Bce 221 Sim SDL

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education

Civil Engineering Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: BCE 221: GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Name of Teacher: Engr. NORODDIN V. MELOG
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR REPRODUCTION AND
DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE. THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE
USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
2nd Floor, B&E Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082) 296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Table of Contents
Course Outline: BCE 221 – Geology for Civil Engineers ..................................................... 4

Course Outline Policy.................................................................................................................... 4
Course Information ....................................................................................................................... 7
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a ...................................................................................................... 8

Metalanguage ......................................................................................................................................................8
Essential Knowledge........................................................................................................................................8
Branches of Geology ..................................................................................................................................... 8
Earth Structure and Composition........................................................................................................... 9
Earth Processes............................................................................................................................................ 12
Self-Help ............................................................................................................................................................. 14
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 14
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 15
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 16
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b ................................................................................................... 17

Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 17
Essential Knowledge..................................................................................................................................... 17
Geological Works of the Rivers, Winds and Seas ........................................................................... 17
Origin, Occurrence of Earthquake ....................................................................................................... 21
Groundwater................................................................................................................................................. 25
Self-Help ............................................................................................................................................................. 26
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 27
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 27
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 28
Course Schedule (Week 1-3) .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a ................................................................................................... 29

Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 29
Mineralogy ..................................................................................................................................................... 29
Physical Properties of Minerals ............................................................................................................ 31
Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems ......................................................................... 33
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Quartz Family............................................................................................................................................... 36
Feldspar Family ........................................................................................................................................... 40
Coal and Petroleum ................................................................................................................................... 41
Self-Help ............................................................................................................................................................. 43
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 44
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 45
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 46

Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 49
Petrology ........................................................................................................................................................ 49
Igneous Rocks ............................................................................................................................................... 49
Sedimentary Rocks ..................................................................................................................................... 52
Metamorphic Rocks ................................................................................................................................... 52
Self-Help ............................................................................................................................................................. 55
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 55
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 56
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 57

Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 59
Structural Geology ..................................................................................................................................... 59
Rock deformation ....................................................................................................................................... 59
Outcrop ........................................................................................................................................................... 62
Geological Maps .......................................................................................................................................... 63
Strata ............................................................................................................................................................... 63
Fold and Faults ............................................................................................................................................ 66
Joints ................................................................................................................................................................. 69
Folds, Faults, Joints; Bearing on Engineering Construction ..................................................... 73
Self-Help ............................................................................................................................................................. 73
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 74
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 75
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 76
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Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 77
Mechanical Properties of Rocks ............................................................................................................ 77
Dynamic Properties of Rocks ................................................................................................................. 80
Grouting .......................................................................................................................................................... 83
Self-Help ............................................................................................................................................................. 85
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 85
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 86

Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 87
Geological Investigation .......................................................................................................................... 87
Methods of Geological Investigation .................................................................................................. 90
Geophysical Investigation ....................................................................................................................... 91
Self-Help ............................................................................................................................................................. 95
Let’s Check ......................................................................................................................................................... 95
Let’s Analyze ..................................................................................................................................................... 96
In a Nutshell ...................................................................................................................................................... 96

Metalanguage ................................................................................................................................................... 97
Standard Penetration Test ..................................................................................................................... 97
Standard Penetration Test Tools ......................................................................................................... 97
Geological Condition Necessary for Construction of Dams and Tunnels ......................... 100
Road Cutting .............................................................................................................................................. 101
Self-Help .......................................................................................................................................................... 103
Let’s Check ...................................................................................................................................................... 103
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................................................................... 104
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Course Outline: BCE 221 – Geology for Civil Engineers
Course Coordinator: Engr. SHOWNA LEE T. SALES

Email: ssales@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: By appointment
Mobile: -
Phone: (082) 296 1084 local 133
Effectivity Date: August 9, 2021
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-line with face to face or virtual sessions)
Time Frame: 54 hours
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Pre-requisite: BCHE 111/L – Chemistry for Engineers
Co-requisite: None
Credit: 3.0 units lecture
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face-to-face sessions
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 3-unit course self-instructional manual is
designed for blended learning mode of instructional
delivery with scheduled face to face or virtual sessions.
The expected number of hours will be 54 including the
face-to-face or virtual sessions. The face-to-face
sessions shall include the summative assessment tasks
(exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for civil engineers.
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall
be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission
and name of the student. The document should be
emailed to the course coordinator. It is also expected
that you already paid your tuition and other fees
before the submission of the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time
by the course coordinator.
Since this course is included in the licensure

examination for civil engineers, you will be required to
take the Multiple-Choice Question exam inside the
University. This should be scheduled ahead of time by
your course coordinator. This is non-negotiable for all
licensure-based programs.
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Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment

(if necessary) tasks are required to be submitted through Turnitin
with a maximum similarity index of 30% allowed. This
means that if your paper goes beyond 30%, the
students will either opt to redo her/his paper or
explain in writing addressed to the course coordinator
the reasons for the similarity. In addition, if the paper
has reached more than 30% similarity index, the
student may be called for a disciplinary action in
accordance with the University’s OPM on Intellectual
and Academic Honesty.
Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

and commissioning other students or people to
complete the task for you have severe punishments
(reprimand, warning, expulsion).
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the
possible maximum score for that assessment item for
each day or part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper

has a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2)
Assessments weeks
after the submission. This will be returned by email or
via Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

will require some or few of the students for online or
virtual sessions to ask clarificatory questions to
validate the originality of the assessment task
submitted and to ensure that all the group members
are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an
assessment task. The resubmission is premised on the
student’s failure to comply with the similarity index
and other reasonable grounds such as academic
literacy standards or other reasonable circumstances
e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
Re-marking of Assessment You should request in writing addressed to the
Papers and Appeal program
coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the
score given to an assessment task. The letter should
explicitly explain the reasons/points to contest the
grade. The program coordinator shall communicate
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with the students on the approval and disapproval of

the
request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

elevate your case to the program head or the dean with
the original letter of request. The final decision will
come from the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional
contact
Assessment methods Weights
I. LECTURE 60%
A. Exam 1 10%
B. Exam 2 10%
C. Exam 3 10%
D. Exam 4 30%
40%
E. Quizzes 15%
F. Assignments/Plates 10%
G. Board Work/oral 15%
recitation/Seatwork
100%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style IEEE Referencing
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard
portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program
head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Cañesares
Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Showna Lee T. Sales
Head Email: ssales@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: (082) 296-1084 or 300-5456 loc. 133
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
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coordinator with the approval of the program

coordinator may provide alternative assessment tasks or
extension of the deadline of submission of assessment
tasks. However, the alternative assessment tasks should
still be in the service of achieving the desired course
learning outcomes.
Help Desk Contact CEE Blackboard Administrator
Jetron J. Adtoon
jadtoon@umindanao.edu.ph
09055267834
CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902
GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
Ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu,ph
09212122846
Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu,ph
09060757721
Library Contact LIC
Brigida E. Bacani
library@umindanao.edu,ph
09513766681
Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS
CC’s Voice: Good day dear students! Welcome to this course BCE 221 – Geology for Civil
Engineers. By now, I am confident that you really wanted to become a civil
engineer and that you visualized yourself already in the field doing site
investigations. This course deals with the fundamentals of geology applied to civil
engineering problems.
CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:
CO 1: Explain the role of geology in the design and construction process of

underground openings in rock.
CO 2: Apply geologic concepts and approaches on civil engineering projects.
CO 3: Demonstrate skills in classifying rock using basic geologic classification
system.
CO 4: Use the geologic literature to establish the geotechnical framework needed
to properly design and construct heavy civil works rock projects.
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Let ug begin!
Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 1 (ULO-1): At the end of the unit, you are expected to:
a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding on geology for civil
engineers’ terminologies and concepts, this includes branches of geology
and earth processes.
b. Be able to understand the concept of work of rivers, wind and sea, origin
and occurrence of earthquake, and groundwater.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding

on geology for civil engineers’ terminologies and concepts, this includes
branches of geology and earth processes
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts of geology relevant to
the study of civil engineering and to demonstrate ULO-1a will be reviewed to have
uniform understanding in dealing all the challenges that may encounter in this course.
Please proceed immediately to the “Essential Knowledge” part since the first
lesson is also definition of essential terms.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes) for the first three
(3) weeks of the course, you need to fully understand the following essential knowledge
that will be laid down in the succeeding pages. Please note that you are not limited to
exclusively refer to these resources. Thus, you are expected to utilize other books,
research articles, and other resources that are available in the university’s library e.g.
library, search.proquest.com, etc.
Geology - The study of solid earth, the materials of which it is made, the structure of
those materials and the effects of the natural forces acting upon it. All work performed
by civil engineers involves earth and its features.
Branches of Geology:
a. Physical Geology - The study of the solid earth and the processes that change
the physical landscape of the planet.
b. Structural Geology – To elucidate the mechanism of formation of the many
types of structures that arise from such deformation.
c. Geomorphology - Concerned with the surface processes that create the
landscapes of the world- namely weathering and erosion.
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d. Historical Geology - The study of analyzing earth’s past by investigating rocks

and the information found in them.
e. Mineralogy - The study of earth’s rock that are composed of minerals.
(Sedimentary rock, Igneous rock, Metamorphic rock)
f. Paleontology - The study of fossils and is concerned not only with their
description and classification but also with analysis of the evolution of the
organisms involved.
g. Environmental Geology - The study of interaction between humans and the
geological environment.
h. Coal Geology - A modern branch of geology that deals with all aspects of coal
and the role of geology in coal industry.
Earth Structure and Composition
Core, mantle, and crust are divisions

based on composition. The crust makes up
less than 1 percent of Earth by mass,
consisting of oceanic crust and continental
crust is often more felsic rock. The mantle is
hot and represents about 68 percent of
Earth’s mass. Finally, the core is mostly iron
metal. The core makes up about 31% of the
Earth. Lithosphere and asthenosphere are
divisions based on mechanical properties.
The lithosphere is composed of both the
crust and the portion of the upper mantle
that behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The asthenosphere is partially molten upper
mantle material that behaves plastically and can flow.
Crust and Lithosphere
Earth’s outer surface is its crust; a cold, thin, brittle outer shell made of rock. The crust
is very thin, relative to the radius of the planet. There are two very different types of
crust, each with its own distinctive physical and chemical properties. Oceanic crust is
composed of magma that erupts on the seafloor to create basalt lava flows or cools
deeper down to create the intrusive igneous rock gabbro. Sediments, primarily muds
and the shells of tiny sea creatures, coat the seafloor. Sediment is thickest near the shore
where it comes off the continents in rivers and on wind currents. Continental crust is
made up of many different types of igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks. The
average composition is granite, which is much less dense than the mafic igneous rocks
of the oceanic crust. Because it is thick and has relatively low density, continental crust
rises higher on the mantle than oceanic crust, which sinks into the mantle to form
basins. When filled with water, these basins form the planet’s oceans. The lithosphere
is the outermost mechanical layer, which behaves as a brittle, rigid solid. The
lithosphere is about 100 kilometers thick. The definition of the lithosphere is based on
how earth materials behave, so it includes the crust and the uppermost mantle, which
are both brittle. Since it is rigid and brittle, when stresses act on the lithosphere, it
breaks. This is what we experience as an earthquake.
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Mantle
The two most important things about the mantle are: (1) it is made of solid rock, and (2)
it is hot. Scientists know that the mantle is made of rock based on evidence from seismic
waves, heat flow, and meteorites. The properties fit the ultramafic rock peridotite,
which is made of the iron- and magnesium-rich silicate minerals. Peridotite is rarely
found at Earth’s surface. Scientists know that the mantle is extremely hot because of the
heat flowing outward from it and because of its physical properties. Heat flows in two
different ways within the Earth: conduction and convection. Conduction is defined as
the heat transfer that occurs through rapid collisions of atoms, which can only happen
if the material is solid. Heat flows from warmer to cooler places until all are the same
temperature. The mantle is hot mostly because of heat conducted from the core.
Convection is the process of a material that can move and flow may develop convection
currents. Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on a stove.
Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up. As
the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, particles move more rapidly,
decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The rising material begins the convection
current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it spreads horizontally. The
material cools because it is no longer near the core. It eventually becomes cool and
dense enough to sink back down into the mantle. At the bottom of the mantle, the
material travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches the location where
warm mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell is complete.
Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on a stove.

