Week 1-3

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education

Chemical Engineering Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Name of Teacher: Engr. Crijamaica L. Oceña
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE.
THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE
OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Table of Contents
Course Outline: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS.............................. 1

Big Picture(Week 1-3) ................................................................................................ 6
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa ................................................................................... 6
Metalanguage .................................................................................................. 6
Essential Knowledge ....................................................................................... 7
Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 18
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 18
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 19
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 19
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 19
References .................................................................................................... 20
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb.................................................................................. 20
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 20
Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................... 22
Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 29
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 30
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 30
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 30
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 30
References .................................................................................................... 30
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc .................................................................................. 32
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 32
Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 49
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 49
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 49
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 49
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 50
References .................................................................................................... 50
Big Picture in Focus: ULOd.................................................................................. 51
Metalanguage ................................................................................................ 51
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Self-Help ........................................................................................................ 65
Let’s Check .................................................................................................... 65
Let’s Analyze ................................................................................................. 65
In a Nutshell ................................................................................................... 66
Keywords Index ............................................................................................. 66
References .................................................................................................... 66
Course Schedule ................................................................................................ 69
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Course Outline: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Course Coordinator: Engr. Crijamaica L. Oceña
Email: clocena@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: Done by online (LMS), text, emails or calls

Mobile: 09501388833/09067949369
Phone: (082) 287–6372 or (082) 296–1084 local 133
Effectivity Date: August 17, 2020
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual

sessions)
Time Frame: 108 Hours (Lecture+Laboratory)
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 4 units (3 units lecture, 1 unit laboratory)
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 4-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The expected
number of hours will be 108 including the face to face or
virtual sessions, and laboratory. The face to face
sessions shall include the summative assessment tasks
(exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for engineers.
1
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall
be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission and
name of the student. All submissions should be done
through Blackboard. It is also expected that you already
paid your tuition and other fees before the submission of
the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or via
Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to ensure
that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards
or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
2
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Re-marking of Assessment Papers You should request in writing addressed to the program
and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The
program coordinator shall communicate with the students
on the approval and disapproval of the request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate

your case to the program head or the dean with the
original letter of request. The final decision will come from
the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style IEEE
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the students to
have access to the materials and resources of the
course. All communication formats: chat, submission of
assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be through the
portal and other university recognized platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Canesares

Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 09562082442
3
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Ramiro Emerson C. Amon

Head Email: ramiro_amon@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 09566929092
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
coordinator with the approval of the program coordinator
may provide alternative assessment tasks or extension of
the deadline of submission of assessment tasks. However,
the alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
Online Tutorial Registration Platforms such as Google Meet and Zoom (whichever is
convenient) will be used for video conference. Kindly
create an account ahead of time.
Help Desk Contact CEE BLACKBOARD ADMINISTRATOR
blackboardclass@umindanao.edu.ph
CEE
Frida Santa O. Dagatan
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902
GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu.ph
09212122846
Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu.ph
09060757721
Library Contact LIC

Brigida E. Bacani
library@umindanao.edu.ph
09513766681
4
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello engineer in the making! Welcome to this course BCHE 111/L:
Chemistry for Engineers. This course deals with core concepts of
chemistry which are important in the practice of engineering profession
which includes generation of energy, the chemistry of engineering
materials, the chemistry of the environment and a special topic specific
to an engineering field of expertise.
CO CO stands for Course Outcomes. These are the the skills that students
are expected to demonstrate at the end of the course to pass the subject.
The following are the COs of BCHE 111/L:
CO 1. Demonstrate understanding of chemistry in relation to the
generation of energy, the chemical principles and concepts of structures
and bonding of common engineering materials, and the chemical
processes that take place in the environment.
CO 2. Conduct experiments in relation to the models and concepts learned
in class.
Let us begin!
5
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are expected
to
a. demonstrate understanding on the basic concepts of crystal structure;

b. differentiate metals and non-metals by understanding their characteristics;
c. explain the concept of polymers;
d. show understanding of the concept of engineered nanomaterials.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. demonstrate understanding on the

basic concepts of crystal structure
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study
of crystal structure to demonstrate ULOa will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.
Amorphous an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-

range order that is characteristic of a crystal
Atomic the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to the total
Packing Factor volume of the unit cell
Body-centered has lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus an
cubic additional point at the center of the cell.
Bravais lattice the fourteen distinguishable ways of arranging the points

independently in three-dimensional space
Coordination defined as the number of equidistant nearest neighbors that an atom
number has in a given structure
Crystal lattice is the symmetrical three-dimensional arrangement of atoms inside a

crystal.
6
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Cystalline is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly

ordered microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends
in all directions.
Crystallographi the lines drawn parallel to the lines of intersection of any three faces
c axes of the unit cell which do not lie in the same plane
Density mass per unit volume

Face-centered has lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus additional
cubic points at the centers of each face of the unit cell.
Hexagonal layers of spheres are packed so that spheres in alternating layers
close-packed overlie one another. As in cubic close packing, each sphere is
surrounded by 12 other spheres.
Interfacial the angles between three crystallographic axes
angles
Lattice collective term for primitives and interfacial angles
parameters
Primitives the dimensions of a unit cell
Simple cubic is the simplest repeating unit in a simple cubic structure. Each corner
of the unit cell is defined by a lattice point at which an atom, ion, or
molecule can be found in the crystal.
Space lattice defined as an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which

every point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in
the array.
Unit cell the smallest group of atoms of a substance that has the overall
symmetry of a crystal of that substance, and from which the entire
lattice can be built up by repetition in three dimensions.
Void space vacant space left or unutilized space in unit cell , and more
commonly known as interstitial space
Essential Knowledge
BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered arrangement
of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures occur from the
7
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns that repeat along
the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter (Moore & Smart, 2005).
The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes the repeating pattern
is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell completely defines the symmetry and
structure of the entire crystal lattice, which is built up by repetitive translation of the unit
cell along its principal axes. The repeating patterns are said to be located at the points of
the Bravais lattice.
The lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles between
them are the lattice constants, also called lattice parameters. The symmetry properties of
the crystal are described by the concept of space groups. All possible symmetric
arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space may be described by the 230 space
groups.
The crystal structure and symmetry play a critical role in determining many physical
properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical transparency.
Crystal structure is one of the most important aspects of materials science and
engineering as many properties of materials depend on their crystal structures. The basic
principles of many materials characterization techniques such as X-ray diffraction (XRD),
Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are based on crystallography. Therefore,
understanding the basics of crystal structures is of paramount importance.
Matter exist usually in solid or fluid (liquid, gas) state. According to modern concept
matter classification is specified as condensed state and gaseous state. Solids and liquids
come under condensed state. Any material whose position of constituent particles is fixed
can be regarded as solids.
Solids are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength.

This indicates that the molecules, atoms or ions that make up as solid is closely packed.
Thus in solids we will have a well ordered molecular, atomic or ionic arrangement.
In general solids can be classified into:
 Crystalline - particles are orderly arranged (long range order).

 Amorphous - particles are randomly oriented.
If the atoms or molecules are uniquely arranged in crystalline solid or liquid, we

call it a crystal structure. A crystal possesses long range order and symmetry. The main
property of crystal structure is its periodicity. This periodicity is due to the arrangement of
atoms/molecules in the lattice points. The crystal structure as a whole can be considered
as the repetition of unit cell. For a given crystal structure the shape of unit cell is same
but varies from crystal to crystal (Schaffer et al, 1999).
8
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 1. General classification of solids
Unit Cell
Crystal structure is described in terms of the geometry of arrangement of particles
in the unit cell. The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit having the full
symmetry of the crystal structure. The geometry of the unit cell is defined as
a parallelepiped, providing six lattice parameters taken as the lengths of the cell edges
(a, b, c) and the angles between them (α, β, γ). The positions of particles inside the unit
cell are described by the fractional coordinates (xi, yi, zi) along the cell edges, measured
from a reference point. It is only necessary to report the coordinates of a smallest
asymmetric subset of particles. This group of particles may be chosen so that it occupies
the smallest physical space, which means that not all particles need to be physically
located inside the boundaries given by the lattice parameters. All other particles of the
unit cell are generated by the symmetry operations that characterize the symmetry of the
unit cell. The collection of symmetry operations of the unit cell is expressed formally as
the space group of the crystal structure (Atkins & de Paula, 2006).
Figure 2. Unit cell
9
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Unit cell can be of primitive as well as non-primitive type. A primitive cell is a

minimum volume unit cell and has only one lattice point in it and the latter contains more
than one.
Figure 3. Primitive and non-primitive unit cell

In the given figure below, simple cube is a primitive cell. No. of atoms per unit cell
is one for it. The rest two is non primitive. No. of atoms per unit cell is 2 and 4 respectively.
Figure 4. Primitive cell (P) and Non-primitive cell (I and F)

Bravais Lattices
The number of lattices that can fill two- or three-dimensional space with periodically
repeating units without leaving gaps or causing overlaps is limited. Therefore, there is a
finite number of different crystal structures, and different crystalline solids may crystallise
according to the same pattern. The metrics of the lattice may be different, but
the symmetry is the same in such cases. Lattices which fill space without gaps are
called Bravais lattices. There are five of them in two dimensions and 14 in three
dimensions (Hermann, 2017).
Bravais Lattices in Two Dimensions
10
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The most general and least symmetric Bravais lattice in two dimensions is
the oblique lattice. If the angle between the two lattice vectors is 90°, the higher symmetry
of the cell gives rise to a distinct Bravais lattice, either rectangular or square depending
on whether the unit cell vectors have different length or not. In the case of a rectangular
lattice, we can distinguish between a primitive rectangular lattice and a centred
rectangular lattice, which has an extra lattice point (atom) at the centre. The centred
rectangular lattice could be set up as a primitive lattice with lower symmetry (unit cell
shown in green), but convention prefers the more symmetric description. Finally, if the
lattice vectors are the same length and the angle is 120°, we have another special case
with higher symmetry, the hexagonal lattice (Ellis et al, 1995).
Figure 5. Bravais lattices in two dimensions

Bravais Lattices in Three Dimensions
Based on the lattice parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ and applying the restrictions as
above, only 14 types of lattices are possible in three dimensions. One general (triclinic)
and thirteen special. Only seven different systems of axis are found to be sufficient to
represent all Bravais lattice. This fourteen space lattice is divided into seven crystal
systems (Callister, 2002).
They are triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal and

cubic.
Table 1. Bravais lattices in three dimensions
Atomic Coordination
11
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Lattice Simple Base- Body- Face- Example

