods of desalination processes: the thermal/distillation process
and the membrane processes. Under the thermal/distillation processes are three types
of distillation processes namely Multistage Flash Distillation Process or MSF which is
subdivided into two: The Once Through Multistage Flash and the Brine Recirculation
Multistage Flash; Multiple Effect Distillation Process or MED and; the Vapor
Compression or VC which is subdivided into two: The Mechanical Vapor Compression
or MVC and the Thermal Vapor Compression or TVC. Under the membrane processes is
Reverse Osmosis or RO.
Thermal/Distillation Processes
The Thermal/Distillation Processes is one of the oldest processes of desalination.
It uses phase separation method where saline or ocean water is heated to produce water
vapor and then the water vapors are condensed to produce fresh water (Tzen,2006).
Multistage Flash Distillation Process or MSF
According to Zactruba, the Once Through MSF makes the ocean water goes directly
to the heat recovery section recovery section, is then pre-heated while passing up
through the condensing coils or condensers, is heated then lastly in the brine heater and
then it passes down the flash chambers. The brine that is collected will be rejected and
then sent back to the ocean water.
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In the Brine Recirculation MSF, the seawater is pre-treated in the order that is only
one-third of the once through design. The purpose of the brine recycling pump is to
reuse the brine that has been pre-treated again in the flash chambers thus obtaining
higher efficiency in desalinating the water in each chamber.
Multiple Effect Distillation Process

The Multiple Effect Distillation Process uses a series of vessels called effects that
utilize the principle of evaporation and condensation at reduced ambient temperatures
to produce fresh water.
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Vapor Compression Process

Vapor Compression process is used for small-and-medium scale seawater
desalting units. In mechanical vapor compression or MVC, it is operated by electromotor
or diesel engine and in thermal vapor compression, it is operated by steam jet thermos-
compressor. The process is the same in both.
Membrane Processes
Reverse Osmosis or RO is a process in which water passes through a semi-
permeable barrier that is subjected to hydrostatic pressure which is greater than
osmotic pressure. This is from a process called osmosis which is a naturally occurring
process that allows a low concentrated water such as fresh water to pass through a semi-
permeable barrier to a high concentrated water which is ocean water (Heimbuch,2010).
\
Chandrappa, R., & Das, D. B. (2014). Sustainable water engineering : Theory and practice.
Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2130855869/A2FA6332EF354B99PQ/
1?accountid=31259. 4 Fundamentals of Treatment and Process Design, and
Sustainability pp 163-236
Let’s Check
1. What is water? How are water molecules bond together?
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2. What is eutrophication, what causes it and what are the dangers?

3. What is acid rain and how does it develop?
4. What is the difference between salt water and freshwater?
Let’s Analyze
1. How come not all substances are water-soluble?
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2. How is drinking water purified?

3. Is bottled water safer than tap water? Support your answer.
4. Why should we not drink seawater?
5. What is hard water? Are there any risks to hard water?
6. What health effects do microorganisms in water cause?
In a Nutshell
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1. What are the specific ways through which water pollutants enter the
environment and how are pollutants transported through water?
2. As an engineering student, how can you contribute in mitigating the problem in
water pollution?
Keywords Index
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Adhesion Capillary action Cohesion Condensation