Convection currents within Earth’s mantle form as material near the core heats up. As
the core heats the bottom layer of mantle material, particles move more rapidly,
decreasing its density and causing it to rise. The rising material begins the convection
current. When the warm material reaches the surface, it spreads horizontally. The
material cools because it is no longer near the core. It eventually becomes cool and
dense enough to sink back down into the mantle. At the bottom of the mantle, the
material travels horizontally and is heated by the core. It reaches the location where
warm mantle material rises, and the mantle convection cell is complete.
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Core
At the planet’s center lies a dense metallic core. Scientists know that the core is metal
for a few reasons. The density of Earth’s surface layers is much less than the overall
density of the planet, as calculated from the planet’s rotation. If the surface layers are
less dense than average, then the interior must be denser than average. Calculations
indicate that the core is about 85 percent iron metal with nickel metal making up much
of the remaining 15 percent. Also, metallic meteorites are thought to be representative
of the core. If Earth’s core were not metal, the planet would not have a magnetic field.
Metals such as iron are magnetic, but rock, which makes up the mantle and crust, is not.
Scientists know that the outer core is liquid, and the inner core is solid because S-waves
stop at the inner core. The strong magnetic field is caused by convection in the liquid
outer core. Convection currents in the outer core are due to heat from the even hotter
inner core. The heat that keeps the outer core from solidifying is produced by the
breakdown of radioactive elements in the inner core.
Earth’s Geologic History
Alfred Lothar Wegener

• A German geophysicist and meteorologist.
• He earned a PhD in astronomy from the University of Berlin in 1904.
• It was not until 1912 that the idea of moving continents was seriously considered
as a full-blown scientific theory called Continental Drift.
The continental drift hypothesis was developed in the early part of the 20th century,
mostly by Alfred Wegener. Wegener said that continents move around on Earth’s
surface and that they were once joined as a single supercontinent. While Wegener was
alive, scientists did not believe that the continents could move. Find a map of the
continents and cut each one out. Better yet, use a map where the edges of the continents
show the continental shelf. That’s the true size and shape of a continent and many can
be pieced together like a puzzle. The easiest link is between the eastern Americas and
western Africa and Europe, but the rest can fit together too.
Alfred Wegener proposed that the continents were once united into a single
supercontinent named Pangaea, meaning all earth in ancient Greek. He suggested that
Pangaea broke up long ago and that the continents then moved to their current
positions. He called his hypothesis continental drift.
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Three Types of Tectonics Boundary
I. Divergent Boundary - Movement of two plates away from each other.
II. Convergent Boundaries - When two plates collide, some crust is destroyed in the
impact and the plates become smaller.
III. Transform Boundaries - Two plates move sideways against each other.
Earth Processes
Geological processes are dynamic processes at work in the earth's landforms and
surfaces. The mechanisms involved, weathering, erosion, and deposition, this process
combined are in some respects destructive and in others constructive.
The three mechanisms in Earth Processes:

1. Weathering - the breaking down of rock.
2. Erosion - the movement of sediment from broken rock.
3. Deposition - the dropping of sediment in a new place.
Erosion - A natural process which is usually made by rock and soil being loosened from
the earth's surface at one location and moved to another. Erosion will often occur after
rock has been disintegrated or altered through weathering.
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Water Erosion - The breakdown of solid rock into smaller particles and its removal by
water. Despite its sometimes-destructive nature, water erosion is a natural
phenomenon that can literally shape our world in large ways.
• Splash Erosion - Raindrops may have sufficient kinetic energy when they fall on
soil that the impact can produce detachment and airborne movement of small
soil particles.
• Sheet Erosion - Is produced by heavy rain on bare soil where water flows as a
sheet down gently sloping land, removing soil particles in thin layers evenly.
• Rill erosion - Occurs in discrete streamlets carved into the soil. When rills
become too deep to be removed by plowing, gullies form.
• Gully erosion - Results where water flows along a linear depression eroding a
trench.
• Valley or stream erosion - Is produced when water continuously flows along a
linear feature, eroding downward, deepening the valley, and extending the valley
headward towards the hillside.
Wind Erosion - Wind erosion is a natural process that moves soil from one location to
another by wind power. Wind generally causes erosion by deflation and/or abrasion.
• Wind abrasion - Abrasion is the process of erosion produced by the suspended

particles that impact on solid objects.
• Wind deflation - Wind causes the lifting and transport of lighter particles from a
dry soil, leaving behind a surface of coarse grained sand and rocks.
Ice Erosion - Snow deposited at high elevations has potential energy that is converted
into energy of motion when it is converted to ice and flows as a glacier.
Gravity Erosion - An erosional process that moves rocks and sediments downslope due
to the force of gravity. The material is transported from higher elevations to lower
elevations where other transporting agents like streams or glaciers can pick it up and
move to even lower elevations.
Weathering - caused by elements (weather) wearing away the surface of a rock.

Breaking of rocks into smaller rocks or sediments.
Two Types of weathering
Physical Weathering- breaking down of rocks without a change in composition.

➢ Frost Action – results from the alternating freezing and thawing of water.
➢ Abrasion – Rocks and sediment grinding against each other wear away
surfaces. The rocks become smoother as rough and jagged edges break off.
➢ Exfoliation - term used to describe the peeling away of sheets of rock
millimeters to meters in thickness from a rock's surface.
➢ Root Wedging - is the process in which roots grow into the cracks in rocks
and force the cracks open as they continue to grow.
Chemical Weathering - breaking down of rocks with a change in composition.

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➢ Oxidation – is when oxygen reacts with the minerals of a rock.

➢ Carbonation - carbon dioxide gas dissolves in groundwater forming weak
carbonic acid. Large masses of limestone can be dissolved, forming caves,
stalactites, and sink holes.
➢ Hydration/hydrolysis - is the chemical breakdown of a substance when
combined with water.
➢ Organic activity - breaks down rock minerals by altering the rock’s chemical
composition.
Deposition
• Deposition is the geological process in which sediments, soil and rocks are added
to a landform or land mass.
• Wind, ice, water, and gravity transport previously weathered surface material,
which, at the loss of enough kinetic energy in the fluid, is deposited, building up
layers of sediment.
Self-Help
You can also refer to the sources below to help you further understand the lesson:
F G Bell (2007). Engineering Geology, Second Edition – Butterworth-Heinemann
McLean, Gribble (2005). Geology for Civil Engineers

Retrieved from
http://libgen.is/search.php?req=geology+for+civil+engineers&lg_topic=libgen&open=
0&view=simple&res=25&phrase=1&column=def
Let’s Check
In this part, you will have an oral presentation about the topics in ULO-1a. In
this activity, you will present a topic by video presentation and upload it in our LMS.
Please refer to guidelines uploaded in LMS.
Presenter Topic
Student 1 Geology in Civil Engineering, Branches of Geology
Student 2 Earth Structure and Composition
Student 3 Elementary knowledge on continental drift and plate tectonics
Student 4 Earth Processes
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Let’s Analyze
In the space provided, write the term/s being asked in the following statement:
_________________________________1. The study of solid earth, the materials of which it is

made, the structure of those materials and the effects of the natural forces acting upon
it.
_________________________________2. The coastlines of which continents appear to fit together

like pieces of a puzzle.
_________________________________3. Tectonic comes from the Greek word ______.
_________________________________4. Bottom layer of mantle composed of solid flowing rock.
_________________________________5. Concerned with the surface processes that create the

landscapes of the world- namely weathering and erosion.
_________________________________6. The study of fossils and is concerned not only with heir
description and classification but also with analysis of the evolution of the organisms
involved.
__________________________________7. A German geophysicist and meteorologist who

proposed Continental drift theory.
__________________________________8. When tectonic plates move, they can form volcanoes,

mountains, or earthquakes.
__________________________________9. This huge ancient landmass is known _____, which

means “all lands “in Greek.
__________________________________10. The study of the solid earth and the processes that
change the physical landscape of the planet.
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In a Nutshell
Answer the following questions.
1. Explain the branches of geology in detail.
2. Explain the importance of physical, structural geology and petrology in civil

engineering.
3. Define Engineering Geology. How the geological drawbacks play a major role in
construction failures.
4. How do we know what is inside the Earth?
5. Explain one example of invention or innovation that was used or is currently

used to collect more information on the continental drift theory and plate
tectonics.
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b. Be able to understand the concept of work of

rivers, wind and sea, origin and occurrence of earthquake, and groundwater.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles, and concepts of geology to

demonstrate ULO-1b will be reviewed to have uniform understanding in dealing all
the challenges that may encounter in this course.
Essential Knowledge
Geological Works of the Rivers, Winds and Seas
Work of River - A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards
an ocean, sea, lake or another river.
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Deposition – is the processes where material being transported by

a river is deposited. Deposition occurs when a river loses energy.
Work of Winds - The earth is surrounded with envelop of gasses which is called the
atmosphere. The movement of the atmosphere in a parallel direction to the earth
surface is the wind.
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Three Functions/ Process of Wind
1. Erosion - This process makes the ground surface gets lower and rockier
because it removes soil, rocks, or dissolved materials form an earth’s crust.
a. Deflation – a process where wind simply removes the loose sand and
dust sized particles from an area.
b. Abrasion – this process attains a considerable erosive power which
helps in eroding the rock surfaces by rubbing and grinding actions that
produces many changes.
2. Transportation - A process where wind brings particles and transport or move it to

other areas.
a. Bed Load – the process where heavier and larger particles are moved by
the winds but not lifted more than 30 to 60 cm.
b. Suspended Load – where lighter substances such as dust particle are
lifted by the moving winds by the distance of hundreds of meters above
the earth’s surface.
3. Deposition - The process where the sediments get dropped and deposited
a. Sand Dunes – these are huge heaps of sand formed by the natural
deposition of the windblown sands.
Work of Seas - the expanse of salt water that covers most of the earth's surface and
surrounds its landmasses.
Three Functions/ Process of Seas
1. Erosion - this is the wearing away of coast (edge of the land that touches the
sea) by the power of the waves.
a. Hydraulic Action – force of moving water

b. Abrasion – rocks and stones can be thrown against the coastline,
wearing it away
c. Solution - sea water that can dissolve certain rocks such as limestone
and chalk
2. Transportation - this is the movement of sediment (sand and shingle) along

the coastline.
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a. Traction – large and heavier loads rolled along the seabed.