System Centered Centered Centered
triclinic CuSO4.5H2O
K2Cr2O7
monoclinic CaSO4.2H2O
FeSO4
Na2SO4
orthorhombic KNO3
BaSO4
rhombohedral
As
Sb
Bi
tetragonal
TiO2
SnO2
NiSO4
hexagonal SiO2
Zn
Mg
Cd
In chemistry, crystallography, and materials science the coordination

number, also called ligancy, of a central atom in a molecule or crystal is the number of
atoms, molecules or ions bonded to it. The ion/molecule/atom surrounding the central
12
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
cubic Au
Cu
NaCl
ion/molecule/atom is called a ligand. This number is determined somewhat differently for

molecules than for crystals.
By considering the arrangement of atoms relative to each other, their coordination
numbers (or number of nearest neighbors), interatomic distances, types of bonding, etc.,
it is possible to form a general view of the structures and alternative ways of visualizing
them.
Simple cubic, face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) have
coordination numbers 6, 8, and 12 respectively (Atkins, 2006).
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Atomic packing fraction mainly gives us an idea about the arrangement of
atoms/ions in solids. It will give the efficiency with which the available space is being filled
by atoms (Callister, 2002).
Packing fraction is defined as the ratio of volume of atoms occupying the unit cell
to the volume of unit cell.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
Examples:
1. Simple Cubic
Consider a cube of side 'a'. Atoms of radius ‘r’ is placed at the corner. So that
length of cube a=2r.
13
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 6. Simple cubic unit cell

In a simple cubic structure, the atoms occupies at the eight corners. An atom at
the corner is equally shared by 8 unit cells. So the contribution of one atom to a unit cell
is 1/8. Therefore the no. of atoms per unit cell is (1/8)*8(corner atoms) =1.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎3 = (2𝑟)3 = 8𝑟 3
4 3
𝜋𝑟 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 3 = = 𝟓𝟐%
8𝑟 6
2. Body-centered Cube
Consider a cube of side ‘a’, and atoms of radius ‘r’ are placed at corners and at the
body centre. Length of body diagonal, √3a=4r.
Figure 7. Body-centered cubic unit cell

4 8
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 2 ∗ 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
14
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
In a body centered cube, there will be one atom at the centre along with 8 corner
atoms. This corner atom is shared by 8 unit cell and the atom at the centre is not a shared
one. Therefore no. of atoms per unit cell= (1/8)*8(corner atoms)+1(body centre)=2.
3
3
4𝑟 64𝑟 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎 = ( ) =
√3 3√3
8 3
𝜋𝑟 √3𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 3 = = 𝟔𝟖%
64𝑟 8
3√3
3. Face-centered Cube
Consider a cube of length ‘a’ and atoms of radius ’r’ are placed at the corners as
well as at the face centre. Length of face diagonal √2a=4r.
Figure 8. Face-centered cubic unit cell

4 16 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 4 ∗ 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝑟
3 3
In a face centered cube, each face possess one atom along with 8 corner atoms.
The atoms at the faces are equally shared by two unit cell. Corner atoms by 8 unit cells.
So the no. of atoms per unit cell is=(1/8)*8(corner atoms)+(1/2)*6(atoms at face)=4.
3
4𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎3 = ( )
√2
16 3
𝜋𝑟 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 3 = = 𝟕𝟒%
4𝑟 3√2
( )
√2
4. Hexagonal Close-Packed
15
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
For the hexagonal close-packed structure, the unit cell (equivalent to 3 primitive
unit cells) is a hexagonal prism containing six atoms (if the particles in the crystal are
atoms). Indeed, three are the atoms in the middle layer (inside the prism); in addition, for
the top and bottom layers (on the bases of the prism), the central atom is shared with the
adjacent cell, and each of the six atoms at the vertices is shared with other five adjacent
cells. So the total number of atoms in the cell is 3 + (1/2)×2 + (1/6)×6×2 = 6. Each atom
touches other twelve atoms. Now let a be the side length of the base of the prism and
c be its height. The latter is twice the distance between adjacent layers, i.e., twice the
height of the regular tetrahedron whose vertices are occupied by (say) the central atom
of the lower layer, two adjacent non-central atoms of the same layer, and one atom of the
middle layer "resting" on the previous three. Obviously, the edge of this tetrahedron is a.
8 2
If a=2r, then its height can be easily calculated to be √3 𝑎, and, therefore, 𝑐 = 4√3 𝑟. So
3√3
the volume of the hcp unit cell turns out to be 𝑎2 𝑐, that is 24√2𝑟 3 .
2
It is then possible to calculate the APF as follows:

4 3
𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 6 ∙ 3 𝜋𝑟
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = =
𝑉𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 3√3 2
2 𝑎 𝑐
4 4
6 ∙ 3 𝜋𝑟 3 6 ∙ 3 𝜋𝑟 3
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = =
3√3 2√ 2 3√3 √2 3
2 (2𝑟) 3 ∙ 4𝑟 2 3 ∙ 16𝑟
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = = = 0.74048048
√18 3√2
Figure 9. Hexagonal close-packed structure.
Density Calculation
The density of a solid is that of the unit cell, obtained by dividing the mass of the
atoms (n atoms x Matom) and dividing by Vc the volume of the cell (a3 in the case of a
16
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
cube). If the mass of the atom is given in amu (A), then we have to divide it by the
Avogadro number to get Matom. Thus, the formula for the density is:
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
where:
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐/𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑁𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
Example:
1. Polonium crystallizes in a simple cubic pattern with a unit cell length of 3.36
angstrom (Å). Estimate the density of Po in g/cm3. (1 Å = 1x10-8 cm)
Basis: 1 unit cell

Given:
n = 1 atom; a = 3.36x10-8 cm; A = 209 g/mol
Solution:
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
𝑔
(1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚) (209 )
𝜌= 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(3.36𝑥10−8 𝑐𝑚)3 (6.022𝑥1023 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝝆 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟓 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
2. Aluminum has a face-centered cubic unit cell, that is, an atom at each corner of
the unit cell and an atom at the center of each face. The Al-Al distance (2r) is
0.2863 nm. Calculate the density of aluminum in g/mL. The mass of aluminum
atom is 26.98 amu.
Basis: 1 unit cell

Given:
17
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
n = 4 atoms; A = 26.98 g/mol; 2r = 0.2863 nm = 0.2863x10-7 cm

Solution:
(4𝑟)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2
16𝑟 2 = 2𝑎2
𝑎2 = 8𝑟 2
𝑎 = 2√2 𝑟
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
(4 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠)(26.98 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝜌= 3 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
[√2(0.2863𝑥10−7 𝑐𝑚)] (6.022𝑥1023 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟐. 𝟕 = 𝟐. 𝟕 𝒈/𝒎𝑳
𝒄𝒎𝟑
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you further
understand the lesson:
Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for

surface scientists and nanoscientists. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131386643/9651CF2002EF494EPQ/4?
accountid=31259. Chapter 2 Bulk Crystals: Three-Dimensional Lattices pp 7-
90
Let’s Check
Exercises:
1. Molybdenum forms body-centered cubic crystals and at 20 oC the density is 10.3
g/mL. Calculate the distance between the centers of the nearest molybdenum
atoms.
18
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
2. An element crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice. The edge of the unit cell
is 0.286 nm, and the density of the crystal is 7.92 g/cm 3. Calculate the atomic
weight of the element.
3. Austenite form of iron has FCC crystal lattice structure, whereas its alpha form has
BCC crystal lattice structure. Assuming closest packed arrangement of iron atoms,
what will be the ratio of density of Austenite to that of alpha iron?
4. Sodium crystallizes in the body-centered cubic structure with a=0.424 nm.
Calculate the theoretical density of Na in kg/m3.
5. Find the distance (in nm) between the body-centered atom and one corner atom
in Na, given a=0.424 nm.
Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Compare and contrast the 7 crystal system.
Activity 2. Compare and contrast the 3 Bravais lattice of the cubic crystal system.
In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Illustrate the: (a) simple cubic, body-centered, and face-centered cubic of the
cubic crystal system; and (b) hexagonal crystal system.
Activity 2. How is learning crystal structure relevant in the study of engineering?
Keywords Index
Amorphous Crystal lattice Face- Space lattice Coordination

centered number
cubic
Hexagonal
close-packed
Atomic Cystalline Interfacial Unit cell Face-
Packing angles centered
Factor cubic
Body-centered Crystallographic Lattice Void space Simple cubic
cubic axes parameters
Bravais lattice Density Primitives
19
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
References
Atkins, P., & de Paula, J. (2006). Atkins’ Physical Chemistry 8th ed. Oxford University
Press. Chapter 20: Materials 2: The Solid State
Callister, W. (2002). Materials Science and Engineering (6th ed.). San Francisco, CA:
John Wiley and Sons.
Ellis, Arthur B.; et al. (1995). Teaching General Chemistry: A Materials Science
Companion (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for surface

scientists and nanoscientists. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131386643/9651CF2002EF494EPQ/4?a
ccountid=31259. Chapter 2 Bulk Crystals: Three-Dimensional Lattices pp 7-90
Moore, Lesley E.; Smart, Elaine A. (2005). Solid State Chemistry: An Introduction (3rd
ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis, CRC.
Schaffer; Saxena; Antolovich; Sanders; Warner (1999). The Science and Design of
Engineering Materials (2nd ed.). New York, NY: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOb. differentiate metals and non-metals by

understanding their characteristics
Metalanguage
of metals to demonstrate ULOb will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in
case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
Actinides any of the series of fifteen metallic elements from actinium (atomic
number 89) to lawrencium (atomic number 103) in the periodic table.
They are all radioactive, the heavier members being extremely
unstable and not of natural occurrence.
20
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Alkali metals the metals in Group 1 of the periodic table of elements

Alkaline earth
metals metals which belong to group 2 in the periodic table
Alloy a mixture of a metal with at least one other element, usually another
metal
Amalgam an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings
because it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Brass an alloy of copper and zinc; does not tarnish and is used for door
knobs, buttons and musical instruments.
Corrosion a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically-
stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual
destruction of materials by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction
with their environment.
Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic
deformation before rupture, which may be expressed as percent
elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test.
Electrical
conductivity the degree to which a specified material conducts electricity.
Lanthanides are a group of 15 chemical elements, with atomic numbers 57 through
71. All of these elements have one valence electron in the 5d shell.
Luster is a gentle sheen or soft glow, especially that of a partly reflective
surface.
Malleability is a physical property of metals that defines the ability to be

hammered, pressed or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
Ore a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable

mineral can be profitably extracted.
Reactivity the ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with
other elements and compounds
Rusting the specific name given to the corrosion of iron; a chemical reaction
between iron, oxygen and water.
Solder an alloy of zinc and lead; is used in electronics to attach components
to circuit boards.
Sonority is a nonbinary phonological feature categorizing sounds into a relative
scale.
Steel an alloy containing iron and other elements