Desalination Diffusion Dissolved Oxygen Epilimnion
Eutrophication Evaporation Evapotranspiration Hydrosphere
Hypolimnion Osmosis pH Precipitation
Runoff Salinity Surface Tension Thermal
stratification
Thermocline Transpiration
References
Boomer, R. (1974). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://scholar.google.com.
Boomer, R. (2011). Dissolved Oxygen definition. (Web post). Retrieved from http://
water.usgs.gov
El-Dessouky, H. (1998). Process synthesis: the multi-stage flash desalination system.
(Web post). Retrieved from https://www.infona.pl.
El-Dessouky, H. (2009). Dissolved Oxygen definition. (Web post). Retrieved from
http://scholar.google.com
Heimbuch, J. (July, 2010). How Desalination Works. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://www.treehugger.com.
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Specific heat, heat of vaporization and
densityofwater. Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-
bases/water-as-a-solid-liquid-and-gas/a/specific-heat-heat-of-vaporization-
and-freezing-of-water
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Acids, bases, pH and buffers. Retrieved from
bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent.
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Cohesion and Adhesion. Retrieved from
bases/cohesion-and-adhesion/a/cohesion-and-adhesion-in-water.
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Hydrogen Bonds. Retrieved from
bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/hydrogen-bonding-in-water.
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Solvent properties of water. Retrieved from
bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent.
Lenntech, B.V. (1998). Key Issues in Seawater Desalination. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://www.lenntech.com
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Lenntech, B.V. (1998). Water Cycle definition. (Web post). Retrieved from http://
water.usgs.gov
Lunt, G.P. (1949). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from
Lunt, G.P. (1974). Water Quality and its Properties. (Web post). Retrieved from http://
www.fondriest.com
MarineBio Conservation Society. (September, 2018). Ocean Chemistry. (Web post).
Retrieved from https://marinebio.org.
NOAA. (June,2018). How much water is in the ocean. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov.
Parise, T. (December, 2012). Water Desalination. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://large.stanford.edu.
Perlman, H. (July, 2018). Drink Seawater. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://water.usgs.gov.
Perlman. H. (July,2016). Process of Water Cycle. (Web post). Retrieved from
http://scholar.google.com
Rolf, A. (1952). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from
Smith, et al. (2018). Desalination by distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://www.oas.org.
Tzen, E. (2006). Desalination Technologies. (Web post). Retrieved from
Tzen, E. (2006). Freshwater definition. (Web post). Retrieved from
http://www.britannica.com
Zactruba, J. (December, 2009). How Desalination by Multi-stage Flash Distillation
Works. (Web post). Retrieved from https://www.brighthubengineering.com
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. show understanding of the concept of soil chemistry
Metalanguage
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of soil chemistry to demonstrate ULOc will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions
Bedrock the lithified rock that lies under loose softer material called
regolith within the surface of the Earth's crust or other terrestrial
planets.
Cation exchange the exchange of cations from the surface of a soil colloid to
another material.
Cation Exchange the capacity of soil to adsorb and exchange cations. It is defined
Capacity as directly proportional to the surface area and the surface charge
of the clay.
Clay is made of tiny or fine particles with a diameter less than 0.002
millimeters.
Drainage refers to the frequency and duration of periods of saturation or
partial saturation.
Humus the organic component of soil, formed by the decomposition of
leaves and other plant material by soil microorganisms.
Infiltration the downward entry of water into the immediate surface of the
soil and is influenced by texture, structure, bulk density, and the
type and connectivity of macropores.
Loam a fertile soil of clay and sand containing humus.
Permeability the state or quality of a material or membrane that causes it to
allow liquids or gases to pass through it.
Porosity a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is a fraction of the
volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or as a
percentage between 0% and 100%
Sand is made of large or coarse particles with diameters ranging from
0.05 to 2.00 millimeters.
Saprolite a chemically weathered rock. Saprolites form in the lower zones
of soil profiles and represent deep weathering of the bedrock
surface. In most outcrops its color comes from ferric compounds.
Silt is made of medium-sized particles with a diameter of 0.002 to
0.05 millimeters.
Subsoil the layer of soil under the topsoil on the surface of the ground.
Topsoil the upper, outermost layer of soil, usually the top 5–10 inches
(13–25 cm). It has the highest concentration of organic matter
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and microorganisms and is where most of the Earth's biological