b. Saltation – smaller and lighter loads bounce along the seabed.
c. Suspension - a particles carried within the water.
d. Solution - loads such as minerals are in dissolved form.
e. Long Shore Drift - Is a geological process that consists of the
transportation of sediments such as clay, silt, pebbles, sand and shingle
along a coast parallel to the shoreline.
3. Deposition - Is when material that is being transported is dropped by

constructive waves. It happens because waves have less energy.
The Importance of River, Wind and Sea
River
➢ Rivers carry water and nutrients to areas all around the earth. They play a very
important part in water cycle, acting a drainage channels for surface water.
Rivers drain nearly 75% of earth’s land surface.
➢ Rivers provide excellent habitat and food for many of the earth’s organisms.
➢ Many rare plants and trees grow by rivers. Ducks, voles, otters and beavers
make their homes in the riverbanks. Reeds and other plants like bulrushes
grow along the riverbanks.
➢ Rivers provide travel routes for exploration, commerce and recreation.
➢ River valleys and plants provide fertile soils. Farmers in dry regions irrigate
their cropland using water carried by the irrigation ditches from nearby rivers.
➢ Rivers are an important energy source. During the early industrial era, mills,
shops, and factories were built near fast-flowing rivers where water could be
used to power machines. Today steep rivers are still used to power
hydroelectric plants and their water turbines.
Wind
➢ Wind is the natural movement of air across the land or sea. Wind is caused by
uneven heating and cooling of the earth’s surface and by earth’s rotation. Land
and waters areas absorb and release different amount of heat received from the
sun. As warm air rises, cooler air rushes in to take its place, causing local winds.
The rotation of the earth changes the direction of the flow of air.
➢ Wind power is the energy obtained from the wind. It is one of the oldest-
exploited energy sources by humans and today is the most seasoned and
efficient energy of all renewable energies.
o Wind energy benefits:
o Renewable energy
o Inexhaustible
o Not pollutant
o Reduces the use of fossil fuels
o Reduces energy imports
o Creates wealth and local employment
o Contributes to sustainable development
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Sea
➢ Water covers more than two-thirds of the Earth’s surface. Sea plants, like
Posidonia, produce 70% of the oxygen we breathe, and the deep waters are
home to wildlife and some of the biggest creatures on earth.
➢ It regulates earth’s temperature, provide us with oxygen, food, drinking water,
energy, raw materials medication and even recreation and culture. All these
benefits mankind gets from marine ecosystem are known as ecosystem
services.
➢ The air that we breathe: the ocean produces over half of the world’s oxygen and
absorbs 50 times more the carbon dioxide than our atmosphere. Climate
regulation: covering 70 percent of the Earth’s surface, the ocean transport heat
from the equator to the poles, regulating our climate and weather patterns.
➢ Five reasons why the ocean/sea is important.
• It helps us breathe - Phytoplankton- tiny plant like organisms that live
in the sea- are responsible for the least 50% of the oxygen on earth.
• It helps regulate the climate - the ocean absorbs huge amounts of heat
from the sun.
• It’s an important source of food - fish is the menu for billions of people
around the world every day. It accounts for almost 16% of all animal
protein consumed globally.
• Its biodiversity is incredible - the ocean is also home to an abundance
of life.
• It creates millions of jobs - By 2030, ocean-based industries will
employ more than 40 million people worldwide, an OECD report is likely
to be in the fisheries sector, followed by tourism.
Origin, Occurrence of Earthquake
Earthquake - is an intense shaking of Earth’s surface. The shaking is caused by

movements in Earth’s outermost layer. Earthquake usually occurred when rock
underground suddenly breaks along a fault.
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Induced Seismicity - Are typically minor earthquakes and tremors that are caused by
human activity that alters the stresses and strains on the earth’s crust.
➢ Fossil Fuel Production
➢ Mining
➢ Hydraulic Fracturing
➢ Nuclear Testing
Plate Edges - Most earthquakes occur along the edge of the oceanic and continental
plates.
Faults - are cracks in the earth where sections of a plate (or two plates) are moving in
different directions.
a. Normal Fault - A normal fault. The 'footwall' is on the 'upthrown' side of the
fault, moving upwards. The 'hanging wall' is on the 'downthrown' side of the
fault, moving downwards.
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b. Reverse Fault - This time, the 'footwall' is on the 'downthrown' side of the
fault, moving downwards, and the 'hanging wall' is on the 'upthrown' side of
the fault, moving upwards. When the hanging wall is on the upthrown side, it
'hangs' over the footwall.
c. Strike-Slip Fault - Two strike-slip faults. (Left), a left-lateral strike-slip fault.

No matter which side of the fault you are on, the other side is moving to the left.
(Right), a right-lateral strike-slip fault. No matter which side of the fault you are
on, the other side is moving to the right.
Seismologists study earthquakes by going out and looking at the damage caused by
the earthquakes and by using seismographs. The record made by the seismograph is
called a seismogram.
Seismology - Is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through
around the earth.
Seismic Waves - are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock
within the earth or an explosion.
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Main Parts of Seismic Waves
➢ Body Waves - Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive
before the surface waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a
higher frequency than surface waves.
➢ Surface Waves - Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a
lower frequency than body waves and are easily distinguished on a seismogram
as a result.
Prospecting - It is the first stage of the geological analysis, physical search for
hydrocarbons, minerals, fossils, precious metals or mineral specimens, and is also
known as fossicking
Geophysical Prospecting - Is the study of the structure of the earth’s crust by

physical methods for the location and the surveying of minerals, it is an integral part of
geophysics.
Seismic Prospecting - The elastic waves produced during sudden disturbance is

called as Seismic wave. These seismic waves are recorded using the instrument
Seismograph and the record obtained is Seismogram. It is an important geophysical
prospecting applied in exploration of oil and natural gas deposits, deep ground water
exploration, depth estimation, geotechnical problems.
Types of Seismic Waves
a. Compressional/Longitudinal/Primary Waves - Motion of the particles in a

medium is parallel to direction of propagation of the wave. It has the highest
velocity and is therefore the first to be recorded, these waves can travel
through any type of material, including fluids. It is formed from alternating
compressions and expansions.
b. Shear/Transverse/Secondary Waves - The motion of the particles in a

medium is perpendicular to the direction of propagation of the wave. S waves
can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and gases) do not support
shear stresses. S waves are slower than P waves.
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c. Surface Waves (L Wave) - Surface waves (L-waves) are analogous to water

waves and travel along the Earth's surface. it is of two type, Rayleigh and Love.
Groundwater
➢ Water that occurs below the surface of Earth, where it occupies all or part of
the void spaces in soils or geologic strata.
➢ Also called subsurface water to distinguish it from surface water.
➢ Both surface and subsurface water are related through the hydrologic cycle.
➢ Groundwater may be near the Earth's surface or as deep as 30,000 feet,
according to the U.S Geological Survey (USGS).
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The Importance of Groundwater
➢ Groundwater, which is in aquifers below the surface of the Earth, is one of

the Nation's most important natural resources.
➢ Groundwater helps grow our food. 64% of groundwater is used for
irrigation to grow crops. Groundwater is an important component in many
industrial processes.
Aquifer - Is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock, rock fractures or

unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or slit).
Types of Aquifers
➢ A confined aquifer is an aquifer below the land surface that is saturated with
water.
➢ Unconfined aquifers are those into which water seeps from the ground surface
directly above the aquifer.
➢ A perched aquifer is an aquifer that occurs above the regional water table, in
the vadose zone.
Self-Help
P.C. Varghese (2012). Engineering Geology for Civil Engineers. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd

Retrieved from
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Let’s Check
In this part, you will have an oral presentation about the topics in ULO-1b. In this
activity, you will present a topic by video presentation and upload it in our LMS.
Please refer to guidelines uploaded in LMS.
Presenter Topic
Student 1 Work of rivers, wind and sea and their importance
Student 2 Origin and occurrence of earthquake
Student 3 Mode of occurrence and Prospecting
Student 4 Groundwater; Importance in Civil Engineering
Let’s Analyze
_________________________________1. The process of erosion produced by the suspended

particles that impact on solid objects.
_________________________________2. Movement of two plates away from each other.
_________________________________3. Cracks in the earth where sections of a plate (or two

plates) are moving in different directions.
_________________________________4. Large boulders and pebbles are rolled along the

riverbed.
_________________________________5. The study of the structure of the earth’s crust by

physical methods for the location and the surveying of minerals, it is an integral part of
geophysics.
_________________________________6. Typically, minor earthquakes and tremors that are

caused by human activity that alters the stresses and strains on the earth’s crust.
__________________________________7. The process where heavier and larger particles are

moved by the winds but not lifted more than 30 to 60 cm.
__________________________________8. Produced by heavy rain on bare soil where water flows

as a sheet down gently sloping land, removing soil particles in thin layers more or less
evenly.
__________________________________9. An underground layer of water-bearing permeable

rock, rock fractures or unconsolidated materials (gravel, sand, or slit).
__________________________________10. The process in which roots grow into the cracks in

rocks and force the cracks open as they continue to grow.
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In a Nutshell
Answer the following questions:
1. Explain weathering and its importance in civil engineering constructions.
2. Discuss the different types of faults.
3. What is meant by earthquake? What are the effects of earthquake?
4. What are the precautionary measures taken in the construction of buildings in

earthquake prone zones?
5. What is the importance of groundwater and its greatest use?
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Big Picture
Week 4-5: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 2 (ULO-2): At the end of the unit, you are expected to:
a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding on concepts of

Mineralogy, this includes crystallographic systems, physical properties of
minerals, formation of minerals, coal and petroleum.
b. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding on concepts of Petrology,
this includes classification of rocks namely igneous, sedimentary, and
metamorphic.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding

on concepts of Mineralogy, this includes crystallographic systems, physical
properties of minerals, formation of minerals, coal and petroleum.
Metalanguage
the study of civil engineering and to demonstrate ULO-2a will be reviewed to have
Essential Knowledge
Mineralogy - It is a naturally occurring solid homogenous substance which has definite

chemical composition and definite atomic structure, which is formed by inorganic processed in
nature, called as mineral.
Minerals – are basic building blocks of rocks and has two types.
I. Rock Forming Minerals

• Found in abundance in the rock.
• It is classified into two groups:
a. Primary Minerals - those which formed directly from the solidification of

magma or lava. Also called as “Pyrogenetic Minerals”.
Divided into 2 groups:
i. Essential Minerals- Have been used in the definition of the rock.

Example: Granite, Qtz, Feldspars
ii. Accessory Minerals: is one whose presence or absence does not change
the definition of rock.
Example: Zircon, Sphene, Apatite.
b. Secondary Minerals - is formed by the alteration of the primary minerals.

Formed due to weathering or circulation of natural solutions.
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Example: Granite, Qtz. as primary & Amygdaloidal basalt as secondary.
II. Ore Forming Minerals

➢ are those that are valuable and economical to extract, such as aluminum,
copper, iron, lead or tin.
➢ Minerals that can be used to obtain the metal profitably.
➢ most metals are extracted form rocks.
The Importance of Minerals
• Studies on minerals and rocks provide important information on earth history.