Thermal is the rate at which heat passes through a specified material,
conductivity expressed as the amount of heat that flows per unit time through a
unit area with a temperature gradient of one degree per unit distance.
21
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Transition
metals the elements in Groups 3 through 12 in the periodic table
Essential Knowledge
A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows a

lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are
typically malleable (they can be hammered into thin sheets) or ductile (can be drawn into
wires). A metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an alloy such as stainless steel;
or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride (Gaffney & Marley, 2018).
Approximately three-quarters of all known chemical elements are metals. The most
abundant varieties in the Earth’s crust are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium,
and magnesium. The vast majority of metals are found in ores (mineral-bearing
substances), but a few such as copper, gold, platinum, and silver frequently occur in the
free state because they do not readily react with other elements.
Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively
simple crystal structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree of
symmetry. Typically, the atoms of metals contain less than half the full complement of
electrons in their outermost shell. Because of this characteristic, metals tend not to
form compounds with each other. They do, however, combine more readily with
nonmetals (e.g., oxygen and sulfur), which generally have more than half the maximum
number of valence electrons.
Metals, as chemical elements, comprise 25% of the Earth's crust and are present
in many aspects of modern life. The strength and resilience of some metals has led to
their frequent use in, for example, high-rise building and bridge construction, as well as
most vehicles, many home appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad tracks. Precious
metals were historically used as coinage, but in the modern era, coinage metals have
extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements (Roe, 1992).
Physical Properties
The physical properties of metals include shininess/luster, malleability, ductility,

and conductivity. A malleable material is one that can be hammered or rolled into flat
sheets and other shapes. A ductile material is one that can be pulled out, or drawn, into
a long wire. For example, copper can be made into thin sheets and wire because it is
malleable and ductile. Conductivity is the ability of an object to transfer heat or electricity
to another object. Most metals are good conductors. In addition, a few metals are
magnetic. For example, iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) are attracted to magnets
22
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
and can be made into magnets. Most metals are also solids at room temperature.
However, one metal—mercury (Hg)—is a liquid at room temperature (Holleman & Wiberg,
2001).
Chemical Properties
The ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with other
elements and compounds is called its reactivity. Metals usually react by losing electrons
to other atoms. Some metals are very reactive. For example, you read that sodium (Na)
reacts strongly when exposed to air or water. To prevent a reaction, sodium and metals
like it must be stored under oil in sealed containers. By comparison, gold (Au) and
platinum (Pt) are valued for their lack of reactivity and because they are rare. The
reactivities of other metals fall somewhere between those of sodium and gold. Iron, for
example, reacts slowly with oxygen in the air, forming iron oxide, or rust. If iron is not
protected by paint or plated with another metal, it will slowly turn to reddish-brown rust.
The destruction of a metal through this process is called corrosion (Mortimer, 1975).
Corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal due to reactions with other
chemicals in its environment. Over time, corrosion changes the appearance of the metal
as it breaks down and it becomes weaker. Corrosion can seriously damage metallic
objects and structures. Coating the surface of a metal with paint and certain chemicals
can protect it from corrosion.
Figure 1. Example of corrosion.
Do all metals corrode?

Metals behave differently when exposed to the environment. Gold is an unreactive
metal and does not corrode easily. In many cultures, gold is considered a precious metal
and is used to make sacred and decorative objects. Items made from gold can survive
23
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
for thousands of years and have even been found in good condition underwater. In
general, objects made from metals that corrode easily do not survive for as long.
Why doesn’t aluminum corrode?
Aluminum is a very reactive metal. However, it does not corrode in the presence
of oxygen. The outer aluminum atoms react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This forms a
thin layer of aluminum oxide on the metal’s surface, which protects the metal from
corrosion.
Figure 2. Mechanism why aluminum doesn’t corrode.

What is rusting?
Rusting is the specific name given to the corrosion of iron. It is a chemical
reaction between iron, oxygen and water. The chemical name for rust is hydrated iron
oxide. Rust can form on cars and buildings, making them unsafe. It is an expensive
problem. Salt can increase the rate of rusting. This iron bolt is on a seaside structure and
is nearly completely corroded.
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
Metals in the Periodic Table
The metals in a group, or family, have similar properties, and these family
properties change gradually as you move across the table (Walther, 2013).
The reactivity of metals tends to decrease as you move from left to right across the
periodic table.
Alkali Metal
24
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The metals in Group 1, from lithium to francium, are called the alkali metals. They
have low melting point and boiling point compared to other metals. They are very soft
and cut easily by knife. Also, they have low densities. The alkali metals have the high
thermal and electrical conductivity, ductility, and malleability that are characteristics of
a metal. Every alkali metal atom has a single electron in its outermost shell. Sodium,
Lithium, Potassium, Rubidium, and Cesium are Alkali Metals.
Alkaline Earth Metal
The Alkaline Earth Metals are all of the elements in the second column (column
2A) of the periodic table. Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and
Radium belong to this group. These metals have two electrons in their outermost
electron layer. Alkaline Earth Metals in their pure forms are generally shiny and silvery.
Transition Metals
Transition metals are the elements that feature atoms that have an incomplete d
sub-shell. D-block simply implies that the element d-blocks are the final element to
build up all accords to building up principle. They give off electrons from their outer s
orbital but mostly they lose electrons on d orbital. They are unique from all other
elements because of their common properties. One property is they form a lot of
compounds in a quite amount few states of oxidation. Another property is they are
famous for their tendency to form a lot of paramagnetic compounds. This is mainly
due to their low reactivity of their d unpaired electrons (Yonezawa, 2017).
For the most part they are good source of conductors. They are malleable, ductile,
lustrous & silver-white in color. But exception of it is the copper which is brownish red
in color.
A great characteristic is they easily mix. The reason for it is because they have the
same atomic size. This results in more proficient mixture of one another in a crystal
lattice. When two or more metals mix or replace each other, we call the new name of
a metal an alloy.
They can be found anywhere on earth at various amount. They are mostly not
found on pure substance, but rather on the certain compounds on earth’s crust. This
signifies that we need to extract the metals on an existing compound in one or two
ways: pyrometallurgical which uses high temperature and hydrometallurgical which
uses aqueous solution.
They can also be sold at higher prices because of their rarity on the market. One
of the examples is the gold which is also known as shining dawn.
Lanthanides
Two rows of elements are placed below the main part of the periodic table. This
makes the table more compact. The elements in the top row are called the
25
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
lanthanides. Lanthanides are soft, malleable, shiny metals with high conductivity. They
are mixed with more common metals to make alloys. An alloy is a mixture of a metal
with at least one other element, usually another metal. Different lanthanides are
usually found together in nature. They are difficult to separate from one another
because they all share very similar properties.
Actinides
Actinides are composed of 15 elements which ranges from number 89 to 103,
which are composed from actinium to lawrencium. The name of this certain metal
derives from its first element which is the actinium. While mostly of the actinides are
synthetic elements, small amount of uranium and thorium can be found on nature.
Another property that is possessed by these elements is radioactivity. Examples are
the plutonium, thorium and uranium which are utilized on building nuclear reactors or
weapons.
For many years the chemical elements reach its bottleneck and ended with a
number of 92, uranium. The scientists are uncertain of whether there is any other
heavy element than uranium. Until a discovery made by the scientists of University of
California physicists by Edwin McMillan (1907–1991) and Philip Abelson (1913–2004)
on their study on nuclear fission. (Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic nucleus,
a process that releases large amounts of energy. Atomic bombs and nuclear power
plants operate on nuclear fission.). During their experiments on nuclear fission, they
found new evidence that support the research of another heavier element with an
atomic number of 94. They have found new elements which are the transuranium
elements heavier than uranium. The first discovery named as neptunium, comes from
the planet Neptune. Just as the name uranium derives from Uranus. Later on another
discovery of transuranium found which is the plutonium, which was named after Pluto.
Later on more discoveries founded on transuranium: americium (number 95) and
curium (number 96) in 1944; berkelium (number 97) in 1949; californium (number 98)
in 1950; einsteinium (number 99) and fermium (number 100) in 1952; mendelevium
(number 101) in 1955; nobelium (number 102) in 1958; and lawrencium (number 103)
in 1961.
Metalloids
They often create amphoteric oxides and behave in the same manner as
semiconductors. The usually considered elements on this group are boron, silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony & tellurium. They more likely behave as non-metals
when they cooperate with metals and behave as metals when they react with non-
metals. Hence, they are known as semi-metals. The uncommon elements polonium
and astatine are sometimes considered as metalloids.
Other metals
26
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
They are metals that can be based on two criterion: Each of these elements can
be classified as a metal or a non-metal based on the characteristics on their general
chemical and physical properties. These are group of elements that can be found on
the right corner of the transition metals on periodic table and also known as the post-
transition metals. The elements classed as "other metals" generally have the following
properties in common: strong, ductile and malleable, good conductors of heat and
electricity, have a relative high density, and opaque.
Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element. Steel is a common
example of an alloy. It contains iron mixed with carbon and other elements. Adding other
elements to a metal changes its structure and so changes its properties. The final alloy
may have very different properties to the original metal. By changing the amount of each
element in an alloy, material scientists can custom-make alloys to fit a given job
(Shamsuddin, 2016).
Alloys have been used for thousands of years. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin,
was commonly used by civilizations before iron extraction methods were developed.
Other well-known alloys include:
 brass: an alloy of copper and zinc. It does not tarnish and is used for door knobs,
buttons and musical instruments.
 solder: an alloy of zinc and lead. It is used in electronics to attach components to
circuit boards.
 amalgam: an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings because
it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Is gold an alloy?
Although pure gold is sometimes used in electronics, gold jewellery is always a
mixture of gold and other metals. Pure gold is actually quite soft. Adding small amounts
of other metals makes the gold hard enough to use in jewellery. Alloying gold with different
metals also affects its colour. The familiar yellow gold is an alloy of gold with copper and
silver. Adding more copper than silver gives redder shades. White gold is an alloy of
gold with nickel, platinum or palladium. Around 12% of people may be allergic to the nickel
in white gold.
When is a copper coin not a copper coin?
A copper coin is not a copper coin when it is a copper-coated alloy!
Copper coins used to be made from pure copper but most ‘copper’ coins used
around the world are now made from copper alloys. Previously, as the value of copper
increased, the metal used to make the coin became worth more than the actual coins. A
melted-down, pure copper coin could have been sold for more than the face value of the
27
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
coin! Since 1992, UK copper coins have been made from copper-plated steel and are
magnetic. A magnet can be used to separate copper coins by age.
What is steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon, nickel and chromium.
Steel is stronger than pure iron and can be used for everything from sauce pans to
suspension bridges. The atoms in pure iron are arranged in densely-packed layers. These
layers can slide over each other. This makes pure iron a very soft material. The atoms of
other elements are different sizes. When other elements are added to iron, their atoms
distort the regular structure of the iron atoms. It is more difficult for the layers of iron atoms
in steel to slide over each other and so this alloy is stronger than pure iron.
Figure 3. Sauce pan.
28
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 4. Suspension bridge.

Steel can contain up to 2% carbon. Varying the amount of carbon gives steel
different properties. For example, a higher carbon content makes a hard steel. Different
types of steel are classified by how much carbon they contain.
 low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon
 high carbon steel contains more than 0.5% carbon.
Two other important types of steel are:
 stainless steel – an alloy of iron that contains at least 11% chromium and smaller
amounts of nickel and carbon
 titanium steel – an alloy of iron and titanium.
Smart Alloy
A smart material can change one or more of its physical characteristics under the
influence of an external stimulus. Shape memory alloy is a type of smart material made
from metals that returns to its original shape after being deformed. Nitinol is a type of
shape memory alloy made from nickel and titanium. This material can be used to make a
pair of glasses that ‘remembers’ its shape and does not break when crushed. Nitinol has
also been used to hold badly broken bones in place while they heal.
Figure 5. A smart alloy made of nitinol.
29
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Shamsuddin, M., & TMS (2016). Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135961388/8194550C103C4BA4PQ/1?ac
countid=31259. Chapter 1 Introduction pp 1-38.
Let’s Check
1. What is stainless steel?