soil activity occurs.
Weathering the mechanical breakdown of rock and the associated chemical
alteration of minerals that occurs at the Earth's surface.
Essential Knowledge
Soil Chemistry
Soil is an important material in sustaining life on our planet. It is a very special
mix of inorganic and organic material in form of colloids, water and different gases, and
decomposed plant and animal material, all in a variable but balanced proportions (Bear,
1964). This is the reason why soil is very important for the underlying systems that
govern how our environment works, because the soil is the interface between the
different spheres of our planet (i.e. Atmosphere for the air in soil; lithosphere for the
weathered rocks and mineral in soil; hydrosphere for the water content of soil; and the
biosphere for the organic matter, living and dead, in the content of soil).
On the soil is where we plant our crops that keeps most of the living things alive,
it is where we build our buildings and houses that shelter and protect us, and it is where
we lived our lives and where we will be living our lives for a very long time. And, it is
evident that we just take for granted the wonders of soil that we depend on. So now,
this report will help us appreciate and understand the important role of soil and its
chemistry.
Basic Soil Components:
Mineral Material
The largest component of soil is the mineral portion. Soils mineral have two
types, the primary minerals and secondary minerals. Primary minerals are those soil
materials that are the same to the parent material from which they formed, such as those
found in sand and silt. On the other hand, secondary minerals are result from the
weathering of the primary minerals, which releases important ions and form more
stable mineral forms such as silicate clay (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Primary minerals are formed at high temperature and pressure under reducing
condition without free oxygen. The secondary minerals are normally found in the clay
fraction of the soil (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Water
Water is the second basic component of soil. It is important for transporting
nutrients to growing plants, soil organisms and facilitating chemical decomposition.
Also, the capacity of soil to hold water is dependent on soil texture. The smaller particles
in soils, the more water the soil can retain. Clay soil have the greatest water holding
capacity and sand the least (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Organic Matter
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Organic matter is the next basic component that is found in soils at level of
approximately 1% to 5%. Soil organic matter is any material produced originally by
living organisms that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition
process. At any given time, it consists of a range of materials from the intact original
tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials
known as humus. Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissue. Plant residues
contain 60 – 90 percent moisture. The remaining dry matter consists of carbon, oxygen,
hydrogen, and small amounts of Sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium and
magnesium (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Gases
Air is the next basic component of soil because air can occupy the same space as
water. Oxygen is essential for root and microbe respiration which helps support plant
growth, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are also important for belowground plant function
(Balasubramanian, 2017).
Microorganisms
Microorganism are very small forms of life that can sometimes live as single cells.
Many more microorganisms exist in topsoil because it has more food supplies, than the
sub soil. They are specially existing in the area next to plant roots, which called
rhizosphere (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Physical Properties:
Soil Texture
According to Moody (2008), that the soil texture is depends on the balance of
sand, silt, and clay in soil. Texture is significant since it will affect the soil’s water-holding
capacity, porosity and aeration, hydraulic conductivity, compatibility, resistance to root
penetration, nutrient-holding capacity and resistance to acidification.
Soil color
Soil color does not affect the behavior and use of soil; however, it can indicate the
composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions that the soil is subjected to. Soil
can exhibit a wide range of colour; gray, black, white, reds, browns, yellows and under
the right conditions green. Soil color has been found to be the property of soil that most
reflects its pedogenic environment and history. Soil organic matter and iron oxides
contribute most to soil color. Organic matter darkens soil, while iron oxides produce a
range of soil colors that are dependent on the oxidation state of the iron (Moody, 2008).
Soil Structure
According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger
sized aggregates that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of
aggregation and the whole size affect a soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that
the soil structure describes the proportion and shape of the aggregate. Also, the soil
consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance. Consistence has major effects
on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease of seedling
emergence and deepness of root penetration.
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Chemical Composition of Soil