• The minerals and rock are the main sources for the production of automobiles,
computers and many other things we use.
• These are the basic building blocks of the solid part of the earth and are very
important for construction geology.
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Physical Properties of Minerals
1. Streak
➢ The color of the mineral powder is streak.
➢ The streak is obtained by rubbing the mineral against streak plate.
➢ Streak Plate- a piece of unglazed porcelain.
2. Luster
➢ It is the shining present on freshly broken surface of mineral.
➢ It can be divided in to two types:
a. Metallic shining like metals
Example: Pyrite, Hermatite, Galena.
b. Non-metallic
Example: Vitreous, Pearly, Silky, Dull, Glassy, Waxy.
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3. Hardness
➢ Defined as the resistance of minerals abrasion or scratching.
4. Cleavage
➢ The tendency of crystallized mineral to break along certain definite
directions yielding more or less smooth, plane surface.
5. Fracture
➢ It is the appearance of broken surface of a mineral. The nature of a
broken surface.
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a. Conchoidal Fracture- Broken Surface shows curved convex or

concave. Example:Quartz
b. Even- Fracture surfaces are nearly flat or smooth. Example: Chert
c. Uneven- Fracture surfaces are rough or irregular.
6. Form
➢ The internal atomic arrangement of a mineral which is manifested
outwardly by development of geometrical shapes or crystal characters.
a. Crystallised - well defined crystals with perfect cleavage indicative of
perfect atomic arrangement. Example: Rock Crystal
b. Crystalline- Development of small grains and virtually incipient
crystals. Example: Zebra agate
c. Amorphous - neither crystal nor cleavage. Example: Talc
Symmetry Elements of Crystallographic Systems
An object is described as symmetric with respect to a transformation if the

object appears to be in a state that is identical to its initial state, after the
transformation.
In crystallography, most types of symmetry can be described in terms of an
apparent movement of the object such as some type of rotation or translation.
The apparent movement is called the symmetry operation. The locations where
the symmetry operations occur such as a rotation axis, a mirror plane, an inversion
center, or a translation vector are described as symmetry elements.
Symmetry in Crystals
Typically, crystals have flat faces and sharp edges. Also, many crystals will have
one or more directions that can be cleaved cleanly.
When you look at several crystals from one material, you will soon notice that,
although the crystals may have different sizes, all crystals have the same shape
or habit. In particular, the angles between certain pairs of faces of the different crystals
will be the same.
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This observation was first made by Nicholas Steno in 1669. This observation
became known as the law of constancy of interfacial angles.
Rotational Symmetry
There are two basic types of rotational symmetry operations. Proper rotations
move an object, but do not change the handedness of the object. Improper rotations
include a proper rotation as well as a component that inverts the handedness of the
object.
a. 1-Fold Rotation. A 1-fold rotation

operation implies either a 0° rotation or a
360° rotation and is referred to as
the identity operation.
b. 2-Fold Rotation. A 2-fold rotation

operation moves the object by
(360/2) ° = 180 °. The symbol used to
designate a 2-fold axis is a solid oval
c. 3-Fold Rotation. A 3-fold rotation

(360/3) ° = 120 °. The symbol used
to designate a 3-fold axis is a solid
equilateral triangle.
d. 4-fold rotation. A 4-fold rotation

(360/4) ° = 90 °. the symbol used
to designate a 4-fold axis is a solid
square.
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e. 6-Fold Rotation. A 6-fold(C6)

rotation operation moves the
object by (360/6) ° = 60 °. The
symbol used to designate a 6-fold
axis is a solid hexagon.
Center of Symmetry
A center of symmetry exists in a crystal if an imaginary line can be extended from
any point on its surface through its center and a similar point is present along the line
equidistant from the center. This is equivalent to 1, or inversion. There is a relatively
simple procedure for recognizing a center of symmetry in a well-formed crystal. With
the crystal laid down on any face on a tabletop, the presence of a face of equal size and
shape, but inverted, in a horizontal position at the top of the crystal proves the existence
of a center of symmetry. An imaginary mirror plane (or symmetry plane) can also be
used to separate a crystal into halves. In a perfectly developed crystal, the halves are
mirror images of one another.
Rotoinversion
A rotoinversion axis combines rotation about an axis of rotation with inversion.
Rotoinversion axes are symbolized as 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6, where 1 is equivalent to a center
of symmetry (or inversion), 2 is equivalent to a mirror plane, and 3 is equivalent to a
threefold rotation axis plus a center of symmetry. When the axis of the crystal is
vertical, 4 is characterized by two top faces with identical faces upside down
underneath. 6 is equivalent to a threefold rotation axis with a mirror plane
perpendicular to the axis.
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Quartz Family
• is composed of silicon (Si) and oxygen (O) SiO2 (Silicon Dioxide)

• Quartz is the second most bountiful mineral found in Earth’s crust.
• discovered in Alps (Mountain range in Europe), was believed to be a form of
frozen water and therefore called crystal.
• Quartz comes in a vast array of colors and shapes (when in crystals), and the
cryptocrystalline varieties offer an almost endless spectrum of color and
patterns.
• Quartz (SiO2) can be divided into two major categories: Macrocrystalline
varieties and Microcrystalline varieties (cryptocrystalline).
MacroCrystalline
The crystalline varieties are those that occur in distinct, visible crystals. It
includes the more transparent to translucent stones: amethyst, smoky quartz, citrine,
rose quartz, and milky quartz. The color origins in crystalline quartz are complex and
are only now beginning to be fully understood.
a. Rock Crystal
➢ Rock Crystal is the name given to
all clear colorless quartz.
➢ Used in faceted gems, beads,
carving, decorative objects, and
lamps.
➢ The name Rock crystal is from the
Greek krystallos meaning ice.
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b. Amethyst
➢ Amethyst is violet or purple
quartz
➢ The name amethyst is from the
Greek amethystos , meaning not
drunken.
c. Brown Quartz
➢ The variety called Smoky quartz is pale beige, tan,
brown, or deep brown in color.
➢ Very dark brown material is known as
either morion or cairngorm, the latter from the
locality in the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland.
d. Yellow Quartz
➢ This variety is known as citrine and ranges in
color from pale yellow through yellow
orange to rich golden orange, to very dark
orange.
e. Rose Quartz
➢ the color of this variety is pink or
(rarely) rose-red. This is due to
presence of manganese.
➢ The material is nearly always
cloudy or translucent, rarely
transparent.
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f. Milky Quartz
➢ The milkiness is due to myriad tiny
cavities and bubbles filled with CO2.
➢ Vein quartz is often white and
frequently contains gold.
g. Amethyst-citrine
➢ also known as ametrine, trystine,
and so forth
➢ Cut gems display both violet and
yellow colors, sometimes in a
striking zonal pattern
CryptoCrystalline
This is the classification that can sometimes also be known as Microcrystalline

Quartz, or simply as Chalcedony. It includes the translucent to opaque stones such as
Chalcedony itself, Carnelian, Onyx, Agate and Jasper. These stones form with such
incredibly tiny crystals that they often can’t be seen even under significant
magnification.
a. Chalcedony
➢ Chalcedony can refer to all types of
cryptocrystalline quartz.
➢ But it also describes a very specific light
blue variety of this type of quartz. `
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b. Agate
➢ This is the name often given to banded
varieties of Cryptocrystalline Quartz,
which generally show two or more
colors.
➢ It includes the varieties Turritella Agate,
Denditric Agte , Crazy Lace Agate and
Moss Agate.
c. Carnelian
➢ Also sometimes called Cornelian
➢ This is a variety that can range from pale
orange to intense red and can also feature
bands of similar colors.
d. Onyx
➢ Onyx is known for intense colors too, such
as dark red and black.
➢ Varieties with mostly red banding are
sometimes called Sardonyx.
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e. Jasper
➢ Often thought of as a gemstone family, due to the
vast number of variations available.
➢ Bumblebee Jasper, Zebra Jasper, Dalmation
Jasper and Snakeskin Jasper are just small
number of types
Feldspar Family
• Feldspar gets its name from the German word "Feldspath" and related to the
German word for rock.
• Feldspar, sometimes written as felspar, is the name for a group of silicate
minerals that makes up the greatest percentage (almost 60%) of minerals
found in the Earth's surface
• The feldspars are complex aluminosilicate minerals containing K, Na, and Ca,
with some rarer types rich in Ba.
• The feldspar group is divided into two distinct varieties:
The orthoclase or alkali which is rich in potassium and sodium (alkali
elements). Moonstone, Orthoclase, and Amazonite are the main members of this
group; The plagioclase feldspars (also known as soda-lime feldspars) that
constitute an isomorphous series between albite and anorthite. Labradorite and
aventurine are the main members of this group.
a. Orthoclase
➢ Orthoclase is from Greek words meaning

"break straight" because the cleavages are at
90 degrees.
➢ Its color ranges from colorless, white, gray,
yellow, reddish and greenish. Orthoclase can
have catseye effect.
b. Albite
➢ Albite name comes from the Latin albus,
meaning white, because the mineral is
usually white.
➢ Other colors include, yellow, pink, gray,
reddish, greenish and colorless.
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c. Microcline
➢ Microcline is named after Greek words
meaning "small and inclined" because the
cleavage is close to but not quite 90 degrees.
➢ Its color ranges from colorless, white, pink,
yellow, red, gray or green to blue green.
d. Moonstone
➢ Moonstone is the opalescent variety of
orthoclase, with a blue or white sheen
like the glow of the moon.
➢ Moonstone is composed of two feldspar
species, orthoclase and albite
e. Labradorite
➢ Labradorite belongs to plagioclase
feldspars family.
➢ It is noted for its beautiful play of color
which flashes out over large areas of
the grey-colored mineral.
f. Oligoclase(sunstone)
➢ is characterized by its optical
phenomena also known as ‘aventurine
feldspar’
➢ named for its warm shades of gold,
orange, reds and browns
Coal and Petroleum
Coal and petroleum are formed as a result of degradation of ancient plant life
which lived millions of years ago. These dead plant matter started to pile up, eventually
forming a substance called peat. Over time, heat and pressure from geological processes
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transformed these materials into coal. Since these are formed from essentially fossils,
they are also known as fossil fuels.
Formation of Coal
Formation of coal dates back to millions of years ago, when the earth was
covered only with vast moist forests, having huge trees, shrubs, ferns etc. These plants
underwent their life cycle and withered away eventually falling back to the ground,
most of which were swamps. New plants replaced them, they underwent a life cycle and
the whole process continued repeatedly over the years as a result of which the earth
bed started accumulating all these dead plants.
This gave rise to a very thick layer of dead decomposed matter packing down
plant matter washing away all the decayed matter. Physical and chemical changes
took place as a result of heat and temperature extracting out all oxygen leaving the
plant layers with carbon-rich content, thus resulting in the formation of coal over a
period of time.
Types of Coal
Coal is a readily combustible rock containing more than 50% by weight of

carbon. Coal formed can be of three types depending on the amount of oxygen, carbon
and hydrogen they contain, they are:
• Lignite
• Bituminous
• Anthracite
Petroleum
Petroleum is a fossil fuel that naturally occurs in the liquid form created by the
decomposition of organic matter beneath the surface of the earth millions of years ago.
These fossil fuels are then refined into usable substances such as petrol, kerosene etc.
It is formed by the combination of hydrocarbons and other substances, mainly sulfur.
When first collected in its natural form, it is termed as crude oil. This substance is
generally characterized by a brownish-black color. Although, it can also differ between
red to pale yellow or even colorless. Its thickness (viscosity) varies from nearly solid
tar-like consistency to low viscosity, almost like water. Refining petroleum thus
obtained yields many useful products.
Products of Petroleum
Petroleum products are obtained as a result of refining crude oil in oil refineries. There
are numerous products that are created from petroleum and its by-products. A study
reveals that by-products of petroleum alone provides scope to obtain 6000+ new
products, to name a few, fertilizers, perfumes, flooring, insecticides, soaps, vitamins,
petroleum jelly etc.
Few of the products obtained from petroleum are:

• Gasoline
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• Diesel oil
• Kerosene
• Tar
• Heavy fuel oil
• Petroleum coke
• Lubricants
• Special Naphthas
• Paraffin wax
• Aviation Gasoline
Uses of Petroleum
Petroleum is one of the most important and widely used fuels in today’s time. Some of
its advantages are:
• These are transportation fuels, i.e, via air, water or land.