2. What are the most common metals used in construction?
3. What is the difference between Iron and Steel?
4. Why isn’t steel termed as a metal?
Let’s Analyze
1. Differentiate metals from non-metals.

2. What makes stainless steel stainless? Explain.
3. Which is stronger, Steel or Titanium? Explain.
4. What are the 4 types of steel?
In a Nutshell
1. Construct a vis-à-vis comparison of different alloyed materials. Cite the

advantages, disadvantages, and its best application.
Keywords Index
Actinides Alkali metals Alkaline earth Alloy Alloy

metals
Amalgam
Brass Corrosion Ductility Electrical Lanthanides
conductivity
Luster Malleability Ore Reactivity Rusting
Solder Sonority Steel Thermal Transition
conductivity metals
References
30
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Gaffney, J., & Marley, N. (2018). General chemistry for engineers. Elsevier Inc.
Holleman, A.F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego, 2001.
Mortimer, Charles E. (1975). Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach (3rd ed.). New York:
D. Van Nostrad Company.
Roe, J; Roe, M (1992). "World's coinage uses 24 chemical elements". World Coinage
News. 19 (4, 5): 24–25, 18–19.
Shamsuddin, M., & TMS (2016). Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes.
Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135961388/8194550C103C4BA4PQ/1?ac
countid=31259.
Walther, John V. (2013). Earth's Natural Resources. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Yonezawa, F (2017). Physics of Metal-Nonmetal Transitions. Amsterdam: IOS Press.
31
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULOc. explain the concept of polymers
Metalanguage
of polymers to demonstrate ULOc will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in
Copolymers molecules which are built up of at least two different kinds of

monomer
Crosslinking process of forming covalent bonds or relatively short sequences of
chemical bonds to join two polymer chains together.
Elastomer a natural or synthetic polymer having elastic properties, e.g. rubber.
Homopolymer
s polymers consisting of monomer of identical chemical structure
Kevlar a heat-resistant and strong synthetic fiber, related to other aramids
such as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at
DuPont in 1965, this high-strength material was used first
commercially in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing
tires.
Monomer 1. a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form
a polymer.
32
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Polymer a large molecule which is formed by repeated linking of small

molecules called "monomers"
Polymerizatio the process by which simple (monomer) molecules join together to
n form very large (polymer) molecules.
Resin a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is
typically convertible into polymers.
Thermoplastic a material, usually a plastic polymer, which becomes more soft
when heated and hard when cooled.
Thermoset a polymer that is irreversibly hardened by curing from a soft solid or
viscous liquid prepolymer or resin.
Vulcanization a process of treating natural rubber with sulphur
Essential Knowledge
POLYMERS
According to (Chang, 2008), a polymer is a molecular compound distinguished by

a very high molar mass, ranging into thousands and millions of grams, and is made up of
many repeating units. The physical properties of these so-called macromolecules vary
greatly from those of small ordinary molecules and special techniques are required to
study them.
This statement is true. Polymers are not like an ordinary compound. They involve
complex chemical reactions to form. The words polymer comes from the Greek prefix
poly- “Many” and mers- “Parts”, thus many parts. Though, the word polymer is equated
to the word macromolecules (giant molecules). It is after a German Physicist, Hermann
Staudinger, who clearly prove that such giant molecules exist and called it
macromolecules (Chang, 2008).
MONOMER, MER AND POLYMER
The process on which the formation of polymers undergoes is called

polymerization, which involves the chemical combinations of many small chemical units
known as monomers “single parts” (Winslow, 1979), a mer “repeating units” and a
polymer “the macromolecule”. The diagram below shows the molecular structure of
polyethylene, an example of a polymer.
(POLYMERS)
33
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
POLYETHYLENE
ETHYLENE
Characteristics of Polymers
Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the
following attributes. First, polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Many
chemicals we are using today such as muriatic acid, chlorine and many more are so
strong that it even damages our skin. The characteristics of plastics provide safe, non-
breakable packages for aggressive solvent. Second, polymers can be both thermal
and electrical insulators. A walk through your house will reinforce this concept, as you
consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets and wiring that are made or covered
with polymeric materials. Polymers (e.g. kitchenware made of Teflon) can resist extreme
heat. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of polypropylene and the
fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester. Third, generally, polymers are very
light in weight with significant degrees of strength. Kevlar is one example of this
which is really strong yet light in weight. Fourth, polymers can be processed in various
ways. Injection Molding - plastic is melted in a heating chamber and then forced by a
plunger into cold molds to set; and Extrusions - melted polymer is extruded through a die
in continuous form to be cut into lengths or coiled. Fifth, polymers are materials with a
seemingly limitless range of characteristics and colors, because polymers can mimic
cotton, silk, wool fibers, porcelain, marble, aluminum and zinc. Lastly, Polymers can be
used to make items that have no alternatives from other materials. Polymers are
used in many medical purposes such as Dacron for artificial artery of the heart and blood
bag used in blood transfusion. These were according to American Chemistry Council
(2005) and Smith (2005).
Polymers can be based on the ff.: origin, type of monomer involved, structure,
mode of polymerization, thermal response, and physical properties/application.
Polymers Based on Origin: Natural, Semi-synthetic and Synthetic Polymers
There are three types of polymers based on origin: natural, semi-synthetic and
synthetic polymers. Synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum oil, and made by
scientists and engineers. Examples of synthetic polymers include nylon, polyethylene,
polyester, Teflon, and epoxy. Natural polymers occur in nature and can be extracted.
They are often water-based. Examples of naturally occurring polymers are silk, wool,
DNA, cellulose and proteins (Natural vs Synthetic Polymers, 2016). Semi-synthetic
polymers are mostly derived from naturally occurring polymers by chemical modifications.
34
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
For example, cellulose is a naturally occurring polymer. Cellulose on acetylation with

acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid forms cellulose diacetate polymers. It
is used in making thread and materials like films, glasses etc. Vulcanized rubber is also
an example of semisynthetic polymers used in making tires etc.; gun cotton which is
cellulose nitrate used in making explosive (Gouda, 2018).
Polymers Based Type of Monomer involved in the Structure: Homopolymer and

Copolymer
Polymers Based on Structure: Linear, Branched, Cross-Link and Network
There are two types of Monomer involved in the Structure of Polymers. First,
homopolymer- same monomer is repeated throughout the chain of polymer; and
copolymer- this is also known as heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more
different kinds of monomers.
Homopolymers
Homopolymers can be classified as linear, branched, cross linked and network

homopolymers.
Linear polymers
35
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Considered to be the simplest polymer, linear polymers have linear long polymeric
chain of same types of monomer units or simply a chain in which all of the carbon-carbon
bonds exist in a single straight line. Examples are HDPE (High-density polyethylenes)
and Teflon which is made from tetrafluoroethylene, a single strand of units made from two
carbon atoms and four fluorine atoms.
Branched Polymers
Branched polymers have short or long branches bonded on parent polymeric or it

occurs when groups of units branch off from the long polymer chain. These branches are
known as side chains and can also be very long groups of repeating structures. A polymer
with many branches is called dendrimers. Example is LDPE (Low- density polyethylenes).
“HDPE (High-density polyethylenes) vs. LDPE (Low- density polyethylenes)”
High-density polyethylenes (HDPEs)
HDPEs are mostly linear molecules that pack closely together and can assume
fairly ordered crystalline structure. It’s rigid and has good tensile strength.
Examples: threaded bottles caps, toys, bottles and gallon milk jugs
Low- density polyethylenes (LDPEs)
36
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
LDPEs have plenty of side chains branching off polymer molecules. It’s waxy,
bendable plastics that are lower melting than HDPE (Smith, 2005).
Examples: Plastic bags, plastic film, electric wire insulation, etc.
Cross linked and Network polymers
They form long chains, either branched or linear, that can form covalent bonds
between the polymer molecules. As a result, it produces a stronger and more stable
material, because cross-linked polymers form covalent bonds that are much stronger than
the intermolecular forces that attract other polymer chains. Important example of this is
when natural rubber is vulcanized.
* Vulcanization
Vulcanization is a process where the rubber is heated so the sulfur

molecules in the rubber polymer chains form covalent bonds with each other. This
process was discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839, utilizing Hevea brasiliensis,
a tree which produces a liquid resin from the inner bark forming a natural rubber
- Chemically a polymer Isoprene, C5H8
Cis- from the latin word 37

“meaning “on the side”
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
From the book Chemistry the Central Science (8th Edition) author Theodore L. Brown.
Copolymers
According to Raymond Chang and Goldsby (2016), copolymers are also known as
heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more different kinds of monomers. It has
two major types, namely, polyamides and polyesters.
Polyamides are the condensation of carboxylic acid and amine monomers while
polyesters are the condensation of carboxyclic acid and alcohol monomers. Example of
polyamide is Nylon-66 produced by mixing equimolar amounts of a six-C diamine (1,6-
diaminohexane) and a six-C diacid (1,6- hexanedioic acid). Example of polyester is
Dacron, a popular polyester fiber, woven from 1,4 benzenedicarboxylic acid and 1,2
ethanediol. Blending these polyester fibers with various amounts of cotton gives fabrics
that are durable, easily dyed, and crease resistant. Another example is mylar films, used
for recording tape and food packaging.
Copolymer can be further classified as alternating copolymer, block copolymer,

graft copolymer and random copolymers, gradient, periodic and aperiodic.
*Random Copolymer -the monomers are arranged in any order such as

AABAAABBBBAB.
*Block Copolymers - two blocks of homopolymers are joined together. It can be

represented as AAAAAAABBBBBBB.
38
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
*Alternating Copolymer - the two monomers are arranged in an alternative way and
can be represented as ABABABABAB.
*Graft Copolymer -The composition of the main chain is a preformed

macromolecule and is compositionally or configurationally different from the side
chains or branches w/ repeat units.
Kevlar
Kevlar is an extended application of Nylon and other polymers have stimulated a

strong demand for new “super” fibers with the heat resistance of asbestos, the stiffness
of glass, and strength much greater than steel. The average molecular mass of each
polymer chain is 10⁵ amu. Kevlar ropes can replace steel ropes and cables (offshore oil
drilling). In seawater, kevlar has 20 times the strength of steel. Kevlar is also used in
manufacturing bulletproof vests and high-performance sports gear. It’s very stable at high
temperature, thus, can be used as protective clothing by firefighters.
Classification of Polymers based on Molecular Forces: Thermoplastic and