The soil is composed, in the mineralogical sense, of mostly minerals from rocks
found in the crust of the Earth. The rocks found in the surface of the Earth are formed
due to the cooling of magma; these rocks go through the rock cycle, and they transform
and weather physically, chemically, and biologically. This process of weathering is a key
factor in the formation of soil. The most abundant type of rock found in the Earth’s crust
is the igneous rocks since the other types of rocks (the metamorphic and sedimentary
rocks) are derived from the igneous rocks. Since igneous rocks are the most abundant
type of rock it is the major contributor of the soil’s mineralogical content; simply put the
mineralogical content of an igneous rock is closely related to the mineralogical content
of the average soil. The minerals that consist the average igneous rocks and intensively
weathered soil are as follows:
Minerals Average of Columbiana Clay
Igneous Rocks (Costa Rica)
SiO2 60 26
Al2O3 16 49
Fe2O3 7 20
TiO2 1 3
MnO 0.1 0.4
CaO 5 0.3
MgO 4 0.7
K2O 3 0.1
Na2O 4 0.3
P2O5 0.3 0.4
SO3 0.1 0.3
Total 100.5% 100.4%
Chemical Composition of Average Igneous Rocks and an Intensively Weathered
Soil. Adapted from Bohn, McNeal, and O'Connor, 1985. Retrieved from: Fundamentals
of Soil Science (Foth, 1991)
The minerals in the soil from the rocks are divided into two groups: Primary
minerals and Secondary minerals. The primary minerals comprise and provides all the
chemical elements in soils in the form of minerals. These minerals react with other
substances creating cations and anions, or they maybe cations and anions themselves.
The most common type of primary minerals are the silicates and oxides of different
metals (Karthanasis, 2006). And, it is evident in the table that the abundance of these
minerals greatly affects the chemical elements found in the soil.
Element (Symbol) Parts Per Million Percentage (%)
(ppm) by weight
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Oxygen (O) 461,000ppm 46.1%