• Diesel is used to power turbines for the production of electricity in large
scale industries.
• Oil is used to produce electricity at homes and shops
• Oils help lubricate different types of high-end machines used in different
industries, hospitals etc.
• Kerosene is used for domestic purposes at home
• Used by chemical industries to produce plastic, dyes, paints, synthetic
rubber, pesticides, perfumes etc.
Self-Help

Retrieved from
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Let’s Check
activity, you will present a topic by video presentation and upload it in our LMS. Please
refer to guidelines uploaded in LMS.
Presenter Topic
Student 1 Elementary knowledge on symmetry elements of crystallographic
systems
Student 2 Physical properties of minerals
Student 3 Quartz Family, Feldspar Family, Augite, Hornblende, Biotite,
Muscovite, Calcite, Garnet
Student 4 Properties, process of formation of all minerals
Student 5 Coal and Petroleum
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Let’s Analyze
_________________________________1. The basic building blocks of rocks.
_________________________________2. A rotation operation implies either a 0° rotation or a

360° rotation and is referred to as the identity operation.
_________________________________3. The second most bountiful mineral found in Earth’s

crust.
_________________________________4. Onyx is known for intense colors too, such as dark red
and black. Varieties with mostly red banding are sometimes called _____.
_________________________________5. A process in which vegetable matter becomes converted

into coal.
_________________________________6. A solid carbon-rich material that is usually brown or

black and most often occurs in stratified sedimentary deposits
__________________________________7. Minerals formed by the alteration of the primary

minerals. Formed due to weathering or circulation of natural solutions.
__________________________________8. The tendency of crystallized mineral to break along

certain definite directions yielding more or less smooth, plane surface.
__________________________________9. Defined as the resistance of minerals abrasion or

scratching.
__________________________________10. The appearance of broken structure of a mineral is

nearly flat or smooth.
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In a Nutshell
1. Discuss the chemical composition, structure, mode of formation, physical

properties of any four minerals.
a. Quartz
b. Feldspar
c. Mica
d. Augite
e. Hornblende
f. Garnet
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2. Differentiate the following:
a. Rock forming and ore minerals
b. Felsic and Mafic minerals
c. Mineralogy and Crystallography
d. Streak and Cleavage
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3. Discuss briefly on mode of formation of minerals.
4. Define the following:
a. Isomorphism
b. Polymorphism
c. Pseudomorphism
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b. Demonstrate deep knowledge and

understanding on concepts of Petrology, this includes classification of rocks
namely igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.
Metalanguage
the study of civil engineering and to demonstrate ULO-2b will be reviewed to have
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes, you need to fully
understand the following essential knowledge that will be laid down in the succeeding
pages. Please note that you are not limited to exclusively refer to these resources. Thus,
you are expected to utilize other books, research articles, and other resources that are
available in the university’s library e.g. library, search.proquest.com, etc.
Petrology - From Greek: “Petra” - “rock” and “logos” - “study” (Study of Rock)
Rock - Is a natural solid massive aggregate of minerals forming the crust of earth.
The subject matter of petrology comprises of origin, association, occurrence,

chemical composition, texture, structure, physical properties and etc. of rocks.
Three Main Types of Rock
Igneous Rocks
Are rocks made of molten magma made liquid by intense heat deep inside
the earth. These rocks are formed when magma is expelled onto the earth’s
surface as lava. When lava cools down and hardens, it becomes igneous rocks
such as tuff and basalt. There are instances when magma cools down before
coming out to the surface and forms a kind of igneous rock called intrusive
igneous rock. Granite, diorite, and gabbro are examples of this type of igneous
rock. Lava from volcanic eruptions that has solidified on the surface is called
extrusive igneous rocks. Examples of extrusive igneous rocks are basalt,
rhyolite, and andesite.
Types of Igneous Rocks
Intrusive igneous rocks
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-crystallize below Earth's surface, and the slow cooling that occurs there
allows large crystals to form. Examples of intrusive igneous rocks
are diorite, gabbro, granite, and pegmatite,
Granite - a light-colored igneous rock with

grains large enough to be visible with the
unaided eye. It forms from the slow
crystallization of magma below Earth's
surface
Gabbro - a coarse-grained, dark-colored,

intrusive igneous rock. It is the most
abundant rock in the deep oceanic crust.
Diorite - It usually occurs as large

intrusions, dikes, and sills within
continental crust. These often form above
a convergent plate boundary where an
oceanic plate subducts beneath a
continental plate.
Pegmatite - are extreme igneous

rocks that form during the final stage of
a magma’s crystallization. They are
extreme because they contain
exceptionally large crystals and they
sometimes contain minerals that are
rarely found in other types of rocks.
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Extrusive igneous rocks

-erupt onto the surface, where they cool quickly to form small crystals.
Some cool so quickly that they form an amorphous glass. These rocks
include andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite, scoria, and tuff.
Andesite - is the name used for a family of

fine-grained, extrusive igneous
rocks that are usually light to dark gray
in color. Andesite is typically found
in lava flows produced by
stratovolcanoes. Because these lavas
cooled rapidly at the surface, they are
generally composed of small crystals
Basalt - a dark-colored, fine-

grained, igneous rock composed mainly
of plagioclase and pyroxene minerals. It
most commonly forms as an extrusive
rock, such as a lava flow, but can also
form in small intrusive bodies, such as
an igneous dike or a thin sill. Basalt
underlies more of Earth's surface than
any other rock type.
Dacite - a fine-grained igneous rock that

is normally light in color. It is often
porphyritic. Dacite is found in lava
flows, lava domes, dikes, sills, and
pyroclastic debris. It is a rock type
usually found on continental crust
above subduction zones, where a
relatively young oceanic plate has
melted below.
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Obsidian - an igneous rock that forms

when molten rock material cools so
rapidly that atoms are unable to arrange
themselves into a crystalline structure.
It is an amorphous material known as a
"mineraloid." The result is a volcanic
glass with a smooth uniform texture that
breaks with a conchoidal fracture
Sedimentary Rocks
Are made from sediments. Small rock particles, dead animals, plants, and
other microorganisms settle at the bottom of lakes and oceans to form
sediments. The most common sedimentary rocks include sandstone, shale, and
limestone.
About 75% to 80% of the earth’s land mass is composed of sedimentary
rocks. The earth’s crust, however, is made up of only 5% sedimentary rocks.
Shale is the most abundant type of sedimentary rock, followed by sandstone and
carbonate.
The three types of sedimentary rocks
Detrital - are made from the broken fragments of other rocks.
Chemical - rocks form when dissolved minerals come out of solution.

- Minerals collect when seas or lakes evaporate. The deposits of
minerals that come out of solution form sediments and rocks.
- Chemical sedimentary rocks are not made from pieces of
preexisting rocks.
Organic - rocks made of the remains of once-living things are called organic
sedimentary rocks.
Metamorphic Rocks
Are rocks that have changed as a result of exposure to extreme pressure
and heat. The term “metamorphic” itself is the combination of the Greek
words meta, which means “after,” and morph, which means “change.” Intense
temperatures and pressure beneath the earth cause physical and chemical
change to igneous and sedimentary rocks, causing them to form metamorphic
rocks. Marble comes from limestone, while slate is formed from shale or
mudstone. These rocks are formed either by being subjected to great pressure
beneath the earth (regional metamorphism) or by magma coming into contact
with the rocks.
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Process of Metamorphism
The process of metamorphism does not melt the rocks, but instead
transforms them into denser, more compact rocks. New minerals are created
either by rearrangement of mineral components or by reactions with fluids that
enter the rocks.
There are two types of metamorphism
Contact metamorphism (or thermal metamorphism)

➢ rocks are so close to magma that they start to partially melt and change
their properties.
➢ Temperature is the main driver here.
Regional metamorphism (or dynamic metamorphism)

➢ this typically happens when rocks are deep underground and they are
subjected to massive pressure.
➢ Pressure (often times with temperature) is the main driver here.
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Two main types of metamorphic rocks
Foliated metamorphic rocks

➢ such as gneiss, phyllite,
schist, and slate have a
layered or banded
appearance that is
produced by exposure
to heat and directed
pressure.
➢ Foliated rocks are most
often formed from
mudstones and contain
"fine-grained" or
"platy" minerals that
are usually too small to
see with the naked eye;
although some can be
seen without aid.
Non-foliated metamorphic rocks

➢ such as hornfels, marble, quartzite, and novaculite do not have a layered
or banded appearance.
➢ Non-foliated rocks contain more coarse-grained minerals and generally
have a random shape. Because of this, these rocks are very granular in
appearance.
➢ Formed around igneous intrusions where temperature is high but the
pressure are relatively low.
The most common metamorphic rocks are:
✓ Amphibolite
✓ schist (blueschist, greenschist, micaschist, etc)
✓ Eclogite
✓ gneiss
✓ hornfels
✓ marble
✓ migmatite
✓ phyllite
✓ quartzite
✓ serpentinite
✓ slate
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Self-Help

Retrieved from
Let’s Check
Presenter Topic
Student 1 Petrology; Classification of Rocks
Student 2 Igneous Rocks – Occurrence and Properties
Student 3 Sedimentary Rocks – Occurrence and Properties
Student 4 Metamorphic Rocks – Occurrence and Properties
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Let’s Analyze
_________________________________1. An igneous rock that forms when molten rock material

cools so rapidly that atoms are unable to arrange themselves into a crystalline
structure.
_________________________________2. Igneous rocks that erupt onto the surface, where they
cool quickly to form small crystals. Some cool so quickly that they form an amorphous
glass.
_________________________________3. Are formed from pre-existing rocks or pieces of once-

living organisms. They form from deposits that accumulate on the Earth's surface
.
_________________________________4. Sedimentary rocks form when dissolved minerals come

out of solution.
_________________________________5. Are most often formed from mudstones and contain

"fine-grained" or "platy" minerals that are usually too small to see with the naked eye;
although some can be seen without aid.
_________________________________6. Metamorphism in which rocks are so close to magma

that they start to partially melt and change their properties.
__________________________________7. This of metamorphism typically happens when rocks

are deep underground and they are subjected to massive pressure.
__________________________________8. Sedimentary rocks are made from the broken

fragments of other rocks.
__________________________________9. A melted rock inside Earth, a molten mixture of

substances that can be hotter than 1,000-degree celsius.
__________________________________10. Igneous rocks that crystallize below Earth's surface,

and the slow cooling that occurs there allows large crystals to form.
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In a Nutshell
1. What is the difference between igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rocks?
2. Compare and contrast the following pairs:
a. Lava and Magma
b. Sills and Dykes
c. Plutonic and Volcanic rocks
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3. Give an account of different types of rocks among igneous, sedimentary, and

metamorphic groups which occur more frequently and abundantly in nature.
Add note on rock cycle.
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Week 6-7: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 3 (ULO-3): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
c. Be able to understand geological maps and its bearing in engineering
construction.
d. Be able to understand the concept rock mechanics and use the
geologic literature to establish geotechnical framework.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3a. Be able to understand geological maps and its
bearing in engineering construction.
Metalanguage
The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better
understanding of section ULO-3a in the course.
1. Geological Map – A special-purpose map made to show various geological features.

Rock units or geologic strata are shown by color or symbols.
2. Folds – Undulation or waves in the stratified rocks of Earth's crust. Stratified rocks
were originally formed from sediments that were deposited in flat horizontal
sheets, but in a number of places the strata are no longer horizontal but have been
warped.
3. Faults – A fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the
blocks to move relative to each other. ... Earth scientists use the angle of the fault
with respect to the surface (known as the dip) and the direction of slip along the
fault to classify faults.
4. Joints – A brittle-fracture surface in rocks along which little or no displacement has
occurred.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes),you need to fully
Structural Geology - The study of rock deformation.

Rock deformation - A process of changing/transformation of rocks due to stress and
heat.
Deformation of rock to occur several conditions must be met, including:

✓ The rock material must have the ability to deform under pressure and heat.
✓ The higher the temperature of the rock the more plastic it becomes.
✓ Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock.
This displacement of rocks is caused by:

✓ Tectonic plate movement and subduction
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✓ Volcanic activity
✓ Intrusive igneous activity
Rock - Aggregates of mineral grains that are connected by strong and permanent forces
Rock Mechanics - The study of rock behavior in the solid state under varying
environmental and internal conditions.
Structural geology can be used in the field of rock mechanics and rock engineering, and
particularly in underground engineering works (tunneling and rock caverns) to gather
more reliable data for empirical stability analyses and deterministic calculation models.
Attitude of Beds
Attitude – A general term for the orientation of a line or plane. Attitude refers to the
three-dimensional orientation of planar and linear features such as a bed, a joint, a
hornblende needle or a fold.
The attitude of planar features, such as beds or joints, is defined by their strike and dip.
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Strike – The direction of a line formed by the intersection of the bedding plane with the
horizontal plane. Strike is the bearing of a horizontal line on the inclined plane (a
scalar). If a plane is immersed in a water, the strike line will be the waterline.
Generally expressed as an angle relative to north. i.e. N 37°E, N 12°W
Dip – The dip of a bed is the angle between the bedding and horizontal plane, i.e., the
amount of inclination with respect to horizontal.
It is measured in a vertical plane at right angle to the strike of the bedding. It is

expressed in degrees (45°) or in gradient (1 in 1), or in percentage (50%).
Two Types of Dip:
1. True Dip
- The angle between a bed and a horizontal plane measured in a vertical plane
lying at right angles to the strike of the bedding. It is the maximum vertical angle
of an inclined structural plane. It is denoted by σ.
2. Apparent Dip
- The angle measured in any direction other than the true dip direction. The
amount is always less than the true dip. It is denoted by 𝝆.
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Measurement of strike and dip helps geologists construct accurate geologic maps and
geologic cross-sections. For example, data on rock attitudes helps delineate fold
structures in layered rocks.
Outcrop
• An outcrop or rocky outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient

superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth.
• These outcrops were formed by the intrusion of molten granite into pre-
existing country rock at a depth of about ten miles below the surface. Over
millions of years, erosion removed thousands of feet of overlying rock, exposing
the more resistant bodies of granite.
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Geological Maps
A geologic map or geological map is a special-

purpose map made to show various geological
features. Rock units or geologic strata are shown by
color or symbols. Bedding planes and structural
features such as faults, folds, are shown with strike
and dip or trend and plunge symbols which give
three-dimensional orientations features.
Strata
In geology and related fields, a stratum (plural: strata) is a layer of sedimentary

rock or soil, or igneous rock that was formed at the Earth's surface,[1] with internally
consistent characteristics that distinguish it from other layers.
➢ Inclined Strata
The horizontal layers, or beds, present in

most sedimentary rocks. During or
immediately after the accumulation of
sediments, physical, biological, and
chemical process produce sedimentary
structure.
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➢ Inclined Strata
Homoclinal ridges are mountains with a

steep carp slope and gentle dip slope, and
result for inclined strata that unequally
resistant to erosion.
➢ Dome
A dome is a feature is structural geology

consisting a symmetrical anticlines that
intersect each other at their respective apices.
➢ Basin
A geological basin is large area. It is often

below sea level.
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➢ Plunging Folds
A fold whose axis plane is not horizontal (not
parallel to sea level).
➢ Faults
A planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of

the earth’s crust, when compressional of
tensional forces cause relative displacement of
the rocks on the opposite sides of the fracture.
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➢ Angular Unconformity
Is an unconformity where horizontally parallel

strata of sedimentary rock are deposited on
tilted and eroded layers, producing an angular
discordance with the overlying horizontal layers.
Fold and Faults
Fold - in geology, undulation or waves in the stratified rocks of Earth’s crust.
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 The axial plane of a fold is the plane or surface that divides the fold as
symmetrically as possible
 An axis of a fold is the intersection of the axial plane with one of the strata of
which the fold is composed.
 The angle of inclination of the axis, as measured from the horizontal, is called
the plunge.
 The portions of the fold between adjacent axes form the flanks, limbs, or slopes
of a fold.
Faults - in geology, a planar or gently curved fracture in the rocks of the Earth’s crust,
where compressional or tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on
the opposite sides of the fracture.
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Types of Faults
 Normal dip slip faults are produced by vertical compression as the Earth’s crust
lengthens. The hanging wall slides down relative to the footwall.
 Reverse dip-slip faults result from horizontal compressional forces caused by a
shortening, or contraction, of the Earth’s crust. The hanging wall moves up and
over the footwall.
 Thrust faults are reverse faults that dip less than 45°. Thrust faults with a very
low angle of dip and a very large total displacement are called overthrusts or
detachments.
 Strike-slip (also called transcurrent, wrench, or lateral) faults are similarly
caused by horizontal compression, but they release their energy
by rock displacement in a horizontal direction almost parallel to the
compressional force.
 Oblique-slip faults have simultaneous displacement up or down the dip and
along the strike. The movement along a fault may be rotational, with the offset
blocks rotating relative to one another.
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Joints - are cracks or fracture that divide the rocks into parts or block s and there is no
relative displacement.
Classification of Joints
A. Based on Spatial Relationship
Non-Systematic Joints
are joints that are so irregular in form, spacing, and orientation that they cannot
be readily grouped into distinctive, through-going joint sets.
Systematic Joints
are planar, parallel joints that can be traced for some distance, and occur at
regularly, evenly spaced distances.
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B. Based on Genesis
Tension Joint
appear rough, irregular with jagged surfaces.
Shear Joint
are those, which are due to shearing stresses involved in folding and faulting of
rocks.
Compression Joint
rocks may be compressed to crushing and numerous joints may be result due to
compressive forces in this case.
C. Based on Geometry
In stratified rocks, joints are generally classified based on relationship of their

attitude with that of the rocks in which they occur.
Strike joints - in which the joint sets strike parallel to the strike of the rocks.
Dip joints - in which the joint sets strike parallel to the dip direction of the rocks.
Oblique joints - are those joints where the strike of the joints is at any angle
between the dip and the strike of the layers.
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Occurrence of Joints
- Joints are most common structural features of all types of rocks.
- Rocks of all three main classes igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary shows various
type of joints.
A. Igneous Rocks - formed by cooling and crystallization of molten material called

magma or lava.
Two regular systematic type:
Sheet Joints - When magma cools fast, the size of rocks become courser at the
center due to slow cooling and cause shrinkage of layers.
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Columnar Joints - These joints split a rock body into long prisms or columns.
Also called prismatic joints.
B. Sedimentary Rocks - These joints may be closely and regularly spaced sets,
parallel or sub-parallel to each other and bearing varying relationships with the
attitude of the rocks.
Unloading Joints - This

causes stress buildup that
eventually exceeds the tensile
strength of the bedrock and
results in the formation of
jointing.
C. Metamorphic Rocks - These rock types are heavily jointed in many cases, the
joints being of irregular or non-systematic types.
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Folds, Faults, Joints; Bearing on Engineering Construction
They have a significant role particularly in the location of dams, reservoirs, tunneling,
road and railways, etc.
Folds Faults Joints

Dams
Can create an inclination of Dams is a multi-million if too many, it will become
limbs in a dam site project and is not allowed to physically weak and can't
rest over an active fault withstand the stresses of
dam
Tunneling
May release contained It will be incompetent to If occurs unfavorably, they
strains or bulging of sides provide safety to tunnels. may cause fall of rocks from
the roof of the tunnel.
Reservoir
Can cause a little seepage of It may create an uplift They can act as a venue for
water pressure over dams and serious leakage of water.
may cause a leakage of
water
Tunneling
May weaken the stability of It may trigger off landslides If surface slopes and dip
the ground direction of joints occur in
the same direction, it may
cause a landslide.
Self-Help
To further visualize and understand more about the significant concepts in ULO-3a you
can view the following:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bsIC-zRaFgQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6uf8SSJajyM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIvosdkZBdQ

Retrieved from
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Let’s Check
In this part, you will have an oral presentation about the topics in ULO-1a. In this
Presenter Topic
Student 1 Attitude of Beds and Outcrops
Student 2 Geological Maps
Student 3 Folds, Faults, and Joints; Concepts
Student 4 Folds, Faults, and Joints; Bearing on Engineering Construction
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Let’s Analyze
_________________________________1. A process of changing/transformation of rocks due to

stress and heat.
_________________________________2. The study of rock behavior in the solid state under

varying environmental and internal conditions.
_________________________________3. The direction of a line formed by the intersection of the

bedding plane with the horizontal plane.
_________________________________4. A feature is structural geology consisting a symmetrical

anticline that intersect each other at their respective apices.
_________________________________5. Are similarly caused by horizontal compression, but

they release their energy by rock displacement in a horizontal direction almost parallel
to the compressional force.
_________________________________6. A fold that is concave upward.
__________________________________7. Are cracks or fracture that divide the rocks into parts or
block s and there is no relative displacement.
__________________________________8. A fold that is convex upward.
__________________________________9. A layer of sedimentary rock or soil, or igneous rock that

was formed at the Earth's surface, with internally consistent characteristics that
distinguish it from other layers.
__________________________________10. A general term for the orientation of a line or plane.
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In a Nutshell
My Geo-Vlog
In a creative way, create a video presentation of at least one topic in ULO-3a. The length
of the video presentation should be a minimum of 3 mins and a maximum of 10 mins. It is an
open category presentation.
Example:
1. Topic: Geological Maps

You may create a vlog on how to make a geological map.
2. Topic: Joints
You may create a vlog showcasing different joints in your area.
3. Topic: Faults
You may create a vlog about its importance in engineering construction.
RUBRICS
Content Creativity Videography

How did you discuss your What creative ways did you How well did you angle
chosen topic? use in the presentation? your shots?
How well did you research How unique is your What modes did you use in
or give information about presentation? creating your video?
your topic?
50% 30% 20%
100%
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3b. Be able to understand the concept rock

mechanics and use the geologic literature to establish geotechnical
framework.
Metalanguage
The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
section ULO-3b in the course.
1. Rock Mechanics – a theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behavior of

rock and rock masses; compared to geology, it is that branch of mechanics
concerned with the response of rock and rock masses to the force fields of their
physical environment.
2. Static Moduli – Those directly measured in deformational experiment.
3. Dynamics Moduli – Those calculated from the elastic wave velocity and density.
4. Grouting - Refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock
formation to change its physical characteristics.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes), you need to fully
Mechanical Properties of Rocks
A. Porosity
Porosity is the percentage of void space in a rock. It is defined as the ratio of the
volume of the voids or pore space divided by the total volume. It is written as
either a decimal fraction between 0 and 1 or as a percentage. For most rocks,
porosity varies from less than 1% to 40%.
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B. Permeability
Permeability is another intrinsic property of all materials and is closely related
to porosity. Permeability refers to how connected pore spaces are to one
another. If the material has high permeability than pore spaces are connected to
one another allowing water to flow from one to another, however, if there is low
permeability then the pore spaces are isolated, and water is trapped within them.
C. Density
Density is defined as the mass per volume. In rocks, it is a function of the densities
of the individual grains, the porosity, and the fluid filling the pores. There are
three types of density in rocks: dry density, wet density, and grain density.
Three types of Density:

• Dry density - is measured on rocks without any water or fluid in their
pores.
• Wet density - is measured on fully saturated cores.
• Grain density - describes the density of solid or mineral grains of the rock.
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D. Strength
Rock mass strength depends on the strength of intact rock and the strength of
rock discontinuities.
Types of Strength:
• Tensile Strength - The tensile strength is defined as the maximum

tensile load a body can withstand before failure divided by its cross-
sectional area. This property is also sometimes referred to Ultimate
Tensile Stress or UTS.
• Compressive Strength - Compressive strength is defined as the

maximum compressive load a body can bear prior to failure, divided by
its cross-sectional area.
• Shear Strength - Shear strength is the maximum shear load a body can
withstand before failure occurs divided by its cross-sectional area.
• Torsional Strength - Torsional strength is the maximum amount of

torsional stress a body can withstand before it fails, divided by its cross -
sectional area.
• Yield Strength - Yield strength is defined as the stress at which a

material changes from elastic deformation to plastic deformation. Once
this point, known as the yield point, is exceeded, the materials will no
longer return to its original dimensions after the removal of the stress.
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E. Hardness
The hardness of a mineral can be tested in several ways. Most commonly,

minerals are compared to an object of known hardness using a scratch test – if a
nail, for example, can scratch a crystal, then the nail is harder than that mineral.
F. Elasticity
Ability of a deformed material body to return to its original shape and size when
the forces causing the deformation are removed. A body with this ability is said
to behave (or respond) elastically.
G. Plasticity
Ability of certain solids to flow or to change shape permanently when subjected

to stresses of intermediate magnitude between those producing temporary
deformation, or elastic behavior, and those causing failure of the material, or
rupture.
Dynamic Properties of Rocks
A. Modulus of Deformation (Young’s Modulus)
• The basic concept behind Young’s modulus was described by Swiss

scientist and engineer Leonhard Euler in 1727.In 1782, Italian scientist
Giordano Riccati performed experiments leading to modern calculations
of the the modulus. Yet, the modulus takes its name from British scientist
Thomas Young, who described its calculation in his Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts in 1807.
• The term modulus is derived from the Latin root term modus which
means measure.
• This modulus reflects the stiffness of earth’s materials or resistance to
elastic deformation under load.
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Young’s Modulus of some common rocks
Youngs Modulus of Elasticity (E),

Types of Rocks Name of Rocks
kg/cm2*105
Basalt 2.0 – 10.0
Diabase 3.0 – 9.0
Igneous Rocks Gabbro 6.0 – 11.0
Granite 2.6 – 7.0
Syemite 6.0 – 8.0
Dolomite 2.0 – 4.4
Sedimentary Limestone 1.0 – 8.0

Rocks Sandstone 0.5 – 8.6
Shale 0.8 – 3.0
Gneiss 2.0 – 6.0
Metamorphic Marble 6.0 – 9.0

Rocks Quartzite 2.6 – 10.2
Schist 4.1 – 7.2
B. Modulus of Rigidity (Shear Modulus)
• The modulus of rigidity is the elastic coefficient when a shear force is applied
resulting in lateral deformation. A material(rock) property with a value equal
to the shear stress divided by the shear strain.
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C. Bulk Modulus
• It is a measure of the ability of a substance to withstand changes in volume

when under compression on all sides.
• When an element is subjected to equal stresses in three mutually
perpendicular directions then, the ratio of direct stress to volumetric strain
is called as “Bulk Modulus”.
D. Poisson’s Ratio
• Named after French mathematician Siméon Denis Poisson (1781-1840)

• it is defined as the ratio of the lateral strain to the axial strain for a uniaxial
stress state.
Poisson’s Ratio of some common rocks
Average Values of Poisson’s

Types of Rocks Name of Rocks
Ratio
Basalt 0.14 – 0.20
Diabase 0.125 – 0.25
Igneous Rocks Gabbro 0.125 – 0.25
Granite 0.125 – 0.25
Syemite 0.25
Dolomite 0.08 – 0.20
Limestone 0.10 – 0.20
Sedimentary Rocks
Sandstone 0.066 – 0.125
Shale 0.11 – 0.54
Gneiss 0.091 – 0.25
Marble 0.25 – 0.38
Metamorphic Rocks
Quartzite 0.23
Schist 0.01 – 0.20
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Grouting
• Grouting in civil engineering refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a

soil or rock formation.
• Acts as a sealant on the material’s permeability.
Modes of grouting
A. Permeation or penetration – Grout flows into a soil voids freely with minimal
effect
B. Compaction or controlled displacement – grout remains more or less intact
as a mass and exerts pressure on soil
C. Hydraulic fracturing or uncontrolled displacement – grout rapidly
penetrates a fractured zone, created the grout pressure is greater than the tensile
strength of a soil or rock.
Grouting Materials
A. Cement grouting
B. Bentonite grouting
C. Chemical grouting
D. Resin grouting
E. Bituminous grouting
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Grouting Methods
A. Permeation grouting
Fills the pores without any volume changes includes cement grout, bentonite grout and
chemical grout
B. Compaction grouting
Inject the grout from the side or an inclined angle to reach beneath.
C. Jet grouting
Involves injection of low viscosity liquid grout into the pore spaces of granular soil
D. Soil fracture grouting

root like zones of grout method formed into the soil mass.
E. Circuit grouting
A drill hole is bored to the depth of the bottom zone and grout is pumped down and
returned up to the drill hole.
F. Point circuits
are delivered of pre-determined positions along the line of drive and on the systems
G. Electro kinetic injection

Stabilization of silty soils may not be possible by chemical or admixture perhaps
because of the confinement or the necessity to avoid disturbance of the ground.
84
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Self-Help
To further visualize and understand more about the significant concepts in ULO-3b you
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pO_LgcXVqZA
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NhioAAdYDJM
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIvosdkZBdQ

Retrieved from
Let’s Check
Presenter Topic
Student 1 Physical and Mechanical Properties of Rocks
Student 2 Types of Wave Theory and factors affecting wave velocity
Student 3 Static and Dynamics Moduli of Elasticity
Student 4 Grouting
85
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Let’s Analyze
_________________________________1. The term modulus is derived from the Latin root term
modus which means ______.
_________________________________2. It is a measure of the ability of a substance to withstand

changes in volume when under compression on all sides.
_________________________________3. This is the fastest kind of seismic wave.
_________________________________4. It is the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from
side-to-side.
_________________________________5. Are often used in wellbore stability and in-situ stress

applications to evaluate the possibility of breakouts, elevated pore pressure, and
tectonic stress distribution.
_________________________________6. The _________ of rock are those calculated from the

elastic-wave velocity and density.
_________________________________7. Defined as the ratio of the lateral strain to the axial

strain for a uniaxial stress state.
__________________________________8. Defined as the stress at which a material changes from

elastic deformation to plastic deformation.
__________________________________9. The percentage of void space in a rock.
__________________________________10. Refers to the injection of pumpable materials into a

soil or rock formation to change its physical characteristics.
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Big Picture
Week 8-9: Unit Learning Outcomes-Unit 4 (ULO-4): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to:
a. Be able to understand the different methods in site investigations for
construction.
b. Be able to understand the geological conditions necessary for
construction of dams, tunnels, and building.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Be able to understand the different methods in

site investigations for construction.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles, and concepts of geology relevant to the
study of civil engineering and to demonstrate ULO-4a will be reviewed to have uniform
understanding in dealing all the challenges that may encounter in this course.
Essential Knowledge
Geological Investigation
• Considered as drilling, sampling,

mapping, and other geological
fieldwork pertaining to the suitability
of a site for the proposed engineering
works
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The objective of geological investigation is to determine the following:
1. Geological structure of the area

- Determined by conducting extensive and intensive geological
surveys. These surveys would reveal the entire topographic details,
occurrence of folds, faults and major unconformities and joint
systems and geomorphic details of water bodies.
2. Lithology of the area
- Include the type of rocks that make up different parts of the area, on
the surface as also up to and even beyond a desired depth, their
textures, major structures, and physical and engineering properties.
- The lithological details as revealed by these investigations would
include like hardness, strength, modulus of elasticity, rigidity,
porosity, and permeability.
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3. Groundwater conditions in the region
- The relative position of water table with respect to the project must
be thoroughly established and all variations in it during different
periods in a year should be fully ascertained.
4. Seismicity of the region

- Seismicity – the occurrence or frequency of earthquakes in the region
- Seismic Engineering – a branch of engineering that searches for ways
to make structures resistant to earthquake.
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Methods of Geological Investigation
A. Surface Investigations
• These include preparation of topographic maps using the normal
mapping techniques.
Aerial Surveys
Aerial surveys and preparation of photogeological maps are the latest

methods of surface investigations. The entire area involving an engineering
study is photographed using sophisticated cameras and controls from low flying
airplanes. These maps are then interpreted to provide sufficiently accurate
geological details of the area surveyed.
Photogeology
A branch of geology and is fast

acquiring an important place. Its scope is
enlarged by mapping of vast areas of the
globe through satellites. Imageries obtained
from satellite surveys and aerial surveys,
when interpreted properly, provide useful
details regarding rock outcrops on the
surface with possibilities of estimating their
subsurface configuration.
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Hydrogeological Surveys
An investigation of the
hydrologic and geologic
parameters at the subsurface
level in an area. Hydrogeological
maps may be formulated with the
data gathered during such a
study. It involves the detailed
evaluation of the water-bearing
levels of rocks and their capability
for filtration. Moreover, the
intrinsic ability of these rocks to
either store or resist water is also
assessed.
B. Subsurface Investigation
• An investigation of the underground conditions at a site for the
economical design of the substructure elements.
Direct Subsurface Explorations
Involves examination of rocks or materials of the underground by digging of drill

holes, trial pits, adits, shafts, galleries, and exploratory tunnels. In such
explorations, both the underground areas are reached for direct examination
and testing or samples are obtained which are examined and tested in the
laboratory.
Ex. Drilling, Pits, trenches, drifts, and shafts, boring
Indirect Subsurface Explorations
Ex. Geophysical Methods
Geophysical Investigation
• Geophysics - The study of physical properties and behaviors of the earth. It

makes use of the data available in geodesy, seismology, meteorology, and
oceanography.
Geophysical Investigation (Seismology)

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• This involves sending acoustic energy which takes the form of wavelengths
into the ground to get a sound picture beneath the surface.
Geophysical Investigation (Gravity)
• Mountains, ocean trenches, tidal movements, and even large buildings and
structures can affect the Earth's local gravity field. These, as well as the
composition of elements within the Earth's crust all cause micro-variations in
gravity all over the earth.
• Gravitometer/Gravimeter - is an instrument used to measuring the local
gravitational field.
Geophysical Investigation (Electromagnetics)

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• is based on the response of the ground to the propagation of

electromagnetic fields
• Ground Penetrating Radar - a method that uses pulses to image the
subsurface. It uses electromagnetic radiation
Geophysical Investigation (Radioactivity)
• Focuses on the natural and induced response to radioactivity

• Gamma Ray Logs - is a method of measuring occurring gamma radiation
to characterize the rock or sediment in borehole or drill hole.
Geophysical Investigation (Magnetics)

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• It provides Geophysicists, Geologists and Exploration Managers with a

picture of the sub-surface mineral make-up of the surveyed area.
• Magnetometer - A device that measures the magnetism- the direction,
strength, or relative change of a magnetic field at a location. Carried using a
backpack on ground. can be found at the front of helicopters and at the back
of aero planes.
Geophysical Investigation (Electric Methods)
• Injection of current into the ground.

• Resistivity Method - Current electrodes are driven into the ground at
intervals along a profile.
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Self-Help
To further visualize and understand more about the significant concepts in ULO-4a you
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wpk0K0qgi0Q

Retrieved from
Let’s Check
Presenter Topic
Student 1 Site Investigation
Student 2 Geological Methods
Student 3 Geophysical Methods
Student 4 Seismic and Electrical Methods
95
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Let’s Analyze
_________________________________1. It is the process of collection of information in a site.
_________________________________2. Considered as drilling, sampling, mapping and other

geological fieldwork pertaining to the suitability of a site for the proposed engineering
works
_________________________________3. It involves measuring the travel time of the component

of seismic energy which travels down to the top of rock.
_________________________________4. A cylindrical section of rock, or fragment thereof, taken

as a sample of the interval penetrated by a core barrel and brought to the surface for
the examination and for analysis.
_________________________________5. Is an investigation of the hydrologic and geologic

parameters at the subsurface level in an area.
In a Nutshell
My Geo-Experiment
In this task, you will be divided into groups of three. Each group will create a
presentation on how to conduct Standard Penetration Test.
RUBRICS
Content Creativity
How did you discuss the topic? What creative ways did you use in the
How well did you research or give presentation?
information about your topic? How unique is your presentation?
70% 30%
100%
96
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Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4b. Be able to understand the geological conditions

necessary for construction of dams, tunnels, and building.
Metalanguage
The most essential terms below are defined for you to have a better understanding of
section ULO-4b in the course.
5. Standard Penetration Test – an in-situ dynamic penetration test designed to

provide information on the geotechnical engineering properties of soil. This test is
the most frequently used subsurface exploration drilling test performed worldwide.
6. Road Cutting - a cut or cutting is where soil or rock from a relative rise along a route
is removed. The term is also used in river management to speed a waterway's flow
by short cutting a meander. Cuts are typically used in road, rail, and canal
construction to reduce the length and grade of a route.
Essential Knowledge
To perform the aforesaid big picture (unit learning outcomes), you need to fully
Standard Penetration Test
The Standard Penetration test (SPT) is a common in situ testing method used to
determine the geotechnical engineering properties of subsurface soils. It is a simple and
inexpensive test to estimate the relative density of soils and approximate shear
strength parameters.
Standard Penetration Test Tools
• Drilling Rig - is an integrated

system that drills wells, such as
oil or water wells, in the earth's
subsurface
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• Standard Split Spoon Sampler - is a tube split into two equal halves lengthwise.
The two halves are locked together during the sampling activities and released
to retrieve the samples.
• Drop Hammer weighing 63.5

kg - A machine consisting of an
anvil or base aligned with a
hammer that is raised and then
dropped on the metal resting on
the anvil
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• Guiding Rod - A heavy drill rod

coupled to and having the same
diameter as a core barrel on which it
is used. A guide permitting a free fall
of 0.76 m and over lift capability of at
least 100 mm.
• Driving Head - It allows the

Hammer to fall on it delivering one
or more blows.
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Geological Condition Necessary for Construction of Dams and Tunnels
Dams - a solid barrier constructed at suitable location across a river valley with a view of
impounding water flowing through that river.
Selection of Sites:
Topographically
It would be a narrow gorge or a small valley with enough catchments area available behind so
that when a dam is placed there it would easily store a calculated volume of water in the
reservoir created upstream
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Technically
➢ The site should be as sound as possible strong, impermeable, and stable.

- Strong rocks at the site make the job of the designer much easy: he can evolve best
designs.
➢ The site should not be far off from deposits of materials which would be required for its
construction.
➢ All types of major dams require millions of cubic meters of natural materials, earth,
sand, gravel, rock.
Economically
➢ The benefits arising out of a dam placed at a particular site should be realistic and
justified in terms of lands, irrigated or power generated, or floods averted, or water
stored.
Environmentally
➢ the site where dam is proposed to be placed and a reservoir created, should not involve
ecological disorder, especially in the life cycles of animals and vegetations and man.
Road Cutting
• In civil engineering, a cut or cutting is where soil or rock from relative rise along a route
is removed.
• Cuts are typically used in road, rail, and canal construction to reduce the length and
grade of a route.
Types of Cut
A. Sidehill Cut - In civil engineering, a cut or cutting is where soil or rock from relative
rise along a route is removed. Cuts are typically used in road, rail, and canal construction
to reduce the length and grade of a route.
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B. Through Cut - In contrast with the other, where the adjacent grade is higher on both
sides of the route, require removal of material from the area since it cannot be
dumped alongside the route.
Cut and Fill
• The process of constructing a railway, road, or canal whereby the amount of material
from cuts roughly matches the amount of fill needed to make nearby embankments, so
minimizing the amount of construction labor.
102
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Self-Help
To further visualize and understand more about the significant concepts in ULO-3b you
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Mnfw5kEkA1Y

Retrieved from
Let’s Check
Presenter Topic
Student 1 Standard Penetration Test
Student 2 Geological Conditions for construction of Dams and Tunnels
Student 3 Geological Conditions for construction of Buildings
Student 4 Road Cutting
103
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In a Nutshell
• In this task, you will be divided into groups of three. Each group must develop a
deep knowledge and understanding to conduct a research study about geological
conditions of construction projects.
The following are suggested research topic but still you are free to use any topic
applicable in the civil engineering profession.
✓ Assessment of deep-seated landslides
✓ Rainfall-induced landslides
✓ Slope failures
• You will presume the role of an engineer with task of making a case study which
is related to engineering geology to provide a solution for an occurring event.
• You are expected to research and integrate additional information from the
required reading articles in your presentation. You are going to find a problem or
a major casualty in your chosen topic. For instance, your topic is rainfall induced
landslide, you have to cite a scenario or situation in which landslide occurs and
affects certain area. It should present about the topic and develop statement with
information gathered from a variety of sites. Investigate the situation and propose
a solution. You must provide data and graphs to support your claims. Your
research must have an introduction, statement of the problem, conclusion, and
recommendation. You are required to use a minimum of five references and at
least two of these are published articles.
• This assessment task is designed for you to demonstrate a comprehensive

understanding of the principles, theories, and key concepts on engineering
geology.
You will be graded according to the following criteria:
1. Identification of the main issues and/or problem -15%

2. Literature research and review -20%
3. Analysis of the key issues - 30%
4. Observations and/or recommendations on effective solutions – 20%
5. Writing Skills/ Professional Presentation – 15&
---end---
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UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for

Course/Subject: BCE 221: GEOLOGY FOR CIVIL ENGINEERS

Course Outline: BCE 221 – Geology for Civil Engineers ..................................................... 4

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a ...................................................................................................... 8

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1b ................................................................................................... 17

Course Schedule (Week 1-3) .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2a ................................................................................................... 29

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-2b ................................................................................................... 49

Course Schedule (Week 4-5) .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a ................................................................................................... 59

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-3b ................................................................................................... 77

Course Schedule (Week 6-7) .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a ................................................................................................... 87

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-4b ................................................................................................... 97

Course Schedule (Week 8-9) .................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

Course Outline: BCE 221 – Geology for Civil Engineers

Course Coordinator: Engr. SHOWNA LEE T. SALES

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

Since this course is included in the licensure

Turnitin Submission To ensure honesty and authenticity, all assessment

Please note that academic dishonesty such as cheating

However, if the late submission of assessment paper

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator

with the students on the approval and disapproval of

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

coordinator with the approval of the program

Course Information- see/download course syllabus in the BlackBoard LMS

CO: Upon completion of the course, you are expected to:

CO 1: Explain the role of geology in the design and construction process of

Big Picture in Focus: ULO-1a. Demonstrate deep knowledge and understanding

d. Historical Geology - The study of analyzing earth’s past by investigating rocks

Earth Structure and Composition

Core, mantle, and crust are divisions

Crust and Lithosphere

Convection in the mantle is the same as convection in a pot of water on a stove.

Earth’s Geologic History

Alfred Lothar Wegener

Three Types of Tectonics Boundary

I. Divergent Boundary - Movement of two plates away from each other.

The three mechanisms in Earth Processes:

• Wind abrasion - Abrasion is the process of erosion produced by the suspended

Weathering - caused by elements (weather) wearing away the surface of a rock.

Two Types of weathering

Physical Weathering- breaking down of rocks without a change in composition.

Chemical Weathering - breaking down of rocks with a change in composition.

➢ Oxidation – is when oxygen reacts with the minerals of a rock.

F G Bell (2007). Engineering Geology, Second Edition – Butterworth-Heinemann

McLean, Gribble (2005). Geology for Civil Engineers

_________________________________1. The study of solid earth, the materials of which it is

_________________________________2. The coastlines of which continents appear to fit together

_________________________________3. Tectonic comes from the Greek word ______.

_________________________________4. Bottom layer of mantle composed of solid flowing rock.

_________________________________5. Concerned with the surface processes that create the

___________________________3. Tectonic comes from the Greek word .

______________________________9. This huge ancient landmass is known _, which