Thermosets, Elastomers, Fiber-Forming Polymers
*Thermoplastics and Thermosets
Thermoplastics - polymers become soft on the application of heat and thus can be
molded in the desired shape.
39
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Thermosets - polymers have individual chain bonded covalently during polymerization

by application of heat or chemical treatment. The shape cannot be changed and resist
subsequent mechanical deformation or heat softening or solvent attack.
Furthermore, thermoplastic can be classified as crystalline or amorphous

according to Institute of Applied Chemistry of NCTU.
40
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
*Glass transition temperature (Tg)
The glass–liquid transition, or glass transition, is the gradual and reversible

transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions
within semicrystalline materials) from a hard and relatively brittle "glassy" state into a
viscous or rubbery state as the temperature is increased.[1] An amorphous solid that
exhibits a glass transition is called a glass. The reverse transition, achieved
by supercooling a viscous liquid into the glass state, is called vitrification.
The glass-transition temperature Tg of a material characterizes the range of
temperatures over which this glass transition occurs. It is always lower than the melting
temperature, Tm, of the crystalline state of the material, if one exists. Despite the change
in the physical properties of a material through its glass transition, the transition is not
considered a phase transition.
Above this temperature – polymer is rubbery and tough
*Materials with low Tg - if we want automobile tires to be tough and elastic
*Plasticizers- can make them more flexible and less brittle by lowering the Tg
41
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Below temperature - polymer is like glass - hard, stiff and brittle
*Materials w/ Tg values above room temperature - if we want plastic substitutes

for glass to be glassy
ELASTOMERS
Elastomers (or rubbers) are polymers with considerable extensions which are
reversible, examples are natural and synthetic rubbers. Synthetic rubbers are now used
much more extensively and they are based on other polymers and produced from the
distillation of oil. Many components do not require great strength but they do require
softness, flexibility and reversible elongation. Thus, elastomers are ideal for such
applications as resilient floor coverings, footwear and vehicle tires.
Fiber-Forming Polymers
The fiber forming polymers are linear macromolecules that are usually suitable for
making man-made fibers. The term “synthetic fiber” will be used to denote all man-made
fibers manufactured from non-cellulosic raw materials. Examples are hydrophobic
polymer fibers like nylon and polyester often blended with cotton, viscose or wool.
Polymer Recycling
According to Smith (2005), in recycling plastic in the United States, they follow the
“Big Six” Recycling code (1-6). The lower the number, the easier to recycle.
42
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization s a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine to

form larger molecules that contain repeating structural units. It is usually formed with the
same type of repeating molecules (homopolymers) or form with two or more different
molecules (copolymer).
TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION
There are two general types of polymerization reactions: addition polymerization

and condensation polymerization. In addition polymerization, the monomers add to one
another in such a way that the polymer contains all the atoms of the starting monomers.
Ethylene molecules are joined together in long chains (Chanda, 2017).
Chain-Reaction (Addition) Polymerization
The polymerization can be represented by the reaction of a few monomer units:
43
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The bond lines extending at the ends in the formula of the product indicate that the
structure extends for many units in each direction. Notice that all the atoms—two carbon
atoms and four hydrogen atoms—of each monomer molecule are incorporated into the
polymer structure. Because displays such as the one above are cumbersome, the
polymerization is often abbreviated as follows:
nCH2=CH2 → [ CH2CH2 ] n
During the polymeriation of ethene, thousands of ethene molecules join together

to make poly(ethene) - commonly called polythene. The reaction is done at high
pressures in the presence of a trace of oxygen as an initiator.
Step 1: Chain Initiation
The oxygen reacts with some of the ethene to give an organic peroxide. Organic
peroxides are very reactive molecules containing oxygen-oxygen single bonds which are
quite weak and which break easily to give free radicals. You can short-cut the process by
adding other organic peroxides directly to the ethene instead of using oxygen if you want
to. The type of the free radicals that start the reaction off vary depending on their source.
For simplicity we give them a general formula: Ra∙Ra∙
Step 2: Chain Propagation
In an ethene molecule, CH2=CH2, the two pairs of electrons which make up the
double bond aren't the same. One pair is held securely on the line between the two carbon
nuclei in a bond called a sigma bond. The other pair is more loosely held in an orbital
above and below the plane of the molecule known as a ππ bond.
44
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The sigma bond between the carbon atoms isn't affected by any of this. The free
radical, Ra , uses one of the electrons in the ππ bond to help form a new bond between
itself and the left hand carbon atom. The other electron returns to the right hand carbon.
You can show this using "curly arrow" notation if you want to:
This is energetically worth doing because the new bond between the radical and
the carbon is stronger than the ππ bond which is broken. You would get more energy out
when the new bond is made than was used to break the old one. The more energy that
is given out, the more stable the system becomes. What we've now got is a bigger free
radical - lengthened by CH2CH2. That can react with another ethene molecule in the same
way:
So now the radical is even bigger. That can react with another ethene - and so on
and so on. The polymer chain gets longer and longer.
Step 3: Chain Termination
The chain does not, however, grow indefinitely. Sooner or later two free radicals
will collide together.
45
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
That immediately stops the growth of two chains and produces one of the final
molecules in the poly(ethene). It is important to realize that the poly(ethene) is going to
be a mixture of molecules of different sizes, made in this sort of random way. Because
chain termination is a random process, poly(ethene) will be made up of chains of different
lengths.
Step-Reaction (Condensation) Polymerization
A large number of important and useful polymeric materials are not formed by
chain-growth processes involving reactive species such as radicals, but proceed instead
by conventional functional group transformations of polyfunctional reactants. These
polymerizations often (but not always) occur with loss of a small byproduct, such as water,
and generally (but not always) combine two different components in an alternating
structure. The polyester Dacron and the polyamide Nylon 66, shown here, are two
examples of synthetic condensation polymers, also known as step-growth polymers. In
contrast to chain-growth polymers, most of which grow by carbon-carbon bond formation,
step-growth polymers generally grow by carbon-heteroatom bond formation (C-O & C-N
in Dacron & Nylon respectively). Although polymers of this kind might be considered to
be alternating copolymers, the repeating monomeric unit is usually defined as a combined
moiety.
Examples of naturally occurring condensation polymers are cellulose, the

polypeptide chains of proteins, and poly (β-hydroxybutyric acid), a polyester synthesized
in large quantity by certain soil and water bacteria. Formulas for these will be displayed
below by clicking on the diagram.
46
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
(Polymers and Polymerization Reactions, 2016)
In summary, the table below presents the classification of polymers.

Table 1. Classification of Polymers
Basis of Polymer Types Examples

Classification
1. Origin (a) Natural (as available in Natural rubber, natural silk,
nature) cellulose, proteins, starch etc.
(b) Hydrogenated, halogenated and
Semisynthetic cyclo (natural) rubber; cellulosics
(Man – made) (cellulose
esters/ethers), etc.
(c) Synthetic Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-
(Man – made) styrene, polybutadiene, nylon poly-
amides, polycarbonates,
phenolics, amino resins, epoxy
resins etc.
47
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
2. Thermal response (a) Thermoplastics (they Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-

soften or melt on heating and styrene, nylon polyamides, linear
harden on cooling over many polyester [poly
cycles of (ethylene
heating and cooling and terephthalate)] , etc.
retain solubility and
fusibility).
(b) Thermosetting (they Phenolic resin, amino resins,
usually soften or melt initially epoxy resins, diene rubbers
on heating, but fast undergo (vulcanized), unsaturated
chemical changes to finally polyesters.
turn insoluble and infusible).
3. Mode of formation (a) Chain – growth or Polyethylene and other polyolefins,
addition Polystyrene and related vinyl
polymers etc.
(b) Step – growth or Polyesters and polyamides,
condensation polycarbonates, phenol (urea,
melamine) – formaldehyde resins,
epoxy resins etc.
4. Line Structure (a) Linear High density polyethylene (HDPE),
(having no branches) polyvinyls, bifunctional (polyesters
and polyamides) etc.
(b) Branched Low density polyethylene (LDPE),
(having branches) higher poly (α-olefins), phenolic
resoles and resitols, poly (3-
hydroxy alkanoates) etc.
(c) Cross linked or network Phenolic C-stage (resite) resin, C-
(having a complex network stage amino (urea / melamine-
structure) formaldehyde) resins, cured
epoxy resin and
unsaturated polyester resin etc.
5. Application and (a) Rubbers Natural rubber, (1, 4 cis poly
Physical properties (showing long – range isoprene) synthetic rubbers
elasticity) (polybutadiene, SBR, nitrile
rubber, polychlo- roprene rubber,
polylacrylate rubber, polyurethane
rubbers, silicone rubbers etc.)
(b) Plastics Polyethylenes,
(shapable under pressure, polypropylen
aided by heat) e (isotactic), polystyrene, poly
(vinyl chloride), nylon polyamides
linear
aromatic polyesters and
polyamides, polycarbonates,
48
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
acetal resins etc.
(c) Fibres Cotton (cellulose), natural silk,

(available in fibrillar or artificial silk (rayons), poly
filamentous form) (ethylene terephthalate) fibre,
nylon polyamide fibres etc.
Chanda, M. (2017). Plastics technology handbook. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2133323950/66F3718BC0C64A70PQ/5?ac
countid=31259. Chapter 1: Characteristics of Polymers and Polymerization
Processes pp 1-160
Let’s Check
1. What is a polymer?
2. What are the classifications of plastics according to Society of Plastic Industry?
3. Give examples of synthetic polymers and indicate their uses.
Let’s Analyze
1. How are plastics formed?

2. Differentiate thermoplastic from thermoset and give examples.
3. Why do different polymers have different properties?
In a Nutshell
1. How does the molecular-level structure of polymers influence their physical

properties?
2. "Teflon" is the polymer that results from the polymerization of tetrafluoroethylene.
49
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Write a chemical formula for this reaction. What are some of the properties of
Teflon?
Keywords Index
Copolymers Crosslinking Elastomer Homopolymers Kevlar

Monomer Polymer Polymerization Resin Thermoplastic
Thermoset Vulcanization
References
American Chemistry Council, 2005 “The Basics: Polymer Definition and Properties”
Retrieved from http//www.plastics.americanchemistry.com/plastic
Brown, Theodore L. Chemistry the Central Science, 8th Edition Chapter 12,
pp. 440-448 “Modern Material”
Chanda, M. (2017). Plastics technology handbook. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2133323950/66F3718BC0C64A70PQ/5?ac
countid=31259.
Chang, R. (2008). General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Chang, Raymond & Goldsby Kenneth A. Chemistry, 12th Edition

McGraw-Hill International Edition 2016, Chapter 25, pp. 1059-1064 “Synthetic
and Natural Organic Polymers”
Hill, John W. and Kolb, Doris K. Chemistry for Changing Times, 9th Edition
Chapter, pp 283-286 “Polymers”
Natural vs Synthetic Polymers. (2016). Retrieved August 27, 2018, from www.cmu.edu:
https://www.cmu.edu/gelfand/education/k12-teachers/polymers/natural-synthetic-
polymers/
Smith, Janice Gorzynski. Organic Chemistry, 5th Edition

McGraw-Hill Education International Edition, 2005. Chapter 30,
pp. 1217-1221 “Synthetic Polymers”
Silverberg, Principles of General Chemistry, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill

International Edition, Chapter 15 pp. 483-486 “ The Monomer- Polymer”
50
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Winslow, F. B. (1979). MACROMOLECULES: The Introduction to Polymer Science.