Silicon (Si) 282,000ppm 28.2%
Aluminum (Al) 82,300ppm 8.23%
Iron (Fe) 56,300ppm 5.63%
Calcium (Ca) 41,500ppm 4.15%
Sodium (Na) 23,600ppm 2.36%
Magnesium (Mg) 23,300ppm 2.33%
Potassium (K) 20,900ppm 2.09%
Titanium (Ti) 5,650ppm 0.565%
Hydrogen (H) 1,400ppm 0.14%
Elements in the Earth’s Crust Adopted from: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
Physics, 77th Edition. Retrieved from: https://education.jlab.org
From the table, we can see that oxygen constitutes almost half of the elements in
the soil, this is because of the oxygen bonded with different metal ions (or oxides) and
most of the elemental composition of most minerals have oxygen in them (e.g. silicates,
aluminosilicates, hydroxides, etc.). Silicon is the second most abundant in the
composition of Earth’s crust, because most of the minerals are composed with a silicon
tetrahedra, and since silicon is very much like carbon (they both have 4 valence
electron) and is very abundant in the Earth’s mantle most of the rocks and minerals that
are formed here in the crust will most likely be silicon based.
Soil Structure
According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger
sized aggregates that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of
aggregation and the whole size affect a soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that
the soil structure describes the proportion and shape of the aggregate. Also, the soil
consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance. Consistence has major effects
on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease of seedling
emergence and deepness of root penetration.
Soil Horizon
According to Balasubramanian (2017), each soil horizon might be slightly or very
much different from the other layer existing above or below it. Each horizon also tells a
story about the makeup, age, texture and other characteristics of that layer. The layers
are divided as top-soil layer, sub-soil layer, and the bed rock layers. He also said that
most of the soils have four or five major horizons. These are designated as O, A, B, C, E
and R.
The O-Horizon (humus +litter layer):
The O horizon is very common in many surfaces with lots of vegetative cover. It
is the layer made up of organic materials such as dead leaves and surface organisms,
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twigs and fallen trees. It has about 20% organic matter and this horizon is often black or
dark brown in color (Balasubramanian, 2017).
The A-Horizon (top-soil + root zone):
The A horizon may be seen in the absence of the O horizon, usually known as the
top soil. It is the top layer soils for many grasslands and agricultural lands. Typically, this
horizon is made of sand, silt and clay with high amounts of organic matter. This layer is
most vulnerable to wind and water erosion and it is also known as the root zone
The E-Horizon:
The E horizon is usually lighter in color, often occurring below O and A horizons.
It is often rich in nutrients that are leached from A and O horizons. It has a lower clay
content and common in forested lands or areas with high quality O and A horizons
The B-Horizon (Mineral Dominated Zone):
The B horizon has some similarities with the E horizon. This horizon is formed
below the O, A and E horizons and may contain high concentrations of silicate clay, iron,
aluminum and carbonates. It is also called the illuviation zone because of the
accumulation of minerals and in this layer where roots of big trees exist
The C-Horizon (Saprolite layer):
C horizon are mineral layers which are not bedrock and are little affected by
pedogenic processes and lack properties of O, A, E or B horizons. The C horizon lacks all
the properties of the layers above it. It is mainly made up of broken bedrock and no
organic material (Balasubramanian, 2017).
The R-Horizon:
The R horizon is bedrock horizon. It contains materials that are compacted and
cemented by the weight of the overlying horizons. It is the hard layer of unweathered
parent material and all kinds are rock types exist as basement (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Colloidal Properties of Soil
According to Tan (2010), a colloid is defined in the textbook term as a state of
matter consisting of very fine particles that approach, but never reach molecular sizes.
And, according to Bear (1964), a colloidal system is a dispersion of finely divided
particles distributed in a continuous phase. This means that colloids are the particles
that have the upper size limit of 0.2µm, and a lower sized limit of approximately
0.005µm or 50Å (the size of a molecule).
Many chemical and biological properties and reactions happen in the colloidal
state of matter, and these reactions are: adsorption, absorption, desorption. Sorption in
general is “a physical and chemical process by which one substance becomes attached
to the other”. Adsorption is “the uptake and retention of one material within another”
(Tan, 2010), this process only refers to the accumulation of the molecules or substances
in the surface of the adsorbing substance. Whereas absorption is the process where a
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fluid will be dissolved in solid or a liquid throughout their entire bulk. These two
sorption processes are often confused with one another. To avoid confusion, we must
keep in mind that absorption involves the entire bulk of the absorbing material to
assimilate and dissolve the molecules or substances, while adsorption only involves the
surface of the adsorbing material to accumulate the molecules or substances.
Desorption is the removal of molecules or substances that was either absorbed or
adsorbed.
The inorganic constituents in the soil are the sand (2 - 0.1mm), silt (0.1 -
0.002mm), and clay (< 0.002mm). Since sand and silt are too big to be classified as a
colloid, only fine clay particles are considered as soil colloids. These clay particles can
structurally be crystalline, disordered, or amorphous (Tan, 2010).
The organic constituents in the soil or the Soil Organic Matter (SOM) are
composed of Liable SOM and Stable SOM (Foth, 1991). The liable SOM is composed of the
readily decomposable plant or animal material in the soil, while the stable SOM is the
fully decomposed animal or plant material also called humus. Soil humus or humus
particles are the organic colloid particles in the soil. These organic matters in the soil is
mostly composed of carbohydrates, amino acids, peptides, proteins, nucleic acid, lipids,
and lignins. These particles have their own colloidal properties and affects the soil
structure and chemistry in slightly different ways (Tan, 2010).
Because of the clay particles and humus particles being small, its surface area
increases as its size decreases (as to most other materials). This increase in surface area
drives the clay particle’s and humus particle’s adsorption properties and is responsible
for the cation exchange happening in the soil and plants. This increase in surface area
also makes the clay particle and humus particle carry an electronegative charge, due to
isomorphous substitution and the dissociation of hydroxyl groups. Isomorphous
substitution is the replacement of an ion in the silicate structure of clay by another ion
that has the same size, this type of process is not affected by soil pH level thus dubbed
as a permanent structural charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan, 2010). While the other cause of
the electronegative charge of soil particles is the dissociation of OH groups on the crystal
edges or exposed planes in clay and humic substances when the pH level is high, this
process is affected by the pH thus dubbed as variable charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan, 2010).
Alkaline medium: –Al–OH + OH– ↔ –Al–O– + H2O
Acid medium: –Al–OH + H+ ↔ –Al–OH2+
Soil particles can also carry positive charges when an H+ ion is added to the
hydroxyl group of the minerals and compounds in the soil particles; this process is
dependent on the pH level and the valence electron of the metal in the soil particle. This
property allows the anion exchanges in some tropical soils (Tan, 2010).
Ion Exchange in Soil
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Ion exchange in soils Adopted from: Fundamentals of soil science (Foth, 1991).
Ion exchange in soil is very important for every terrestrial and non-terrestrial
organism, since it is how most of the producers of the ecosystem get the nutrients they
need to live, reproduce, and keep the ecosystem fed. According to Foth (1991), “ion
exchange involves cations and anions adsorbed from the solution onto negatively or
positively charged surfaces.” Basically, ion exchange is a process of taking and replacing
ions from an adsorbent material. There are two types of ion exchange: cation exchange
and anion exchange. But, because of the tendency of the soil to be more negatively
charged the cationic exchange is observed more in the soil compared to anion exchange
(Tan, 2010).
Cation Exchange. Cation exchange is the exchange of cations from the surface of
a soil colloid to another material. It may take place between (Balasubramanian, 2017):
(1) the cations in the surface of soil colloids and the cations in the soil solution, (2) the
cations in the surface of a soil colloid and cations released by plants, and (3) cations in
the surface of two clay crystals, or two clay colloids, or two organic colloids, or an organic
and clay colloid. When cations are added to the soil (e.g. K+, NH+, Ca+) the adsorption of
cations will take place depending on several different factors: the surface potential,
valence, and hydrodynamic radius (Tan,2010).
Surface potential refers to the electric potential difference of the inner and outer
surface of a colloid. Cations have different valence electrons, some are monovalent or
having only one valence electron, and some are divalent or having two valence electrons,
etc. But, as the surface potential of the soil colloid increases it would adsorb more
cations with higher valence electron; for example, in conditions of high surface potential
in a colloid it divalent cations are preferred to be adsorbed more than monovalent ones.
Adsorption of cations is also determined by the hydrodynamic radius, or the radius of
the hydration sphere that is surrounding a cation; every cation is surrounded with a
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blanket of water called the “hydration sphere”, and as this blanket of water thickens the
cation is less likely to be adsorbed by a colloid.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). CEC is “the capacity of soil to adsorb and
exchange cations” (Tan, 2010). It is defined as directly proportional to the surface area
and the surface charge of the clay. Organic matter also contributes to the CEC, but it
depends on the level of decomposition that the organic matter has undergo. CEC is very
important in the process of plant growth and scientists determine the CEC of the soil so
that farmers will know how frequently they should apply fertilizers in the soil. When
the soil has low CEC this means that it could only hold little nutrients at a time and the
soil should be fertilized frequently but in small amounts of fertilizers; soils with high
CEC on the other hand only needs to be fertilized less often but in higher dosages of
fertilizer, because soils with high CEC can adsorb more nutrients than soils with low CEC
(scienceofagriculture.org, 2018).
Soil pH
Soil pH is an important property of soil involved in the growth of plants, mainly
because it affects the nutrient content and the CEC of the soil. Soil pH can also be called
the master determinant (Tan, 2010), because most of the properties of the soil is
dependent on the pH, namely: rate of decomposition, plant growth, concentration of
micronutrients, weathering of primary minerals, and the formation of clay minerals.
These properties of soil are all somewhat dependent on the pH of the soil, this shows the
importance of determining the soil’s pH level. For example, the solubility of iron
compounds decreases if the soil pH increases, thus an alkaline soil tends to be deficient
in iron (Foth, 1991). The common range of soil pH is 4-10, higher or lower than that pH
would be described as very strongly acidic or alkaline soil, as described in the diagram
below (Foth 1991) (Tan, 2010).
Soil pH ranges and soil reaction classes. Adapted from: Brady, N. C., The Nature and
Properties of Soils, 8th ed., Figure 17–3, 463, MacMillan, New York, 1974. Reprinted and
electronically produced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River,
NJ.
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Source of alkalinity. According to Foth (1991), there are two main contributors
for the alkalinity of the soil and these are the carbonate hydrolysis and mineral
weathering. Most soils in the world are rich in calcium carbonate, these soils are called
calcareous, this abundance in CaCO3 is due to the parent material’s abundance in CaCO3.
The hydrolysis of calcium produces OH- ions, as described below, resulting to alkalinity
in the soil solution.
CaCO3 + H2O → Ca2+ + HCO3- + OH-
Calcium carbonate is only slightly soluble; thus, this reaction can only produce a
pH level as high as 8.3 when there is an equilibrium with the atmospheric carbon
dioxide. Mineral weathering can also contribute to the soil’s alkalinity, specifically the
weathering of primary minerals. This weathering of primary minerals uses H+ and
produces OH-, reducing the soil’s probability of becoming acidic while increasing its
alkalinity.
Sources for acidity. There are three main processes that contribute to the soil’s
acidity: respiration of plants and soil organisms, mineralization of organic matter,
natural precipitation (Foth, 1991). The respiration of plants and other soil organism
releases carbon dioxide in the soil which reacts with water forming carbonic acid
(H2CO3), this weak acid contributes H+ to the soil solution. The mineralization of organic
matter also contributes to the acidity of the soil, because organic matter mineralization
produces organic acids and the mineralized nitrogen and sulfur form the organic matter
will oxidize to nitric and sulfuric acids increasing the soil’s acidity. The normal process
of precipitation also slowly contributes to the soils acidity over the course of time,
because when precipitation occurs the atmospheric carbon dioxide will react with the
precipitate forming carbonic acid and gives the natural precipitation a slightly acidic pH
level (Foth, 1991).
Strawn, D. G., Bohn, H. L., & O'Connor, G. A. (2015). Soil chemistry. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131920386/70E23C15C130477CPQ/
1?accountid=31259. Chapters 1-8 pp 1-236
Sauer, T. J., Eash, N. S., Odoi, E., & O'Dell, D. (2015). Soil science simplified. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131746793/BA0C3F3AA9F24EB0PQ
/1?accountid=31259. Chapters 1-9 pp 20-188
Sposito, G. (2008). The chemistry of soils. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131898067/530194F259DF4CCFPQ/
3?accountid=31259. Chapter 1-12 pp 3-315
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Let’s Check
1. What are the different layers of soil/soil horizons?