New York: ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
Big Picture in Focus: ULOd. show understanding of the concept of

engineered nanomaterials
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study of
nanomaterials to demonstrate ULOd will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in
Bottom-up Approach includes the miniaturization of materials components (up to
atomic level) with further selfassembly process leading to the
formation of nanostructures
Buckminsterfullerene also known as buckyball, is a spherical close- caged structure
made of sixty sp2 carbons it has a highly symmetrical structure
which give it its electronic properties
Carbon nanotubes are tubes made of carbon with diameters typically measured
in nanometers; often refer to single-wall carbon
nanotubes (SWCNTs) with diameters in the range of a
nanometer.
Dendrimers are highly branched, star-shaped macromolecules with
nanometer-scale dimensions
Engineered materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and are intentionally
nanomaterials produced for specific product application
Fullerene an allotrope of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon
atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to form a
closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven
atoms. The molecule may be a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube,
or many other shapes and sizes.
Graphene a carbon-based nanomaterial derived from graphite through
exfoliation
Nanocomposites are materials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix
of standard material. The result of the addition of nanoparticles
is a drastic improvement in properties that can include
mechanical strength, toughness and electrical or thermal
conductivity.
51
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Nanomaterials materials that have structural components smaller than 1

micrometer in at least one dimension
Nanoparticles particles with at least one dimension smaller than 1 micron and
potentially as small as atomic and molecular length scales
(~0.2 nm)
Nanotechnology the design, synthesis, and application of materials and devices
whose size and shape have been engineered at the nanoscale
Top-down Approach uses larger (macroscopic) initial structures, which can be
externally-controlled in the processing of nanostructures
Essential Knowledge
In our fast advancing technology, we are introduced to on-blink discoveries and

innovation. One of these is the introduction of the usage on nanomaterials in different
applications that make our lives more convenient and better. We will now discover what
nanomaterials are delving specifically to engineered ones. We will discuss its four main
types and some of their examples.
What are nanomaterials?
Nanomaterials are any material with any external dimension in the nanoscale
which ranges from 1-100 nanometers or internal or surface structure are in nanoscale
(IOS, 2015). Moreover, the European Commission (2011) defined a nanomaterial as any
natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particles in an unbound state or
as an aggregate where 50% or more of the particles’ size extends from 1-100 nm.
Fundamental Properties of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials nucleate, grow, and dissolve via a set of elementary chemical
processes that spontaneously redistribute charge and mass at the atomic scale. These
processes include electron and proton transfer reactions that rearrange ions and
complexes into nanophases. They can be understood by using thermodynamic, kinetic,
and transition-state theory to describe intermediate states along reaction pathways on
free-energy landscapes. Classical nucleation theory describes ion-by-ion assembly to
form crystals, but nonclassical growth pathways are also important; these pathways
involve formation of intermediate multinuclear ion clusters and small nanomaterials that
can transition to relatively larger nanomaterials and bulk crystals by particle-based
crystallization (Yoreo et al 2015 & Van Driessche, 2017).
The distinct properties of all natural and anthropogenic nanomaterials stem

primarily from the comparatively high proportion of surface atoms relative to interior ones.
At times, these properties are best described using quantum mechanics. Smaller particles
have fewer atoms, which translates to fewer electron energy levels. Therefore, electron
energy bands become discrete electron energy states, of energies that are sensitive to
52
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
particle size, a condition known as quantum confinement. Nevertheless, however “nano”

is defined or considered, size and shape are essential characteristics because they exert
primary control over reactivity and transport physics. Size and shape also determine the
types and distributions of reactive surface sites capable of chemical transformations and,
at times, the toxicity of nanomaterials. Owing to the high proportion of surface versus bulk
atoms, even the smallest variations in surface structures may control the fate and
reactivity of nanomaterials in air, water, soil, or biota. Through their influence on surface
charging behavior, size and shape also control the tendency for aggregation, a critically
important aspect that can blend or obscure the characteristics of individual particles as
they adopt new characteristics in nanocomposites.
The interplay between growth, dissolution, evaporation, and aggregation are key
aspects of nanomaterials in the environment (Fig. 1). Oriented aggregation can result in
the formation of larger particles with complex shapes (Penn et al, 1998). But because of
the complexity of natural settings, most nanomaterials are found in heteroaggregated
composites of different inorganic and organic materials. These aggregates can diverge
markedly from spherical shapes and may even form highly branched or fractal structures,
thereby fundamentally affecting transport properties and reactivities. Rates of particle
dissolution, although known or experimentally measurable for many pure-phase
nanomaterials in a well-dispersed state (Cwiertny et al 2009 & Schoepf Schoepf et al
2017), are challenging to predict for complex nanomaterial aggregates that have
substantial internal surface areas with limited accessibility (Liu et al, 2008). Furthermore,
these physical associations change as the nanomaterials encounter and transition
through different local environments. Only in relatively simple systems can the evolution
of particle size, shape, and aggregation state, and thus the distribution of effective particle
diameters, be predicted with reasonable accuracy (Mullaugh & Luther, 2011).
53
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 1. Conceptual free-energy landscape for the formation and interactions that
define the typical state of nanomaterials in the environment.
Shown are chemical formation mechanisms of nanomaterials, from complexes to

clusters and beyond, within aqueous solutions. This creates nanomaterials (teal solid
curve) that are more stable than the product of continuous growth (teal dashed curve),
which results in larger bulk crystals (represented here as a precipitated single crystal or
a crystal formed by oriented attachment of nanocrystals, OA) that have a free energy
represented by the horizontal red dotted line. Moving across the graphic from left to right,
as shown by the curved arrow, symbolizes the myriad interactions of stable nanomaterials
in environmental media. Individual nanoparticles at an energy represented by the
horizontal purple dotted line tend to form heteroaggregates at an even lower free-energy
state. Here, net attractive interactions with unlike particles and compounds (green curve)
tend to outcompete processes that could lead to single-phase bulk crystals assembled
by, for example, OA (green dashed curve), producing, instead, long-lived composites of
complex composition and structure.
Engineered Nanoparticles
Engineered nanomaterials are materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and are
intentionally produced for specific product applications. Furthermore, they possess
different chemical and physical properties from those larger forms of the same material
(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2018).
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007), there are
four main types of engineered nanomaterials. These are mainly Carbon-Based, Metal-
Based, Dendrimers, and Nanocomposites.
 Carbon- Based Nanomaterials (CBNs)
From its name, carbon- based nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon
which may form hollow spheres, ellipsoids or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon
nanomaterials are generally called fullerenes whereas cylindrical ones are called
nanotubes. These particles are best used in improved films and coatings, stronger and
lighter materials and electronics application.
Some examples of Carbon- Based Nanomaterials
Carbon Nanotubes
54
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
It is referred as the most widely used CBN. It is known for its tunable physical
properties such as diameter, length, surface functionalization and chirality. It is produced
through arc discharge or chemical water deposition of graphite. Carbon nanotubes have
cylindrical carbon structure and wide range of electrical and optical properties (Saito, et
al, 1998).
Figure 2. Carbon nanotube
Graphene
Graphene is the latest CBN to burst into the scene. It is derived from graphite
through exfoliation, a method introduced by Geim and Novoselov (2007). In addition,
graphene is extraordinarily strong and is famed as the strongest material ever known and
tested. It is supernaturally light and electrically super conductive (Science 321, 385 and
Changu, 2008).
Figure 3. Graphene
Fullerenes
55
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Rice University’s researchers and was

named after Buckminster Fuller. Spherical fullerenes are called buckyballs, the C60 variant
which resembles a typical black and white soccer ball. On the other hand, cylindrical ones
are called buckytubes (Science Daily, 2018).
Buckminsterfullerene
Also known as buckyball, is a spherical close-caged structure made of sixty sp2

carbons. It has a highly symmetrical structure which gives it its electronic properties
(Kroto, et al, 1985).
Figure 4. Buckyball
 Metal- Based Nanomaterials
These are nanomaterials made up of metals, semiconductors and oxides. They

have very interesting mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical and chemical properties
(Stephenson and Hubler, 2015). Metal- based nanomaterials may include quantum dots,
nanogold, nanosilvers and metal oxides.
Some examples of Metal-Based Nanomaterials
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Nanoparticles
Iron oxide is one of the three main oxides of iron. It is a reddish brown, inorganic
and is paramagnetic in nature delivery and imaging, molecular and cellular tracking,
detection of cancer, diabetes, etc. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are known
for their magnetic properties and biocompatibility. Due to these properties, iron oxide
nanoparticles are used in biomedical applications such as for enhanced resolution
content agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). (Morales, et al, 2003)
56
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Gold Nanoparticle (Colloidal Gold)
Gold nanoparticles also known as colloidal gold are suspension or colloid of

nanomaterial particles of gold (Giljohan, et al, 2010). Colloidal gold solutions have either
intense red color or dirty yellowish color (Murphy, et al, 2008). According to Link, et al.
(1999), the properties and applications of gold nanoparticles depend upon its shape.
 Dendrimers
Dendrimers are nanosized polymers built from branched units. Their surfaces have
numerous chains which can be tailored to perform a specific chemical function. Moreover,
this is also the reason for being useful in catalysis. They may also be used for drug
delivery due to its interior cavities which other molecules could be placed. This is
particular for three-dimensional dendrimers.
Some types of Dendrimers
Polyamidoamine (PAMAM)
Perhaps, the most well-known dendrimer. PAMAM has a diamine core, commonly
ethylenediamine which is reacted with methyl acrylate. Then, another ethylenediamine is
reacted to make the generation-0 (G-0). Eventually successive reactions create higher
generations (Hermanson, 2008).
57
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 5. PAMAM dendrimer
Peptide Dendrimers
These are dendrimers which held amino acid as branching or interior units.
Diagnostic purposes and vaccine delivery are some of its applications (Yasukawa, et al,
2008).
Multilingual Dendrimers
Dendrimers which hold multiple copies of functional group on their surface

(Pushkar, et al, 2006).
 Nanocomposites
These are nanomaterials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix of a

standard material. The potential effect of this addition are mechanical strength and
electrical and thermal conductivity. They work as thin-film capacitors for computer chips,
solid polymer electrolytes for batteries, impellers, oxygen and gases barriers and many
more (AzoNano, 2015)
Types of Nanocomposites (according to matrix)
Ceramic-Matrix Nanocomposite
In this type of nanocomposite, the main part or the matrix is a ceramic (a chemical
compound from the group of oxides, nitrides, borides, etc.). Usually, ceramic- matrix
nanocomposites have metal as the second component. The two components are finely
dispersed in each other to create a particular nanoscopic properties (Kruis, et a, 1998).
Metal-Matrix Nanocomposites
Also defined as reinforced metal matrix composites, having metal as the primary
component. The best example is the Carbon nanotube metal-matrix composite (Janas
and Liszka, 2007). Other examples are boron nitride reinforced metal matrix
nanocomposites and carbon nitride metal-matrix nanocomposites (Bakshi, et al, 2010).
Polymer-Matrix Nanocomposites
58
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
This type of nanocomposite can be produced by adding a nanoparticle to a

polymer matrix to enhance performance, functions, and properties. These are sometimes
called nanofilled polymer composites (Manias, 2007). Nanoparticles such as carbon
nanotubes, graphene, molybdenum, disulfide and tungsten disulfide are usually used as
reinforcing agents (Rafiee, et al, 2009).
Generally, the realm of engineered nanomaterials is considerably vast as well as

their applications. They were categorized according to composition and those categories
were further divided into types. To sum up, there are four main types of engineered
nanomaterials, namely, Carbon-Based Nanomaterials, Metal-Based Nanomaterials,
Dendrimers and Nanocomposites. Some of the types and examples are recognized in
this section to give a brief outlook in the bigger and wider concept of engineered
nanomaterials.
Synthesis of Engineered Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials Production – How nanomaterials are made?
Materials in the nanometer size are in demand for production for the past years. It
is used in a broad variety of applications. So as years continue to pass by, so is the
production of nanomaterials. Its production rate continues to immerse that almost all
materials were made after it. It has been compromising many products and is used in
various technologies. For example, the Carbon Black, has been used in tires since 1930
and as of now it is still being used by companies to produce tires. Moreover, most
nanoproducts are required to be processed through a series of production that inhabits a
precisely defined, narrow range of particle sizes (monodispersity) to attain a result.
The said series of processes are used to produce diverse nanoparticles, coatings,
dispersions or composites that are needed to make an engineered nanomaterial. This
production involves a thorough defined production and reaction conditions for obtaining
such size-dependent particle features. Particle size, chemical composition, crystallinity
and shape can be controlled by temperature, pH-value, concentration, chemical
composition, surface modifications and process control.
Approaches in the Synthesis on Nanomaterials
There are two approaches in the production of nanomaterials:
1. Top-Down Approach
59
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
It is a mechanical-physical particle synthesis based on the principles of

Microsystems technology. From its name Top-Down, it merely means that the process is
done from top (bigger) up to its base (lesser). Its production is done through the
mechanical crushing of the source material using a milling process or a chemical
technique like engraving metals by acids to obtain desired particles. This approach also
seeks to make a small strategy by using the larger ones to address the making of the
particles. Examples of this approach are the
High Energy Ball Milling, Laser Ablation, and Lithography (Zabara, 2016)
2. Bottom-Up Approach
This approach is patterned on physicochemical principles of molecules or atomic

self-organization. Its production begins with that of the atom of a specific material by
chemical processes based on its alteration in different mediums such as a solution
medium or gaseous medium (Zabara, 2016). This kind of synthesis manufactured
selected and more complex structures from atoms or molecules, better controlling sizes,
shapes and size ranges. The production seeks to arrange smaller components into more
complex groups.
This approach also depends merely on the chemical variation to come up with the
desired designs in manufacturing engineered nanomaterials. This includes the Gas
(Vapor) Phase Fabrication like the Pyrolysis and the Liquid Phase Fabrication such as
Solvothermal Reaction and Sol-Gel.
Synthesis in the Top-Down Approach
A. High Energy Ball Milling
It is a milling process in which a powder mixture is placed in a ball mill that is

subjected to have high-energy collision from the balls. This process was coined by
Benjamin and his co-workers at the International Nickel Company on 1960. They found
out that this method, termed mechanical alloying, could successfully produce fine, uniform
dispersions of oxide particles (Al2O3, Y2O3, and ThO2) in nickel-based superalloys that
the conventional powder metallurgy method can’t do. With this kind of production, the
Engineered Nanomaterials came to life for its production are not easy to produce for its
unique size. This had changed the traditional method in which production of materials is
carried out by high temperature. (Cao, 2007).
60
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
This method is using different kinds of instrument to produce such production such
as attritor, planetary mill or a horizontal ball mill. The principle of this procedure is merely
to establish the nanomaterials. Planetary ball mill is the most frequently used system for
mechanical alloying since only a very small amount of powder is required. Therefore, the
system is particularly suitable for research purposes in the laboratory. The ball mill system
consists of one turn disc (turn table) and two or four bowls. The turn disc rotates in one
direction while the bowls rotate in the opposite direction. The centrifugal forces, created
by the rotation of the bowl around its own axis together with the rotation of the turn disc,
are applied to the powder mixture and milling balls in the bowl. The powder mixture is
fractured and cold welded under high energy impact. (Cao, 2007).
B. Laser Ablation
Laser ablation has been studied for various applications in the late 1963 but has
been employed for synthesizing nanomaterials in the mid 1990s. Laser ablation means
the removal of materials from a surface by means of laser irradiation. The word “Laser
ablation” is used to emphasize the non-equilibrium vapor or plasma conditions that is
created at the surface by laser pulse, to distinguish from “laser evaporation,” which is
heating and evaporation of material in condition of thermodynamic equilibrium. Briefly,
there are two essential parts in the laser ablation device: a pulsed laser (CO 2 laser, Nd-
YAG laser, ArFexcimer laser, or XeClexcimer laser) and an ablation chamber. The high
power of the laser beam induces large light absorption on the surface of target, which
makes temperature of the absorbing material increase rapidly.
As a result, the material on the surface of target vaporizes into laser plume. In
some cases, the vaporized materials condensate into cluster and particle without any
chemical reaction. In some other cases, the vaporized material reacts with introduced
reactants to form new materials. The condensed particle will be either deposited on a
substrate or collected through a filter system consisting of a glass fiber mesh. Then, the
collected nanoparticle can be coated on a substrate through drop-coating or screen-
printing process. (Cao, 2007).
Synthesis in the Bottom-Up Approach
Pyrolysis
61
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
A technique usually classified as vapour phase synthesis process in the production

of the nanomaterials. It is considered a chemical synthesis for it uses chemical reactions
to obtain its specific objective in synthesizing nanoparticles to produce nanomaterials.
The routes of this synthesis are: the Nanomaterial starts abruptly when a sufficient degree
of supersaturation of condensable products is reached in the vapour phase. When the
nucleation occurs, fast particle growth takes place by coalescence/coagulation rather
than further nucleation. At sufficiently high temperatures, particle coalescence (sintering)
is faster than coagulation and spherical particles are formed. At lower temperatures,
coalescence slows down and partially sintered, non-spherical particles and/or loose
agglomerates of particles are formed.
It follows that, to prepare small, spherical particles, it is necessary to create a high

degree of supersaturation for inducing the formation of a high density of nuclei and then
quickly quench the particle growth either by removing the source of supersaturation or by
slowing down the kinetics. The products that resulted from this process are done
thoroughly to achieve the best engineered nanomaterials we’re aiming for (Zabara, 2016).
Solvothermal Reaction
Solvothermal Reaction is a method for preparing engineered nanomaterials such

as nanobots and nanorods. A liquid phase synthesis that involves the use of solvent
under moderate to high pressure typically between 1 atm and 10,000 atm and
temperature typically between 100 °C and 1000 °C that is responsible for the interaction
of precursors during synthesis. The formation of nanocrystal is controlled by manipulating
the solvent supersaturation, chemical of interest concentration, and kinetic control. This
method can be used to prepare thermodynamically stable and metastable states including
novel materials that cannot be easily formed from other synthetic routes. Over the last
decade, a majority (~80%) of the literature concerning solvothermal synthesis has
focused on nanocrystals. If water is used as the solvent, the method is called
“hydrothermal synthesis.” The synthesis under hydrothermal conditions is usually
performed below the supercritical temperature of water (374 °C). The process can be
used to prepare much geometry including thin films, bulk powders, single crystals, and
nanocrystals to produce engineered nanomaterials (Zabara, 2016).
Sol-Gel
A well-established colloidal chemistry technology, which offers possibility to

produce variety of nanomaterials with novel, predefined characteristics in a simple
process at a low cost. The term “sol” originated from the name of a colloidal solution made
of solid particles few hundred nm in diameter, suspended in a liquid phase, while the gel
refers to the solid macromolecule immersed in a solvent. Sol-gel process consists in the
chemical transformation of a liquid (the sol) into a gel state and with subsequent post-
62
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
treatment and transition into solid oxide material. The main benefits of sol–gel processing
are the high purity and uniform nanostructure achievable at low temperatures (Zabara,
2016).
Applications of Engineered Nanomaterial
Types of Carbon-Based Nanomaterial
Graphene, Nanodiamonds, Nanofiber, Fullerenes and Nanotube
Graphene can be used as energy storage and it is being studied and developed to
be used in manufacture of super capacitors which are able to be charged very quickly.
Also it can be able to store a large amount of electricity. Graphene – enhanced lithium
ion batteries could be used in much higher energy usage application such as electricity
powered vehicles, smart phones, laptops, and tablets PCs but at significant lower level of
size and weight (La Fuente, n.d.).
The nontoxicity and biocompatibility of nanodiamonds (NDs) in their excellent

physical performance have rendered them attractive candidates for biomedical
applications. Nanodiamonds have great potential in drug nano formulations because of
its small size compared with any carbon-based nanomaterial. Nanodiamonds are
nontoxic so they have the excellent absorption properties that can be formulated into skin
care products. Other application of nanodiamond is for skin care meditation and wound
healing.
Nanofiber layers produced from biopolymers (chitosan, gelatin, collagen,

polykaprolakton and etc.) can be used as wound healing for significant support of the
wound healing process. Also, it is possible to add antibacterial material and drugs to the
nanofiber structure that can be used in contaminated wounds.
Fullerenes belong to the class of inorganic molecules and show wide availability
due to their small size and biological activity. The fullerene core is hydrophobic and the
functional group is attached to its core. By attaching hydrophilic moieties, fullerene
become water-soluble and capable of carrying drugs and gene for the cellular delivery.
Derivatized fullerene can cross the cell membrane and bind to the mitochondria (Folley,
2002).
Carbon nanotubes or (CNTs) have the intrinsic characteristics desired in materials

used as electrodes in batteries and capacitors. They have tremendously high surface
area that’s good for electrical conductivity, their linear geometry makes their surface
highly accessible to the electrolyte. Aside from good electrical conductivity, they also have
63
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
good mechanical properties which lead to wealth application including advanced

components.
Types of Metal-Based Nanomaterial
Quantum Dots, Nanogold and Nanosilver
Quantum dots can be used for producing images of cancer tumors and it is used
to evaluate the performance of cancer treatments. Also, it is used to produce miniature
laser to be used in communication devices. The advantage of this laser is its high speed
data transfer with low power consumption. Quantum dots can be used in computer or TV
displays. Using quantum dot display should be thinner, lower than current displays as well
as able to be flexible.
The application of nanogold conjugated with therapeutic agents improve the

pharmacokinetics of the “free” drug and sustain release properties that makes it an
attractive tool for drug delivery and gene delivery.
Large surface area to volume ratio of gold nanoparticles enables their surface to
be coated with hundreds of molecules including therapeutics, targeting agents, and anti-
fouling polymers. Also, in DNA combined assembly, gold particles are used as efficient
gene transfection tools.
Nanosilvers have antibacterial and conductive applications. For antibacterial

application, nanosilvers are used for wound dressing, appliances and cosmetics. For
conductive application, they are used as conductive inks and integrated into composites
to enhance thermal and electrical conductivity (Oldenburg, n.d.).
Dendrimers
The most promising potential of dendrimers is in their possibility to perform

controlled and specified drug delivery, which regards the topic of nanomedicine. One of
the most fundamental problems that are set toward modern medicine is to improve
pharmacokinetic properties of drug for cancer (Sampathkumar and Yarema, 2007).
There are many other areas of biological chemistry where application of dendrimer
system may be useful. One example is cellular delivery using carrier dendritic polymer
used in the purification of water dendrimer-based product (Tiwari, 2008).
64
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
PAMAM dendrimers have several applications in pharmaceutical and biomedical

fields. It has also been used for gene delivery and delivery of diagnostic agents. PAMAM
dendrimers are nonimmunogenic, are water soluble, and possess terminal functional
groups for binding various targeting or guest molecules (Araújo et al, 2018).
Polyadoamine (PAMAM) is a type of dendrimer, containing variety of molecules, such as
drugs and therapeutic agents that can be loaded in the interior space and also in the
surface of PAMAM dendrimers to control the rate of release of these agents into the body.
Types of Composites
Ceramic Matrix and Metal Matrix Nanocomposite
Carbon nanotube is used to give more applications in nanocomposites. Ceramic

matrix nanocomposites are good in applications that require good thermal and electrical
properties. They are used as medical devices and implants, automotive, aerospace and
power generation, tool and die material (Soutter, 2013).
The other example is metal matrix nanocomposites. With the use of carbon
nanotube, they can be used in different industries, such as in sports: badminton, tennis
racket and light weight bicycle; aerospace: landing gears and aircraft brakes; automobile:
gears, break shoes, piston rings and cylinder liners.
Kumar, N., & Kumbhat, S. (2016). Essentials in nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135420731/2FD5DC110D374426PQ/1?ac
countid=31259. Chapter 1: Introduction pp xlv-lxxiii
Let’s Check
1. What is nanotechnology?
2. What are engineered nanomaterials? Give examples and discuss each.
3. What analytical techniques are used to characterize nanomaterials?
Let’s Analyze
65
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
1. Compare nanomaterials with microplastics.

2. What active ingredient/s in sunscreen is/are considered nanomaterial? Why does
sunscreen contain nanomaterials in the first place?
3. Can nanomaterials used in sunscreen cross the skin barrier and enter the body?
4. Is the UV-protection in nanomaterial-containing sunscreens only effective if the
nanomaterials enter the skin and how are they excreted later?
In a Nutshell
1. What are the environmental implications of nanotechnology?

2. How can you ascertain the release of nanomaterials from products into the
environment?
3. How can you differentiate between natural and engineered nanoparticles in the
environment?
4. Is it possible to specifically recycle nanomaterials from products?
Keywords Index
Bottom-up Buckminsterfullerene
Approach
Fullerene Graphene
Engineered Nanocomposites
nanomaterials
Nanoparticles Nanomaterials
Carbon Nanotechnology
nanotubes
Dendrimers Top-down Approach
References
A. E. S. Van Driessche, T. M. Stawski, L. G. Benning, M. Kellermeier, in New

Perspectives on Mineral Nucleation and Growth: From Solution Precursors to
66
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Solid Materials, A. E. S. Van Driessche, M. Kellermeier, L. G. Benning, D.

Gebauer, Eds. (Springer, 2017), pp. 227–256.
Araújo, R., Santos, S., Igne Ferreira, E., & Giarolla, J. (2018). New Advances in General
Biomedical Applications of PAMAM Dendrimers. Molecules, 23(11),
2849. doi:10.3390/molecules23112849
AzoNano. (2015). Nanocomposites- An overview of properties, application and

definition.
Bakshi, S.R, et al. (2010). Carbon nanotube reinforced metal matrix composites. A
review, International Materials Reviews, vol. 55
Cao, W., (2007) “Synthesis of Nanomaterials by High Energy Ball Milling”

Retrieved from: https://www.understandingnano.com/nanomaterial-synthesis-
ball-milling.html
D. M. Cwiertny, G. J. Hunter, J. M. Pettibone, M. M. Scherer, V. H. Grassian, Surface

chemistry and dissolution of α-FeOOH nanorods and microrods: Environmental
implications of size-dependent interactions with oxalate. J. Phys. Chem.
C 113, 2175–2186 (2009). 10.1021/jp807336t
Folley, S., et.al. (2002). Cellular localization of a water soluble fullerene derivative.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun
Geim, A.K; Novoselov, K.S. (2007). The rise of graphene. Nat Mater. 6: 183-189
Giljohan, et al. (2010). Gold nanoparticles for biology and medicine.
Hermanson, Greg T. (2008). “7”. Bioconjugate techniques (2nd ed). Academic Press
of Elsevier: London.
International Organization for Standardization. (2015). Nanotechnologies-

Vocabulary- Part 1: Core Terms.
Janas, Dawid; Liszka, Barbara. (2017). Copper matrix nanocomposites based on

carbon nanotubes or graphene.
J. J. De Yoreo, P. U. P. A. Gilbert, N. A. J. M. Sommerdijk, R. L. Penn, S. Whitelam, D.

Joester, H. Zhang, J. D. Rimer, A. Navrotsky, J. F. Banfield, A. F. Wallace, F. M.
Michel, F. C. Meldrum, H. Cölfen, P. M. Dove, Crystallization by particle
attachment in synthetic, biogenic, and geologic environments. Science 349,
eaaa6760 (2015). 10.1126/science.aaa6760pmid:26228157
67
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
J. J. Schoepf, Y. Bi, J. Kidd, P. Herckes, K. Hristovski, P. Westerhoff, Detection and

dissolution of needle-like hydroxyapatite nanomaterials in infant formula.
NanoImpact 5, 22–28 (2017). 10.1016/j.impact.2016.12.007
J. Liu, D. M. Aruguete, J. R. Jinschek, J. Donald Rimstidt, M. F. Hochella Jr., ., The non-

oxidative dissolution of galena nanocrystals: Insights into mineral dissolution
rates as a function of grain size, shape, and aggregation state. Geochim.
Cosmochim. Acta 72, 5984–5996 (2008). 10.1016/j.gca.2008.10.010
K. M. Mullaugh, G. W. Luther, Growth kinetics and long-term stability of CdS

nanoparticles in aqueous solution under ambient conditions. J. Nanopart. Res.
13, 393–404 (2011). 10.1007/s11051-010-0045-9
Kroto, H.W, et al. (1985). Buckminsterfullerene. Nature. 318: 162-1623.
Kruis, F.E, et al. (1998). Synthesis of nanoparticles in the gas phase for electronic,
optical and magnetic applications.
La Fuente, J. (n.d.). Graphene Application and Uses. Retrieved from

https://www.grapehenea.com/pages/grapehene-uses-
applications#.w37yeqSFPIU
Link, et al. (1999). Simulation of the optical absorption spectra of gold nanorods as a
function of their aspect ratio and the effect of the medium dielectric constant.
Manias, Evangelos. (2007). Nanocomposite: Stiffer by design. Nature Materials
Morales, et al. (2003). Contrast agent for MRI based on iron oxide nanoparticles
prepared by laser pyrolysis.
Murphy, CJ, et al. (2008), Gold nanoparticles biology: beyond toxicity to cellular
imaging
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (2018). Protecting workers
during the handling of nanomaterials.
Oldenburg, S. (n.d.). Silver Nanoparticles: Properties and Application. Retrieved from

https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/technical-documents/articles/materials-
science/nanomaterial/silver-nanoparticles.html
Pushkar, et al. (2006). Dendrimers: Nanotechnology derived field, polymers in drug
delivery. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research.
R. L. Penn, J. F. Banfield, Imperfect oriented attachment: Dislocation generation in

defect-free nanocrystals. Science 281, 969–971 (1998).
10.1126/science.281.5379.969pmid:9703506
68
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
R. L. Penn, J. F. Banfield, Oriented attachment and growth, twinning, polytypism, and

formation of metastable phases: Insights from nanocrystalline TiO2. Am. Mineral.
83, 1077–1082 (1998). 10.2138/am-1998-9-1016
Refiee, M.A, et al. (2009). Enhanced mechanical properties of nanocomposites at low

graphene content.
Saito, R, et al. (1998). Physical properties of carbon nanotubes. Imperial College

Press, London.
Sampathkumar, SG., Yarema, KJ. (2007). Nanomaterials for Cancer Diagnosis and
Theraphy. Nanotechnologies for the Life Sciences. Volume 6: pp 1-47.
Science 321, 385 (2008); Changu, Lee, et al. Measurement of the elastic properties
and intrinsic strength of monolayer graphene.
Science Daily. (2018). Fullerenes. Britannica Encyclopedia.
Soutter, W. (2013). Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites with Carbon Nanotube.
Stephenson, C and Hubbler, A. (2015). Stability and conductivity of self-assembled

wires in a transverse electric field.
The European Commission. (2011). Commission Recommendation of the 18 October

2011 on the Definition of Nanomaterials.
Tiwari, DK., et.al. (2008). Application of nanoparticles in waste water management.

Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4074873/
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2007). Classification of

nanomaterials, the four main types of intentionally produced nanomaterials.
Yasukawa, et al. (2004). Drug Delivery Systems for vitro Retinal Diseases. Progress
in Retinal and Eye Research
Zabara, M., (2016) “Metallic Nanoparticles, part II (Top- Down and Bottom-Up)”
Retrieved from: https://nanografi.com/blog/metallic-nanoparticles-part-ii-top-
down-and-bottom up/
Course Schedule
Activity Date Where to submit
69
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard

Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell Activities September 3, 2020 BlackBoard
First Exam September 4, 2020 BlackBoard
70

Week 1-3

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Week 1-3

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Name of Teacher: Engr. Crijamaica L. Oceña

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

Course Outline: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS.............................. 1

Essential Knowledge ..................................................................................... 52

Course Outline: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Course Coordinator: Engr. Crijamaica L. Oceña

Student Consultation: Done by online (LMS), text, emails or calls

Effectivity Date: August 17, 2020

Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate

Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

Preferred Referencing Style IEEE

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Canesares

Contact Details of the Program Engr. Ramiro Emerson C. Amon

Library Contact LIC

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

a. demonstrate understanding on the basic concepts of crystal structure;

Big Picture in Focus: ULOa. demonstrate understanding on the

Amorphous an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-

Bravais lattice the fourteen distinguishable ways of arranging the points

Crystal lattice is the symmetrical three-dimensional arrangement of atoms inside a

Cystalline is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly

Density mass per unit volume

Space lattice defined as an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which

BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

Solids are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength.

In general solids can be classified into:

 Crystalline - particles are orderly arranged (long range order).

If the atoms or molecules are uniquely arranged in crystalline solid or liquid, we

Figure 1. General classification of solids

Figure 2. Unit cell

Unit cell can be of primitive as well as non-primitive type. A primitive cell is a

Figure 3. Primitive and non-primitive unit cell

Figure 4. Primitive cell (P) and Non-primitive cell (I and F)

Bravais Lattices in Two Dimensions

Figure 5. Bravais lattices in two dimensions

They are triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal and

Lattice Simple Base- Body- Face- Example

In chemistry, crystallography, and materials science the coordination

ion/molecule/atom is called a ligand. This number is determined somewhat differently for

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

Figure 6. Simple cubic unit cell

Figure 7. Body-centered cubic unit cell

Figure 8. Face-centered cubic unit cell

It is then possible to calculate the APF as follows:

Figure 9. Hexagonal close-packed structure.

Basis: 1 unit cell

Basis: 1 unit cell

n = 4 atoms; A = 26.98 g/mol; 2r = 0.2863 nm = 0.2863x10-7 cm