2. What are the compositions of soil?
3. What are the macronutrients and micronutrients present in soil?
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Let’s Analyze
1. Differentiate permeability from porosity.
2. Your plants are showing signs of iron deficiency. You check the soil pH and it is
8.0. What would most likely be the best way to eliminate the iron deficiency and
why?
3. How can knowledge of the climate of an area help you make an initial assessment
of soil fertility?
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In a Nutshell
1. You know that the air around you is full of nitrogen, yet your garden regularly
shows signs that it could use a little of it. How can you harness some of the
nitrogen for your garden?
2. Is adding a large quantity of nitrogen-rich amendments to your garden before
you plant necessarily a good thing to do? Why or why not?
3. What is the most important thing you can do to a mineral soil in order to ensure
an adequate supply of and maximum availability of plant nutrients?
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Keywords Index
Bedrock Cation exchange Cation Exchange Clay

Capacity
Drainage Humus Infiltration Loam
Permeability Porosity Sand Saprolite
Silt Subsoil Topsoil Weathering
References
(SCAMP): guidelines for sustainable management of tropical upload soils, ACIAR
Monograph No. 130, 86pp.
Balasubramanian, A. (2017). Characteristic of Soil Profile.
Balasubramanian, A. (2017). Chemical Properties of Soil. Retrieved from: http://www.
Slideshare.net/bala1957/chemical-properties-of-soils. Date Retrieved:
September 15, 2018.
Bear, F.E. (1964). Chemistry of the Soil. Reinhold Pub. Corp. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Bot, A. and Benites, J. (2005). The Importance of Soil Organic Matter, Information
Division Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle
terme di Caracalla No. 00 100 Rome, Italy
Foth, H.D. (1991). Fundamentals of Soil Science, Canada: Arcata Graphics Company.
Karthanasis, A.D. (2006). Soil Mineralogy. Land use and land cover, from Encyclopedia of
Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss
Publishers, Oxford, UK, [http://www.eolss.net].
Moody, P.W., and Cong, P.T. (2008). Soil Constraints and Management Package
Nortcliff, Stephen (2006). Soil, Definition, Function, and Utilization of Soil.
Reckitt Benckiser. Soil Structure. Retrieved from: www.rsc.org/learn-
chemistry/resource/res00000885/soil-
science?cmpid=CMP00002163#!cmpid=CMP00001093. Retrieved date:
September 17, 2018.
Sposito, G. 1989. The Chemistry of Soils. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Tan, K. H. (2010). Principles of soil chemistry. CRC press.
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Schedule of Activities Week 4-5

This section calendars all the activities and exercises including readings and
lectures, as well as time for making assignments and doing other requirements in a
programmed schedule by days and weeks, to help the students in SDL pacing regardless
of mode of delivery (OBD or DED).
Activity Date Where to submit
Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities Sept 17, 2020 BlackBoard’s Assignment Feature
2nd Exam Sept 18, 2020 BlackBoard’s Quiz Feature
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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning

Course/Subject: BCHE 111/L- CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Name of Teacher: Engr. Jessie C. Calo

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

Keywords Index .............................................................................................................................................. 69

Different Methods of Analysis ............................................................................................................. 93

Course Outline: BCHE 111/L-CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Course Coordinator: Engr. Jessie C. Calo

Student Consultation: Thru email, LMS, Facebook and Phone Calls

Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual sessions)

Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning

Credit: 4 units (3 units lecture, 1-unit laboratory)

Course Outline Policy

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is

Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd ,5th

If the assessment task is done in real time through

Since this course is included in the licensure

Please note that academic dishonesty such as

However, if the late submission of assessment

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

or virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to

Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

Referencing Style College of Engineering Education referencing style

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email

assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be through the

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student

Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares

Contact Details of the Program Head Engr. Ramiro Emerson C. Amon

Online Tutorial Registration Online tutorial will be done thru LMS.

Help Desk Contact Blackboard

Library Contact Head of LIC

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

b. differentiate metals and non-metals by understanding their characteristics;

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. Demonstrate understanding on the basic

Crystal lattice is the symmetrical three-dimensional arrangement of atoms inside a

Cystalline is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered

Density mass per unit volume

Basic Concepts of Crystal Structure

Figure 1. General classification of solids

Figure 2. Unit cell

Figure 3. Primitive and non-primitive unit cell

Figure 4. Primitive cell (P) and Non-primitive cell (I and F)

Figure 5. Bravais lattices in two dimensions

They are triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal and

Volume of atoms in unit cell

Figure 6. Simple cubic unit cell

Figure 7. Body-centered cubic unit cell

Figure 8. Face-centered cubic unit cell

Figure 9. Hexagonal close-packed structure.

Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for surface

Activity 2. How is learning crystal structure relevant in the study of engineering?

Lattice Crystallographic Face-centered Space Coordination

Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. Differentiate metals and non-metals by

Malleability is a physical property of metals that defines the ability to be hammered,

Ore a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable