Bche 111l Chemistry For Engineers Weeks 1 9 Self Instructional Manual Rev4

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO
College of Engineering Education

Chemical Engineering Program
Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged
Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)
Course/Subject: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Name of Author: Engr. Jay Carlo S. Aguilar
THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

REPRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION OUTSIDE OF ITS INTENDED USE.
THIS IS INTENDED ONLY FOR THE USE OF THE STUDENTS WHO ARE
OFFICIALLY ENROLLED IN THE COURSE/SUBJECT.
EXPECT REVISIONS OF THE MANUAL.
2nd Floor, BE Building
Matina Campus, Davao City
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Table of Contents
Big Picture 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 6

Big Picture in Focus: ULO1a .............................................................................................................. 6
Metalanguage ............................................................................................................................ 6
Essential Knowledge .................................................................................................................. 6
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................... 15
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................... 16
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................................................ 16
In a Nutshell ............................................................................................................................. 16
Keywords Index ........................................................................................................................ 16
References ............................................................................................................................... 16
Big Picture in Focus: ULO1b............................................................................................................ 17
Metalanguage .......................................................................................................................... 17
Essential Knowledge ................................................................................................................ 19
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................... 66
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................... 67
Let’s Analyze ............................................................................................................................ 67
In a Nutshell ............................................................................................................................. 67
Keywords Index ........................................................................................................................ 67
References ............................................................................................................................... 67
Course Schedule....................................................................................................................... 71
Big Picture 2 .................................................................................................................................... 72
Big Picture in Focus: ULO2a ............................................................................................................ 72
Metalanguage .......................................................................................................................... 72
Essential Knowledge ................................................................................................................. 73
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................... 84
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................... 84
Let’s Analyze............................................................................................................................. 84
In a Nutshell ............................................................................................................................. 84
Keywords Index ........................................................................................................................ 85
References ............................................................................................................................... 85
Big Picture in Focus: ULO2b............................................................................................................ 86
Metalanguage .......................................................................................................................... 86
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133

Self-Help ................................................................................................................................... 94
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................... 94
Let’s Analyze............................................................................................................................. 95
In a Nutshell ............................................................................................................................. 95
Keywords Index ........................................................................................................................ 95
References ............................................................................................................................... 95
Big Picture in Focus: ULO2c ............................................................................................................ 97
Metalanguage .......................................................................................................................... 97
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 112
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 112
Let’s Analyze........................................................................................................................... 112
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 112
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 113
References ............................................................................................................................. 113
Big Picture in Focus: ULO2d.......................................................................................................... 114
Metalanguage ........................................................................................................................ 114
Essential Knowledge ............................................................................................................... 115
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 127
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 127
Let’s Analyze........................................................................................................................... 127
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 128
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 128
References ............................................................................................................................. 128
Course Schedule..................................................................................................................... 131
Big Picture 3 .................................................................................................................................. 132
Big Picture in Focus: ULO3a .......................................................................................................... 132
Metalanguage ........................................................................................................................ 132
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 140
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 140
Let’s Analyze........................................................................................................................... 140
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 141
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 141

References ............................................................................................................................. 141
Big Picture in Focus: ULO3b.......................................................................................................... 143
Metalanguage ........................................................................................................................ 143
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 157
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 157
Let’s Analyze........................................................................................................................... 157
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 158
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 158
References ............................................................................................................................. 158
Big Picture in Focus: ULO3c .......................................................................................................... 161
Metalanguage ........................................................................................................................ 161
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 172
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 172
Let’s Analyze........................................................................................................................... 172
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 172
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 173
References ............................................................................................................................. 173
Course Schedule..................................................................................................................... 174
Big Picture 4 .................................................................................................................................. 175
Big Picture in Focus: ULO4a .......................................................................................................... 175
Metalanguage ........................................................................................................................ 175
Essential Knowledge .............................................................................................................. 177
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 185
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 186
Let’s Analyze .......................................................................................................................... 186
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 187
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 187
References ............................................................................................................................. 187
Big Picture in Focus: ULO4b.......................................................................................................... 190
Metalanguage ........................................................................................................................ 190
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 205

Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 205
Let’s Analyze .......................................................................................................................... 206
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 206
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 207
References ............................................................................................................................. 207
Big Picture in Focus: ULO4c .......................................................................................................... 209
Metalanguage ........................................................................................................................ 209
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 220
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 220
Let’s Analyze .......................................................................................................................... 220
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 221
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 222
References ............................................................................................................................. 222
Big Picture in Focus: ULO4d.......................................................................................................... 225
Metalanguage ........................................................................................................................ 225
Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 236
Let’s Check ............................................................................................................................. 237
Let’s Analyze .......................................................................................................................... 237
In a Nutshell ........................................................................................................................... 238
Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 238
References ............................................................................................................................. 238
Course Schedule..................................................................................................................... 239
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Course Outline: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS
Course Coordinator: Engr. Jeralyn G. Cabotaje

Email: jcabotaje@umindanao.edu.ph
Student Consultation: Done by online (LMS), emails, face to face
Mobile:
Phone: 2961084 local 133
Effectivity Date: August 2, 2022
Mode of Delivery: Blended (On-Line with face to face or virtual
sessions)
Time Frame: 108 Hours (Lecture+Laboratory)
Student Workload: Expected Self-Directed Learning
Requisites: None
Credit: 4 units (3 units lecture, 1 unit laboratory)
Attendance Requirements: A minimum of 95% attendance is required at all
scheduled Virtual or face to face sessions.
Course Outline Policy
Areas of Concern Details

Contact and Non-contact Hours This 4-unit course self-instructional manual is designed
for blended learning mode of instructional delivery with
scheduled face to face or virtual sessions. The
expected number of hours will be 108 including the face
to face or virtual sessions, and laboratory. The face to
face sessions shall include the summative assessment
tasks (exams) since this course is crucial in the licensure
examination for engineers.
1
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Assessment Task Submission Submission of assessment tasks shall be on 3rd, 5th, 7th
and 9th week of the term. The assessment paper shall
be attached with a cover page indicating the title of the
assessment task (if the task is performance), the
name of the course coordinator, date of submission and
name of the student. All submissions should be done
through Blackboard. It is also expected that you already
paid your tuition and other fees before the submission of
the assessment task.
If the assessment task is done in real time through the

features in the Blackboard Learning Management
System, the schedule shall be arranged ahead of time by
the course coordinator.
Penalties for Late The score for an assessment item submitted after the
Assignments/Assessments designated time on the due date, without an approved
extension of time, will be reduced by 5% of the possible
maximum score for that assessment item for each day or
part day that the assessment item is late.
However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

a valid reason, a letter of explanation should be
submitted and approved by the course coordinator. If
necessary, you will also be required to present/attach
evidences.
Return of Assignments/ Assessment tasks will be returned to you two (2) weeks
Assessments after the submission. This will be returned by email or via
Blackboard portal.
For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

require some or few of the students for online or virtual
sessions to ask clarificatory questions to validate the
originality of the assessment task submitted and to ensure
that all the group members are involved.
Assignment Resubmission You should request in writing addressed to the course
coordinator his/her intention to resubmit an assessment
task. The resubmission is premised on the student’s
failure to comply with the similarity index and other
reasonable grounds such as academic literacy standards
or other reasonable circumstances e.g.
illness, accidents financial constraints.
2
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Re-marking of Assessment Papers You should request in writing addressed to the program
and Appeal coordinator your intention to appeal or contest the score
given to an assessment task. The letter should explicitly
explain the reasons/points to contest the grade. The
program coordinator shall communicate with the
students on the approval and disapproval of the
request.
If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate

your case to the program head or the dean with the
original letter of request. The final decision will come from
the dean of the college.
Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

contact
Course discussions/exercises – 30%
1st formative assessment – 10%
2nd formative assessment – 10%
3rd formative assessment – 10%
All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Final exam – 40%
Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

University system and procedures.
Preferred Referencing Style IEEE
Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

which is a requirement to access the BlackBoard portal.
Then, the course coordinator shall enroll the
students to have access to the materials and resources
of the course. All communication formats: chat,
submission of assessment tasks, requests etc. shall be
through the portal and other university recognized
platforms.
You can also meet the course coordinator in person

through the scheduled face to face sessions to raise
your issues and concerns.
For students who have not created their student email,

please contact the course coordinator or program head.
Contact Details of the Dean Dr. Charlito L. Canesares
Email: clcanesares@umindanao.edu.ph
Phone: 09562082442
3
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Contact Details of the Program Engr. Jay Carlo Aguilar

Head Email: jaguilar@umindanao.edu.ph
Students with Special Needs Students with special needs shall communicate with the
course coordinator about the nature of his or her special
needs. Depending on the nature of the need, the course
coordinator with the approval of the program coordinator
may provide alternative assessment tasks or extension of
the deadline of submission of assessment tasks. However,
the alternative assessment tasks should still be in the
service of achieving the desired course learning
outcomes.
Online Tutorial Registration Platforms such as Google Meet and Zoom (whichever is
convenient) will be used for video conference. Kindly
create an account ahead of time.
Help Desk Contact CEE
Jessica Dagohoy
cee@umindanao.edu.ph
09562082442
082-2272902
GSTC
Ronadora E. Deala, RPsy, RPm, RGC, LPT
ronadora_deala@umindanao.edu.ph
09212122846
Silvino P. Josol
gstcmain@umindanao.edu.ph
09060757721
Library Contact LIC

Brigida E. Bacani
library@umindanao.edu.ph
09513766681
4
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS
CC’s Voice: Hello engineer in the making! Welcome to this course BCHE 111/L:
Chemistry for Engineers. This course deals with core concepts of
chemistry which are important in the practice of engineering profession
which includes generation of energy, the chemistry of engineering
materials, the chemistry of the environment and a special topic specific
to an engineering field of expertise.
CO CO stands for Course Outcomes. These are the skills that students are
expected to demonstrate at the end of the course to pass the subject. The
following are the COs of BCHE 111/L:
CO 1. Demonstrate understanding of chemistry in relation to the
generation of energy, the chemical principles and concepts of structures
and bonding of common engineering materials, and the chemical
processes that take place in the environment.
CO 2. Conduct experiments in relation to the models and concepts learned
in class.
Let us begin!
5
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture 1
Week 1-3: Unit Learning Outcomes (ULO): At the end of the unit, you are
expected to
a. Perform conversion of units

b. demonstrate understanding of the concepts of chemical safety.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO1a. perform conversion of units.
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study of
chemical safety to demonstrate ULO1a will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding educational concepts.
Dimension are physical quantities that can be measured (e.g. length,

volume)
Units are arbitrary names that correlate to particular dimensions to
make the measurement relative to an agreed upon definition
(e.g. meter, liter)
Conversion Factor a number used to change one set of units to another, by
multiplying or dividing
Scientific Notation a way of expressing numbers that are too large or too small to
be conveniently written in decimal form
Essential Knowledge
STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENT
Communication sometimes requires a method of expressing sizes that are

easily understood. The measurements are used in calculations to obtain other related
quantities. Measurement in simple cases means comparing a thing with a standard to
see how many times as big it is. It is important to have standards that are precisely
defined and that are used in common by people involved in trade, science, and
industry.
6
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
This section points out the importance of taking a measurement, both in the
laboratory and in day–to–day life. Weight, volume, and temperature are examples of
variable measured by chemists.
Reading a Measuring Device

There are two ways that devices can indicate a value: digital and non-digital.
1. The digital device (shown below) gives the mass of the object in grams.
Laboratory workers record this value as the mass of the object.
2. Many devices in a laboratory are non-digital.
An example of this is the ruler below. The line measures between 3 &
4. The black lines are the calibration lines. How can this value become more
accurate (closer to the true value)?
1 2 3 4
The ruler reads between 3.5 and 3.6, but the value seems closer to
3.6. It seems reasonable to call it 3.59. The statement below is the fundamental rule
of measurement.
“When recording a reading from a digital measuring device, record all the
digits shown. When recording a reading from a non-digital device, write down
all the digits that are known with certainty plus one that is estimated.”
Significant Figures
Not all of the figures in a value are always “significant”; that is, they are not
always included in the actual measured value.
The following are rules on how to deal with significant digits when rounding
numbers & using scientific notation.
1. Rounding
7
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Rounding is the removal of digits in a number when it is necessary to express

the number with fewer digits. When these digits have been dropped, the final digit
must be “rounded”, either up or down, as shown below:
A. Rounding down: If the number just after the last significant figure (or
digit) is less than 5, the significant figure is rounded down (or as the
text states, not rounding up). For example,
54.623 rounded to 4 digits would be 54.62
B. Rounding up: If the number just after the last significant figure (or digit)
is greater than 5, the significant figure is rounded up:
C. Even/Odd Rule: This is only used occasionally & is one of two ways
that are used in dealing with the number after the last significant figure
being equal to 5. Round the five so the last figure is even. For example,
Examples:
Round the following measurements. Report the answer with the proper units.
a. 107.77 degrees Celsius to 4 digits  107.8°C
b. 6.53300 grams to 5 digits  6.5330 g
c. 28.6 grams/milliliter to 2 digits  29 g/mL
d. 48.67305 nanometers to 6 digits  48.6730 nm
2. Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is used as a way to make expressing numbers more

manageable.
• A number expressed in scientific notation has a value multiplied by 10 to
some power.
1000 = 1 x 103
The value is “1”. This is multiplied by 103, or 10 x 10 x 10 = 1000.
So 1 x 1000 = 1000
2000 = 2 x 103
5400 = 5.4 x 103
Just as numbers greater than one can be converted to scientific notation,

numbers less than one can also be converted into scientific notation. Keep in mind
that 10 – 1 = 1/10 = 0.1.
0.001 = 1 x 10 – 3
The value is “1”. This is multiplied by 10 – 3, or 0.1 x 0.1 x 0.1 = 0.001. So 1 x
0.001 = 0.001.
When expressing numbers in scientific notation, it is preferable to keep the

value between 1 and 10 as was done in the previous three cases.
Examples:
8
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Express the following numbers in scientific notation.

1. 9,200,000,000,000,000,000,000,000  9.2 x 1024
2. 73400000  7.34 x 107
3. 0.000048  4.8 x 10 – 5
4. 0.000000006688  6.688 x 10 – 9
3. Rules for the Number of Significant Figures

Recording data measurements to the proper number of
significant figures gives others who look at the data a sense of how accurate
the readings were. When manipulating data, carry significant figures forward
in different ways depending on the mathematics that are done.
1. Any non-zero digit is significant.
56.783 has 5 significant figures.
2. Any zero located between two numbers is significant.
3. Any zero to the left of non-zero digits is not significant unless it is covered
by #2.
0.06034 has 4 significant digits.
4. Any zero to the right of non-zero digits and also to the right of a decimal
point is significant.
5. Any zero to the right of non-zero digits & to the left of a decimal point (&
not covered by #2) may, or may not be, significant, depending on whether
the zero is placeholder or was actually part of a measurement. To be as
clear as possible, express such values using scientific notation.
The number 150900 has either 4, 5, or 6 significant figures. However, if
the scientist expresses the data point like this:
1.5090 x 105, then the number has 5 significant figures (Rule #4).
Examples:
Give the number of significant figures in each of the following values:
a. 69.4703 mL  6 significant figures
b. 0.00071 g  2 significant figures; the leading zeros are not important
c. 0.03300 s  4 significant figures; the trailing zeros are important
A physical quantity is any number that is used to describe a physical phenomenon

quantitatively.
Fundamental (or base) quantities are the simplest types of quantities and cannot
be reduced further.
Quantity Unit
1. Length, L Meter, m
2. Mass, m, or Weight, W Kilogram, kg
3. Time, t Second, s
4. Temperature, T Kelvin, K
5. Electric current, I Ampere, A
9
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Table 2. 6. Amount of substance, n Mole, mol

7. Luminous intensity Candela, cd
Derived quantities are based on combinations of the fundamental quantities.

Ex. 1. velocity, L/t  m/s ; km/h
2. volume, L3  m3; cm3; ft3
3. area, L2  m2; yd2
4. density, m/V  g/cm3; kg/m3; lb/ft3
A system of units is a complete set of units, both fundamental and derived, for all
kinds of quantities.
1. English system
2. Metric system (SI)
The Metric System
The metric system, or International System (SI, from (Systemé Internationale), is a

decimal system of units for measurements of mass, length, time, and other physical
quantities. It is built around a set of standard units and uses factors of 10 to express
larger or smaller numbers of these units, & prefixes are added to the names of the
units. These prefixes represent multiples of 10, making the metric system a decimal
system of measurements.
The metric system is superior to the English system in the area of
interrelationships between units because it is less complicated being a decimal
unit system. In this system, conversion from one unit size to another can be
accomplished by moving the decimal point to the right or left at an appropriate
number of places. It is founded on 7 base units and 2 supplementary units (see
Table 2 above). The various units for a quantity are always related by factors of
ten.
The metric system is currently used by most of the countries in the world, not
only in scientific and technical work but also in commerce and industry.
Powers (or factors) of ten is used to express very large or very small numbers,
more conveniently, in an abbreviated form. This is done by the use of prefixes (see
Table 3).
Conversions between and within the system of units can be made by use of a very
few conversion factors.
10
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Conversion factors (cf) are the factors that relate 2 different units of the same
quantity (unit1 and unit2).
Important equation for conversion: unit2 = unit1 (conversion factor)

Where: unit1 = is the given unit
unit2 = is the desired unit
The conversion factor must accomplish 2 things:

1. it must cancel (or eliminate) the original unit1, &
2. must introduce the new unit2 ⎯ the unit wanted in the answer.
Ex: the conversion factor 1 km = = 103m = 1000 m can be written into 2
ways:
1 km 1000 m
or
1000 m 1 km
Table 3. Table below shows the names, symbols, and numerical values of the
prefixes.
Prefix Symbol Numerical Value Power of 10 equivalent

exa E 1,000,000,000,000,000,000 1018
peta P 1,000,000,000,000,000 1015
tera T 1,000,000,000,000 1012
giga G 1,000,000,000 109
mega M 1,000,000 106
kilo k 1,000 103
hecto h 100 102
deka da 10 101
Base unit ⎯ 1 100
deci d 0.1 10 – 1
centi c 0.01 10 – 2
milli m 0.001 10 – 3
micro  0.000001 10 – 6
nano n 0.000000001 10 – 9
pico p 0.000000000001 10 – 12
femto f 0.000000000000001 10 – 15
atto a 0.000000000000000001 10 – 18
Some Common Conversion Factors
I Length
1 kilometer (km) = 0.6214 mile (mi)
1 meter (m) = 100 centimeter (cm) = 39.37 inches (in) = 3.28 feet (ft)
1 mile (mi) = 5280 feet (ft) = 1760 yards (yd) = 1.6093 km = 1609.3 m
1 inch (in) = 2.54 cm = 25.4 mm
1 yard (yd) = 3 feet (ft) = 0.9146 m
1 feet (ft) = 12 inches (in)
1 angstrom (Å) = 10 – 10 m
11
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
II Mass/Weight
1 kilogram (kg) = 2.205 pounds (lb)
1 pound (lb) = 453.6 g = 0.4536 kg
1 pound (lb) = 16 oz
1 oz = 28.35 g
1 metric ton (T) = 1000 kg = 2205 lb
1 US short ton = 907 kg = 2000 lb
1 British long ton = 1016 kg = 2240 lb ;
1 atomic mass unit (u) = 1.6606 x 10 – 27 kg
III Volume
1 liter (L) = 1000 milliliter (mL) = 10 – 3 m3 = 1 dm3
= 1.06 quarts (qt) = 0.0353 cubic ft (ft3)
1 mL = 1 cubic cm (cc or cm3)
1 US gallon (gal) = 3.785 L
1 US gallon (gal) = 4 quarts (qt) = 8 pints (pt)
1 quart (qt) = 32 fluid ounces (fl oz) = 0.946 liter (L)
1 fl. oz. = 29.6 mL
1 ft3 = 28.32 ; 1 m3 = 35.3 ft3
IV Area
1 yd2 = 0.836 m2 ; 1 cm2 = 0.155 in2 ; 1 km2 = 1.196 x 10 6 yd2
1 acre = 4840 yd2 = 4046.556 m2
1 hectare (ha) = 2.471 acres = 10,000 m2
V Energy
1 calorie (cal) = 4.184 joules (J)
1 British Thermal Unit (BTU) = 252 cal = 1055 J
VI Pressure
1 Pascal (Pa) = 1 kg/m•s2 ; 1kPa = 1000 Pa
1 atmosphere (atm) = 760 torr = 760 mm Hg = 101,325 Pa = 14.7 in Hg
Mass and Weight
Before introducing the base unit used to define mass, consider one important
issue, distinguishing the difference between weight and mass. Weight & mass are
not the same.
Mass measures the amount of matter in an object/substance; it is constant

throughout the universe.
Weight measures the effect the gravity (attraction from another body) on an object. It
is related to mass (since it acts on it), yet weight varies from one planet & star to
12
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
another, because different objects pose different gravitational (attractive) forces on

the same mass. Therefore, the weight of an object will vary depending on where it is.
Volume, as used, is the amount of space occupied by matter. The most common
instruments or equipment for measuring volume of liquids are the graduated
cylinder, volumetric flask, burette, pipette, and syringe.
A liter, L, is usually defined as a cubic decimeter (1 dm3) of water at 4°C.
DENSITY
Density, , indicates the amount of mass per volume of a specific substance.

• Such a measurement is very helpful because two different
substances rarely have the exact same density. Therefore,
density can be used to distinguish unknown substances
from one another & help in identifying them.
• is given by the equation
•
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠, 𝑚 𝑚
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝜌 = =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒, 𝑉 𝑉
Alternate forms:
𝑚
𝑉= or 𝑚 = 𝜌𝑉
𝜌
The density of water at 4°C is 1.0000 g/mL or 1.0000 g/cm3 or 1000.00 kg/m3 or
62.4 lb/ft3.
Densities for liquids and solids are usually represented in terms of g/mL or
g/cm3. The density of gases, however, is expressed in terms of g/L.
The specific gravity (sp gr) of a substance is the ratio of the density of that substance
to the density of another substance, usually water at 4°C. The specific gravity tells us
how many times as heavy a liquid, a solid, or a gas is as compared to the reference
material. Since the density of water at 4°C is 1.00 g/mL, the specific gravity of a solid
or liquid is the same as its density in g/ml without the units.
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒
𝑆. 𝐺. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 =
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
Alternate form:
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 = (𝑆. 𝐺. 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒)(𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟)
When an insoluble solid object is dropped into water, it will sink or float,
depending on its density. If the object is less dense than water, it will float, displacing
a mass of water equal to the mass of the object. If the object is more dense than
13
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
water, it will sink, displacing a volume of water equal to the volume of the object.
This information can be utilized to determine the volume (and density) of irregularly
shaped objects.
Table 4. Densities of Some Selected Materials
Liquids and Solids Gases

Substance Density Substance Density
(g/mL at 20°C) (g/mL at 0°C)
Wood (Douglas fir) 0.512 Hydrogen 0.090
Ethyl alcohol 0.789 Helium 0.178
Vegetable oil 0.91 Methane 0.714
Water (4°C) 1.000 Ammonia 0.771
Sugar 1.59 Neon 0.90
Glycerin 1.26 Carbon monoxide 1.25
Karo Syrup 1.37 Nitrogen 1.251
Sulfuric acid 1.84 Air 1.293
Sulfur 2.07 Oxygen 1.429
Salt 2.16 Hydrogen chloride 1.63
Aluminum 2.70 Argon 1.78
Silver 10.5 Carbon dioxide 1.963
Lead 11.34 Chlorine 3.17
Mercury 13.55
Gold 19.3
Note: For comparing densities the density of water is the reference for solids and
liquids; air is the reference for gases.
TEMPERATURE SCALES
Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an object. It is that property

of matter that determines the direction of heat transfer. Heat can flow only from a
body at a higher temperature to one at a lower temperature. Temperature does not
measure the amount of heat present in an object/substance.
The temperature of an object is measured by one of the four scales,

▪ Celsius (or Centigrade)
▪ Fahrenheit
▪ Kelvin
▪ Rankine
Scientists everywhere measure temperature in terms of the Celsius scale.
Though not an SI unit, the Celsius scale may be used with SI units. The Celsius
scale divides the range between the freezing point (0°C) & boiling point(100°C) of
water into 100degrees. The Fahrenheit scale, which is the most commonly used
14
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
scale in the United States outside the laboratory, defines the normal freezing &
boiling points of water to be exactly 32°F & 212°F, respectively.
Thermometer is the most common instrument used for measuring temperature.
Comparison of the Three Temperature Scales
Conversion of Temperature Scales
(a) from Celsius to Fahrenheit
(b) from Fahrenheit to Celsius

TC = 59 (TF − 32)
Absolute Scales
T R = T F + 460 TK = T C + 273
Self-Help: You can also refer to the sources below to help you
further understand the lesson.
Serway, R. (2014). Physics for Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics (9th
ed) Australia: Cengage Learning.
15
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Let’s Check
For #s 1-3, round the following measurements. Report the answer with the proper
units.
1. 7.8177 rounded to the nearest tenth
2. 1.0643 rounded to the nearest hundredth
3. 3.8781 rounded to the nearest thousandth
4. Write 13.378162 correct to 4 significant digits.
5. Write 75.378212 correct to 3 significant digits/figures.
Let’s Analyze
Express the following numbers in scientific notation. (Note: When expressing
numbers in scientific notation, it is preferable to keep the value between 1 and 10 as
was done in the previous three cases.)
1. 1,181,995
2. 10,279,191
3. 873,490,238
4. 2,348,992,374
5. 49,810,823,012
In a Nutshell
1. Convert 312 oC to oR.
2. Convert 2.5 meters to yards.
3. Convert 4 liters to cm3.
4. Convert 149 cm2 to in2.
5. Convert 510 oR to K.
Keywords Index
Dimension Units
Conversion Factor Scientific Notation
References
Serway, R. (2014). Physics for Scientist and Engineers with Modern Physics (9th ed)
Australia: Cengage Learning.
16
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO1b. demonstrate understanding of the

concepts of chemical safety.
Metalanguage
chemical safety to demonstrate ULO1b will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in understanding educational concepts.
Accident defined as an unplanned event leading to undesired consequences

Acute toxicity describes the adverse effects of a substance that result either from a
single exposure or from multiple exposures in a short period of time
(usually less than 24 hours)
Biohazard a biological substance that poses a threat to the health of living
organisms, primarily humans. This could include a sample of a
microorganism, virus or toxin that can adversely affect human health.
Carcinogen any substance, radionuclide, or radiation that promotes
carcinogenesis, the formation of cancer
Chemical the control of exposure to potentially hazardous substances to attain
laboratory an acceptably low risk of exposure
safety
Chronic toxicity the development of adverse effects as the result of long term exposure
to a toxicant or other stressor
Corrosives are chemicals which cause burns on the skin, mucous membrane and
eyes
Dermatotoxin a toxic chemical that damages skin, mucous membranes, or both,
often leading to tissue necrosis
Explosive a solid or liquid chemical which is in itself capable by chemical reaction
of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure and at such a
speed to cause damage to the surroundings
Flammable gases, liquids and solids that will ignite and continue to burn in air if
exposed to a source of ignition
Flash point The minimum temperature at which a liquid gives off enough vapor to
form an ignitable mixture
Fume Hood a ventilated enclosure in which gases, vapors and fumes are
contained. An exhaust fan situated on the top of the laboratory building
pulls air and airborne contaminants through connected ductwork and
exhausts them to the atmosphere.
GHS Stands for Globally Harmonized System. It is a system for
standardizing and harmonizing the classification and labeling of
chemicals.
17
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Hazard defined as a chemical or physical condition that has the potential for
causing damage to people, property, or the environment
Hematotoxins toxins that destroy red blood cells, disrupt blood clotting, and/or cause
organ degeneration and generalized tissue damage.
Hepatotoxins a toxic chemical substance that damages the liver
Incident the unexpected release of a substance that is (potentially) hazardous
either to humans, other animals or the environment
LC50 LC stands for "Lethal Concentration". LC values usually refer to the
concentration of a chemical in air but in environmental studies it can
also mean the concentration of a chemical in water. The
concentrations of the chemical in air that kills 50% of the test animals
during the observation period is the LC50 value.
LD50 LD stands for "Lethal Dose". LD50 is the amount of a material, given all
at once, which causes the death of 50% (one half) of a group of test
animals. The LD50 is one way to measure the short-term poisoning
potential (acute toxicity) of a material.
Nephrotoxins a toxic agent or substance that inhibits, damages or destroys the cells
and/or tissues of the kidneys
Neurotoxins are toxins that are destructive to nerve tissue (causing neurotoxicity)
Oxidizers are solid, liquids or gases that react readily with most organic material
or reducing agents with no energy input
PPE stands for Personal Protective Equipment. It refers to any equipment
worn to minimize exposure to hazards that cause serious workplace
injuries and illnesses
Pyrophoric substances that ignite instantly upon exposure to oxygen, they can
also be water reactive, where heat and hydrogen (a flammable gas)
are produced
Risk defined as a measure of human injury, environmental damage, or
economic loss in terms of both the incident likelihood (probability) and
the magnitude of the loss or injury (consequence)
Safety Data a document produced in alignment with the UN’s Globally Harmonized
Sheet System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (GHS) that the
manufacturer, importer, or distributor of a chemical product is required
to provide to downstream users. An SDS needs to have a specific 16-
section format, and the process of creating a properly formatted SDS
is known as SDS authoring.
Toxic substance that can cause harmful effect to the environment and
hazardous to human health if inhaled, ingested or absorbed through
the skin
18
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Essential Knowledge
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL SAFETY, CHEMICAL HAZARDS, PICTOGRAMS

AND CHEMICAL HEALTH RISK
Nowadays, a wide range of chemicals are being used in the different field, most
especially in the field of research, medicine, product manufacturing and even in our
daily living. We utilize chemicals since it enables us to formulate substances important
for disease treatment, fertilize plants and provide fuel for transportation.
According to the International Labour Organization (ILO) that Chemicals have

become part of our life, sustaining many of our activities, preventing and controlling
many diseases and increasing agricultural productivity. However, one cannot ignore
that many of these chemicals may, especially if not properly used, endanger our health
and poison our environment. Moreover, it has been estimated that approximately one
thousand new chemicals come onto the market every year, and about 100 000
chemical substances are used on a global scale. With this topic, that talks about
chemical safety we can be able to view the physical and health hazards of chemicals,
that requires implementation of safety precautions and hazard control that can reduce
the risk of exposure.
What is chemical safety?
• It is the application of the best practices for handling chemicals and

chemistry processes to minimize risk, whether to a person, facility, or
community. It involves understanding the physical, chemical and
toxicological hazards of chemicals, (Kemsley, 2013).
• Chemical safety provides information about the practice of handling
chemicals in a safe manner, thus minimizing the hazard to public and
personal health.
• According to the World Health Organization (WHO), chemical safety is
achieved by undertaking all activities involving chemicals in such a way
as to ensure the safety of human health and the environment. It covers
all chemicals, natural and manufactured, and the full range of exposure
situations from the natural presence of chemicals in the environment to
their extraction or synthesis, industrial production, transport use and
disposal.
19
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Chemical safety focuses to the following:
• Identify the hazard: This involves

identifying the chemicals you have in your
workplace and the hazards associated with
them.
• Assess the risk: This involves assessing
the risk from chemicals or processes in your
workplace.
• Control the exposure: This involves
considering the various recognized control
measures to eliminate or reduce the risk.
Courtesy: Health and Safety Authority
CHEMICAL HAZARDS
A chemical hazard is a type of occupational hazard caused by exposure to

chemicals in the workplace. Chemical hazards will give an idea to the user on what
are the things that needs to be observe, what are the preventive measures that needs
to be done, and what are the things needed and not needed in order to handle
chemicals safely. (Indian Standard (IS) 4209-1987 Code of Safety in Chemical
Laboratories.)
TYPES OF CHEMICAL HAZARDS
➢ Corrosives
Corrosives are chemicals which cause burns on the skin, mucous

membrane and eyes. Chemical burns are also caused when tissues come in
contact with corrosive solids, corrosive liquids dispersed in the air as mists. This
kind of chemicals are highly reactive substances it can cause obvious damage
to living tissue.
Examples of corrosive chemicals
a. Sulfuric acid
b. Nitric acid,
20
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
c. Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash)
d. Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda),
e. Bromine and phenol
Courtesy: Hazards in Chemical Lab.
➢ Oxidizers
Oxidizers are solid, liquids or gases that react readily with most organic material
or reducing agents with no energy input. Oxidizers are a severe fire hazards. They
must be stored away from flammables, since they can start a fire if they come in
contact with each other. Thus oxidizing chemicals can cause fire and can burn
violently.
Examples of oxidizing chemicals
a) Hydrogen Peroxide
b) Nitric Acid,
c) Perchloric Acid,
d) Sulphuric Acid
e) Chlorates
f) Chromates,
Courtesy: Hazards in Chemical Lab
21
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
➢ Flammable
Flammable substance are those gases, liquids and solids that will ignite and
continue to burn in air if exposed to a source of ignition. Flammable chemicals
are a fire hazard. The lower the flashpoint (the lowest temperature at which a
liquid fuel will give off enough vapour to form a momentarily ignitable mixture
with air.) of the chemical, the greater the hazard.
Examples of flammable chemicals
a) Acetone
b) Toluene
c) Methyl Alcohol
➢ Water Reactive
Water reactive chemicals are dangerous when wet because they will undergo
a chemical reaction with water. This reaction may release a gas that is either
flammable or present a toxic health hazard
Examples of flammable chemicals
a) Sodium
b) Lithium
c) Potassium
22
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
➢ Pyrophorics
Pyrophoric chemicals are substances that ignite instantly upon exposure

to oxygen, they can also be water reactive, where heat and hydrogen (a flammable
gas) are produced. This are liquids, solids and gases that will ignite spontaneously
in air at or below 130 degrees Fahrenheit, handling and usage of pyrophoric require
fire resistant lab coat, fire resistant hand gloves, safety glasses and face shield.
Examples of pyrophoric chemicals
a) Butyl Lithium.
b) Diisobutylaluminium Hydride
➢ Toxic
Toxic chemicals are substance that can cause harmful effect to the
environment and hazardous to human health if inhaled, ingested or absorbed
through the skin. Toxic chemicals produce injurious or lethal effects upon contact
with body cells due to their chemical properties. The extent of exposure is
determined by the dose, duration and frequency of exposure and the route of
exposure.
5 TYPES OF TOXIC CHEMICALS
• Neurotoxins- the target organ for this type of toxic chemical is the nervous
system.
Examples: xylene, carbon-hexane, trichloroethylene.
• Hematotoxins – the target part is the blood.

Examples: carbon monoxide, nitrates
• Hepatotoxins – the target part is the liver.

23
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Examples: chloroform, dinitrobenzene
• Nephrotoxins – the target part is the kidney.

Examples: cadmium, mercury, carbon
• Dermatotoxins – the target part is the skin.

Examples: organic solvents
➢ Potentially Explosive Chemicals

An explosive chemical is a solid or liquid chemical which is in itself capable by
chemical reaction of producing gas at such a temperature and pressure and at such a
speed to cause damage to the surroundings. This are chemicals that when subjected
to heat, impact, or friction, undergoes rapid chemical change, evolving large volumes
of gases which cause sudden increase in pressure.
Examples of potentially explosive chemicals:
a) Acetylides
b) Azides
c) Nitrogen triiodide
d) Organic nitrates
e) Nitro compounds
f) Perchlorate salts
24
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
PICTOGRAMS
According to the Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety

(CCOHS) The Hazard Communication Standard (HCS) requires pictograms on labels
to alert users of the chemical hazards to which they may be exposed, each pictogram
consist of a symbol on a white background framed within a red border and represent
a distinct hazard. There are two classification of pictograms the Health Hazard
Pictogram and Physical Hazard Pictogram.
CLASSIFICATION OF PICTOGRAMS
Health Hazard Pictogram
Health hazard Exclamation mark
• Carcinogen
• Irritant (skin
• Mutagenicity and eye)
• Reproductive • Skin Sensitizer
Toxicity
• Acute Toxicity
• Respiratory
Sensitizer • Narcotic Effects
• Target Organ • Respiratory

Skull and cross bones
Toxicity Tract Irritant
Corrosion
• Aspiration Toxicity
• Acute toxicity
• Skin
(fatal or toxic)
Corrosion/Burn
• Eye Damage
• Corrosive to
Metals
Physical Hazard Pictogram
Exploding bomb Flame over circle

• Explosives • Oxidizers
• Self-Reactive
• Organic
Peroxides
25
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Gas cylinder Flame

• Gases Under Pressure
• Flammables
• Pyrophorics
• Self-Heating
• Emits Flammable
Gas
• Self-Reactives
Environment
• Aquatic toxicity
26
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
CHEMICAL HEALTH RISK
A chemical incident is the unexpected release of a substance that is

(potentially) hazardous either to humans, other animals or the environment. Chemical
releases arise from technological incidents, impact of natural hazards4, and from
conflict and terrorism.5 The International Federation of the Red Cross has estimated
that between 1998 and 2007, there were nearly 3 200 technological disasters,
including chemical incidents, with approximately 100 000 people killed and nearly 2
million people affected.5 The management of chemical incidents requires a multi-
disciplinary and multi-sectoral approach - the health sector may play a supporting or
a leadership role at various stages of the management. (WHO Human Health Risk
Assessment Toolkit: Chemical Hazards. 2010). The following are the identified
chemical health risk,
i. FIRE produces injuries through heat and exposure to toxic substances

(including combustion products).
ii. EXPLOSION produces traumatic (mechanical) injuries through the resulting

shockwave (blast), fragments and projectiles.
iii. TOXICITY may result when humans come into contact with a chemical
released from its containment, be it from storage or transport, or as reaction or
combustion products. Toxicity can cause harm by a wide array of toxic
mechanisms ranging from chemical burns to asphyxiation and neurotoxicity.
iv. MENTAL HEALTH effects are not only determined by exposure to the
chemical, fire or explosion but also by “exposure to the event” itself.
ROUTES OF ENTRY OF CHEMICALS TO OUR BODY
The main routes of entry of the chemicals into the human body are:
•Inhalation into lungs.
•Absorption through skin membrane/cuts in the skin.
•Ingestion via mouth into the gastrointestinal system.
27
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
COMMON CHEMICAL GROUPS THAT CAUSE HEALTH RISKS OR SPECIFIC

CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Types:
Dusts and Fumes
Gases
Solvents
Metals
Acids and Bases
Pesticides
DUST AND FUMES
All particles may be harmful; the effect depends on size of particles, amount
and nature of substance. Particles less than 10 μm can be breathed deep in the lungs
and those less than 2.5 μm is particularly dangerous.
Dusts containing crystalline silica or asbestos may cause incurable lung damage
leading to cancer, especially in smokers: metal fumes may cause “metal fume fever”
(Duffus, J. & Worth, H.,n.d.)
GASES
Gases such as sulfur oxides, nitrogen oxides, chlorine and ammonia are
corrosive and irritating to the lungs and nose (Duffus, J. & Worth, H., n.d.)
Phosgene is formed when solvents containing chlorine, such as

trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, or carbon tetrachloride come into contact with hot
surfaces or flames.
Carbon monoxide is an odorless and colorless gas formed by incomplete

burning of carbon compounds: Carbon monoxide gradually blocks oxygen supply to
the nervous system, making your brain function less effectively before it causes death;
it reacts with hemoglobin stopping it carrying oxygen in the blood.
28
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Hydrogen cyanide gas can pass through the skin as well as the lungs and kills
by depriving your brain and heart of oxygen; it reacts with the final electron carrier of
the cytochrome system to block cell respiration.
SOLVENTS
Apart from water, most solvents are liquid organic chemicals and many
evaporate rapidly at room temperature. Organic solvents are often flammable: organic
solvent vapors may be inhaled or the liquid absorbed through the skin.
Benzene can cause leukemia, a cancer of the white blood cells
Carbon tetrachloride can cause severe liver damage.
Carbon disulfide affects the brain and nervous system causing character
change and unpredictable behavior.
ACIDS AND BASES
Acids and bases have corrosive properties. The amount of harm caused by
chemical burns from acids and bases depends on the concentration of the substance
and the duration of exposure (Retrieved from https://sciencing.com/acids-bases-
harmful-6019071.html).
Strong Acids
Acids with a pH of less than 4 can cause chemical burns. Some common strong
acids include hydrochloric, nitric, sulfuric and phosphoric acids. Weak acids such as
acetic, citric and carbonic are not corrosive. They can safely be consumed and do not
irritate the skin. However, at greater concentrations weak acids can be harmful.
Strong Bases
Bases with a pH greater than 10 can cause chemical burns. Strong bases
include, calcium hydroxide, sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. Some
common weak bases are ammonia and sodium bicarbonate. Chemical burns from
bases do not cause as much pain as acid burns, but the damage can be more
extensive.
29
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
CHEMICAL GROUPS: ITS SOURCES AND ITS EFFECTS ON LIVING

ORGANISMS
The use of chemicals has increased dramatically due to the economic

development in various sectors including industry, agriculture and transport. As a
consequence, people are exposed to a large number of chemicals of both natural and
man-made origin (World Health Organization). Chemicals come from different sources
and also come in different forms.
Human exposure to hazardous chemicals can occur at the source or the

chemical could move to a place where people can come into contact with it. The
chemical getting into our body has had an adverse effect on our health. Thus, creates
a greater risk in experiencing different kinds of symptoms and diseases. Health effects
depend on the toxicity of a chemical group that entered our body, on the rate of
absorption of the body and the response of the body to the chemical (Missouri
Department of Health & Senior Services).
CHEMICAL GROUP/S THAT CAUSES HEALTH RISKS:
METALS
Metals are substances with high electrical conductivity, malleability, and luster,
which voluntarily lose their electrons to form cations. Metals are found naturally in the
earth's crust and their compositions vary among different localities, resulting in spatial
variations of surrounding concentrations (Anbalagan, N. et.al., 2014). Metals are well-
known for its adverse benefits and uses. But other sources of metal could have a
harmful effect on the environment and living organisms.
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals are generally referred to as those metals which possess a

specific density of more than 5 g/cm3 and adversely affect the environment and living
organisms. These metals are quintessential to maintain various biochemical and
physiological functions in living organisms when in very low concentrations; however
they become noxious when they exceed certain threshold concentrations. Heavy
metal toxicity has proven to be a major threat and there are several health risks
associated with it. The toxic effects of these metals, even though they do not have any
biological role, remain present in some or the other form harmful for the human body
and its proper functioning. They sometimes act as a pseudo element of the body while
at certain times they may even interfere with metabolic processes (Anbalagan, N.
et.al., 2014).
It is being said that heavy metal exposure continues and is increasing in many
parts of the world. Heavy metals are significant environmental pollutants and their
30
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
toxicity is a problem of increasing significance for ecological, evolutionary, nutritional

and environmental reasons.
Sources of Heavy Metals
Various sources of heavy metals include soil erosion, natural weathering of the
earth's crust, mining, industrial effluents, urban runoff, sewage discharge, insect or
disease control agents applied to crops, and many others.
COMMON HEAVY METALS
A. Lead
Lead is a highly toxic metal whose widespread use has caused extensive
environmental contamination and health problems in many parts of the world. Lead is
an extremely toxic heavy metal that disturbs various plant physiological processes and
unlike other metals, such as zinc, copper and manganese, it does not play any
biological functions. Lead metal causes toxicity in living cells by following ionic
mechanism and that of oxidative stress. Under the influence of lead in the body
system, there will be an imbalance between the production of free radicals and
antioxidants to detoxify the reactive intermediates or to repair resulting damage in the
body (Anbalagan, N. et.al., 2014).
Sources of Lead
The sources of lead were gasoline and house paint, which has been extended to
lead bullets, plumbing pipes, pewter pitchers, storage batteries, toys and faucets.
B. Mercury
Mercury is very toxic and exceedingly bio accumulative. Its presence adversely
affects the marine environment and hence many studies are directed towards the
distribution of mercury in water environment. It is well known as a hazardous metal
and its toxicity is a common cause of acute heavy metal poisoning. The brain remains
the target organ for mercury, yet it can impair any organ and lead to malfunctioning of
nerves, kidneys and muscles. It can cause disruption to the membrane potential and
interrupt with intracellular calcium homeostasis. Mercury plays a key role in damaging
the tertiary and quaternary protein structure and alters the cellular function by
attaching to the selenohydryl and sulfhydryl groups which undergo reaction with
methyl mercury and hamper the cellular structure. It also intervenes with the process
of transcription and translation resulting in the disappearance of ribosomes and
eradication of endoplasmic reticulum and the activity of natural killer cells.
31
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Mercury exists mainly in three forms: metallic elements, inorganic salts and
organic compounds, each of which possesses different toxicity and bioavailability.
These forms of mercury are present widely in water resources such as lakes, rivers
and oceans where they are taken up by the microorganisms and get transformed into
methyl mercury within the microorganism, eventually undergoing biomagnification
causing significant disturbance to aquatic lives (Anbalagan, N. et.al., 2014).
Major Sources of Mercury Pollution
Major sources of mercury pollution include anthropogenic activities such as

agriculture, municipal waste water discharges, mining, incineration, and discharges of
industrial waste water.
C. Chromium
The most commonly occurring forms of Cr are trivalent- Cr+3 and hexavalent-
Cr+6,with both states being toxic to animals, humans and plants. In order to determine
the activities of the metal ions in the environment, metal speciation is very important
where in case of chromium the oxidative form of Cr(III) is not an essential contaminant
of the ground water but Cr(VI) has been found to be toxic for humans. Chromium is
extensively used in industries such as metallurgy, electroplating, production of paints
and pigments, tanning, wood preservation, chemical production and pulp and paper
production. These industries play a major role in chromium pollution with an adverse
effect on biological and ecological species. A wide range of industrial and agricultural
practices increase the toxic level in the environment causing concern about the
pollution caused by chromium. Pollution of the environment by chromium, particularly
hexavalent chromium, has been the greatest concern in recent years.
The discharge of industrial wastes and ground water contamination has

drastically increased the concentration of chromium in soil. During manufacturing of
chromate, the deposit of the Cr residues and waste water irrigation posed a serious
Cr pollution to farmland. With the implementation of modern agriculture there is
continuous release of Cr into the environment by means of Cr residues, Cr dust and
Cr waste water irrigation, resulting in soil pollution affecting the soil-vegetable system
and disturbing the vegetable yield and its quality to humans (Anbalagan, N. et.al.,
2014).
D. Arsenic
Arsenic is one of the heavy metals causing disquiet from both ecological and
individual health standpoints. Arsenic is a protoplastic poison since it affects primarily
the sulphydryl group of cells causing malfunctioning of cell respiration, cell enzymes
and mitosis. Deliberate consumption of arsenic in case of suicidal attempts or
accidental consumption by children may also result in cases of acute poisoning
(Anbalagan, N. et.al., 2014).
32
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Many common arsenic compounds can dissolve in water, thus arsenic can
contaminate lakes, rivers, or underground water by dissolving in rain, snow, or through
discarded industrial wastes. Therefore, arsenic contamination in ground water is a
serious public health threat worldwide. In addition, the effect of chronic arsenic
exposure from ingested arsenic-contaminated food and water or inhaled contaminated
air has been investigated in various countries and found to be associated with
detrimental health effects such as hyperpigmentation, keratosis, various types of
cancer and vascular diseases (Chung, J.Y., Hong, Y.S., & Y, S.D., 2014)
Sources of Arsenic
Humans may encounter arsenic by natural means, industrial source, or from

unintended sources. Drinking water may get contaminated by use of arsenical
pesticides, natural mineral deposits or inappropriate disposal of arsenical chemicals.
PESTICIDES
According to the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), a pesticide is any

substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, destroying, repelling or
mitigating any pest. The term pesticide also applies to herbicides, fungicides, and
various other substances used to control pests. Pesticides also include plant
regulators, defoliants and desiccants. Pesticide is actually a pesticide formulation that
contains a number of different materials, including active and inert ingredients, as well
as contaminants and impurities. In addition, pesticides, when subject to various
environmental conditions, break down to other materials known as metabolites, which
are sometimes more toxic than the parent material (Beyond Pesticides. ND).
Based on FAO (1989) a pesticide is any substance or mixture of substances

intended for preventing, destroying, or controlling any pest including vectors of human
or animal diseases, unwanted species of plants or animals causing harm during, or
otherwise interfering with, the production, processing, storage, or marketing of food,
agricultural commodities, wood and wood products, or animal feed stuffs, or which
may be administered to animals for the control of insects, arachnids or other pests in
or on their bodies. The term, however excludes such chemicals used as fertilizers,
plant and animal nutrients, food additives and animal drugs. The term pesticide is also
defined by FAO in collaboration with UNEP (1990) as chemicals designed to combat
the attacks of various pests and vectors on agricultural crops, domestic animals and
human beings. The definitions above imply that, pesticides are toxic chemical agents
(mainly organic compounds) that are deliberately released into the environment to
combat crop pests and disease vectors (Zacharia, J.T., 2011).
Other functions of chemicals in pesticides;
33
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Plant Regulators
Plant growth regulators (also called plant hormones) are numerous chemical
substances that profoundly influence the growth and differentiation of plant cells,
tissues and organs. Plant growth regulators function as chemical messengers for
intercellular communication . There are currently five recognized groups of plant
hormones: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid (ABA) and ethylene. They
work together coordinating the growth and development of cells. Ethylene is mainly
involved in abscission and flower secscence in plants and is rarely used in plant tissue
culture.
Defoliants
Plant defoliation does not hasten maturity; for maximum yield and crop quality
potential, defoliants should not be applied until physiological maturity. Defoliants
function in several primary ways, both resulting in more rapid development of
abscission layers. The abscission layer is the zone where leaf petioles meet stems.
Once adequately formed, leaves drop from the abscission layer. The older materials
work by contact—rapid destruction of green tissue, which indirectly favors formation
of abscission layers. Several other defoliants do not target green tissue destruction,
but promote the formation of the abscission layer directly, resulting in leaf drop. The
activity of a defoliant is favored by warm temperatures, particularly greater than 50°F
(Fishel, F.M., 2005).
Desiccants
Desiccants are used for purposes similar to the uses of defoliants, but
desiccants function differently. Desiccants cause green foliage to lose water—a
hastened drying process that results in leaf removal (generally faster than the result
of a defoliant). Desiccants have several practical uses in production. They effectively
destroy the crop following harvest, quickly eliminating pest harborage sites. In addition
to being a useful pest-management tool, desiccants can protect crop quality in other
ways. For example, in potato production, the presence of massive green vine material
can interfere with the harvest operation. Such interference can result in skinning and
bruising of the tubers. Skinned and bruised tubers will readily discolor and are more
easily predisposed to soft rot. Lower-quality tubers lower fresh market value, and in
some cases such tubers may be rejected entirely (Fishel F.M., 2005).
Pesticides are divided into three (3) broad groups based on their chemical
composition;
A. Organophosphorous Pesticides
Over 100 organophosphorus compounds representing a variety of chemical,

physical, and biological properties are presently in commercial use. Most are only
34
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
slightly soluble in water and have a high oil-water partition coefficient and a low vapour
pressure. Most, with the exception of dichlorvos, are of comparatively low volatility,
and are all degraded by hydrolysis, yielding water-soluble products.
Organophosphates (OP) are esters of phosphoric acid. The OP group of

pesticides asserts its effects through irreversible inactivation of the enzyme
acteylcholinesterase, which is essential for nerve function in humans, insects and
many other animals. OP samples degrade rapidly by hydrolysis on exposure to light,
air and soil, however small amounts are detected in food and drinking water (Jayaraj,
R. et. Al., 2017). These are often acutely poisonous to insects and to humans. They
can damage the nervous system and even cause death. They are effective even at
low concentrations (International Labour Organization).
B. Organochlorine Pesticides
Organochlorines pesticides are organic compounds with five or more chlorine

atoms. Organochlorines were the first synthetic organic pesticides to be used in
agriculture and in public health. Most of them were widely used as insecticides for the
control of a wide range of insects, and they have a long-term residual effect in the
environment since they are resistant to most chemical and microbial degradations.
Organochlorine pesticides act as nervous system disruptors leading to convulsions
and paralysis of the insect and its eventual death. Some of the commonly used
representative examples of organochlorine pesticides are DDT, lindane, endosulfan,
aldrin, dieldrin and chlordane and their chemical structures are presented hereunder.
Commonly Used Organochlorine Pesticides
35
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
It also acts as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) by interfering with

molecular circuitry and function of the endocrine system. Farm workers, their families
and those who pass through a region applied with pesticides can absorb a measurable
quantity of pesticides. The presence of pesticide residues has been detected in blood
plasma of workers in agricultural farms. Direct or indirect exposure to pesticides leads
to neuromuscular disorders and stimulation of drug and steroid metabolism (Jayaraj,
R. et. Al., 2017).
C. Carbamates
Carbamate pesticides are derived from carbamic acid and kill insects in a
similar fashion as organophosphate insecticides. They are widely used in homes,
gardens, and agriculture. Like the organophosphates, their mode of action is inhibition
of cholinesterase enzymes, affecting nerve impulse transmission (Fishel, F.M., 2005).
Toxic exposures to carbamates can occur via dermal, inhalational, and

gastrointestinal (GI) exposures. Symptom severity depends on the classification of
the pesticide as well as the exposure dose. Carbamate poisoning cases are most
often related to intentional oral ingestion or dermal occupational exposure. In the
developing world, cases of large outbreaks from contaminated food and crops have
been reported (Silberman, J. & Taylor, A. 2018).
Unlike organophosphate poisoning, carbamate poisonings tend to be of

shorter duration because the inhibition of nervous tissue acetylcholinesterase is
reversible, and carbamates are more rapidly metabolized. Muscle weakness,
dizziness, sweating, and slight body discomfort are commonly reported early
symptoms. Headache, salivation, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, and diarrhea are
often prominent at higher levels of exposure. Contraction of the pupils with blurred
vision, incoordination, muscle twitching, and slurred speech have also been reported
(Fishel, F.M., 2005).
The World Health Organization (WHO) has classified them into groups
according to the danger they might pose to people and the environment;
⚫ Extremely Hazardous
Example: Aldicarb, Clormephos, Parathion
⚫ Highly Hazardous
Example: Aldrin, Antu, Warfarin
⚫ Moderately Hazardous
36
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Example: Cyanophenphos, Cypermethrin, Sulfallate
⚫ Slightly Hazardous
Example: Allethrin, Kelthane, Malathion
MINIMIZING THE RISKS CAUSED BY CHEMICALS IN THE ENTERPRISE
Since ancient history, civilizations already used technology which led to

further expansion of mankind’s knowledge to the specific branch of science called
Chemistry. Chemistry, as defined by Merriam-Webster Dictionary (2018), is the
science that deals with the composition, structure, and properties of substances and
with the transformations that they undergo. Hence, with its continuous study and
implementation, its importance is noted for benefits it give including many valuable
social and economic benefits, including better living conditions, improved public
health, and enhanced quality of life (American Chemical Society, 2018).
The emerging chemistry enterprise since the industrialization era until the
present technological era created high-skill and high-wage jobs. Yet, with the concerns
about the risks of this industry, people then realized that with the possession of this
great power also brought with them great danger.
Missouri Department of Health & Senior Services (2018) stressed that human
exposure to hazardous chemicals can occur at the source or the chemical could move
to a place where people can come into contact with it. Hence, the impending danger
leads government leaders, scientists and concern citizens alike to establish standard
practices of chemistry from concept through research, development, manufacture,
use, and disposal to ensure that it must be done safely and so as to minimize adverse
impacts on human health and/or the environment.
It is therefore notable that the safety and health of both individuals and the
environment is essential for those working with chemicals. Chemists understand that
working with chemicals and developing new materials and chemical processes involve
some degree of risk. A thoughtful and educated approach to chemical safety must
assess the overall life-cycle and risk/benefit analysis for each area of the chemistry
enterprise (American Chemical Society, 2018)
Minimizing the risks in the enterprise and improving the safe use of chemicals
can be achieved at different levels. This process of minimizing risk while optimizing
benefits should continue throughout the investigation, development, implementation,
use, and appropriate recycling or ultimate disposal of products and by-products.
37
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
MINIMIZING THE RISKS OF HAZARDS

Minimizing the risks of hazards requires an evaluation of an entire experiment
and a review of the chemicals used and produced, as well as the equipment,
procedures, and PPE.
American Chemical Society (2018) pointed out the step-by-step procedure

that enables students to discover and collect information for a particular situation while
reviewing an experiment.
BEFORE AN EXPERIMENT
Pre-experiment analysis may be the most important step to take to minimize
the risks in any laboratory setting. Incidents can happen even in the best-prepared
scenario; however, careful attention to detail can minimize the risks.
1. Carefully develop a list of all of the chemicals used and the quantities needed
in an experiment.
2. Use appropriate containers for chemical distribution in the laboratory.
3. Consider the physical arrangement and the facilities available in your

laboratory.
4. It is possible that one or more of your students have been identified as

requiring accommodation because of special needs, either physical or
developmental. In planning the experiment, take particular note of these
requests for reasonable accommodation and the best and safest way to
address any special needs of your students.
DURING AN EXPERIMENT
Students should be closely and carefully supervised in the laboratory at all times. The
teacher must be physically present during the entire experiment, concentrating on the
students the entire time. Even a momentary lack of attention or absence could result
in the escalation of an incident or emergency situation. Teachers need to have their
full attention on all aspects of the laboratory work at all times.
1. During the pre-laboratory instruction, be sure to point out: potential hazards

of the chemicals used; safety considerations in the use of chemicals; proper
use of PPE; steps in the procedure that are new to the students or that
require particular attention; methods of disposal of excess reagent or the
products of a reaction; and emergency procedures specific to the
experiment and materials.
38
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
2. Students and teachers must wear the appropriate personal protective

equipment (PPE) and clothing.
3. Be aware of student handling of chemicals, use of equipment, and good

housekeeping procedures: make sure that all apparatus is properly set up
before students are allowed to proceed with an experiment; no mixing of
chemicals should be allowed, other than that specified in an experimental
procedure; chemical products should be turned in or disposed of properly.
AFTER AN EXPERIMENT
The work is, of course, not completed when the students have finished the
experimental procedure.
1. Before the students leave the laboratory, they should return any chemicals
(excess reagent, product, or waste) to the appropriate location, or dispose
of them as instructed; clean any used glassware and return the items to the
appropriate location; and wipe down the work surfaces
2. The teacher should also ensure the following: returned glassware and
equipment are clean and in usable, undamaged condition; reagent
containers are clean, closed, and properly stored; chemicals requiring
disposal are correctly handled; unforeseen events are completely
documented to prevent repetition; work surfaces are left clean and dry; and
all gas outlets are closed, especially (but not only) if burners were used
during the experiment.
ORGANIZATIONAL MEASURES
Occupational risks assessment and taking action to protect workers’ safety and
health is an obligation of each employer. Hence, there are numerous measures
considered as relevant for accident prevention, e.g. design and use of more safe
equipment and technologies or replacing dangerous equipment and products by
nondangerous or less dangerous ones, improvement of working environment, use and
maintenance of personal protective equipment, management and staff training,
improvement of communication, etc. (Oshwiki.eu, 2018).
1. Assess chemical hazards and set priorities concerning the safety in the
organisation;
2. Create emergency plans for the assessed hazards;
3. Organize occupational health care and regular surveys as necessary;
39
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
4. Organize contacts with authorities/laboratories to create a monitoring system

for chemical hazards, and to reliably measure and/or estimate occupational
exposures to chemicals when needed;
5. Start collecting case studies of accidents and sickness records in the

enterprise to create a basis for priority measures in the control of hazards;
6. Identify chemicals in use;
7. Obtain information of their hazards;
8. Collect this data and make an inventory list of all chemicals used in the
factory: create a Register for Workplace Chemicals;
9. Involve workers in safety organizations, such as the system of Safety

Representatives, and Safety Committees.
TECHNICAL MEASURES
Technical measures can be used to prevent chemical hazards at source, and
to prevent the transfer of dangerous chemicals. By technical means it is possible to
reduce the exposure of the worker. Chemical Engineering IIT Bombay (2018) pointed
some of the technical measures suitable for chemical enterprises.
SUBSTITUTION
An effective control method for any hazardous chemical is substitution: a
hazardous chemical is replaced with a less hazardous one. This is especially important
when the chemicals in question can cause cancer, damage to the reproductive
functions or create allergic reactions. Choosing a safer process or changing an old
and hazardous process to a less dangerous one effectively reduces the risks.
An example of safer choice is to have pellets or paste instead of powdered

substances which readily produce high levels of dangerous dusts. Water-based paints
and adhesives are available to replace harmful products containing solvents.
All possible information should be made available when considering the

change of a substance or the whole process so that the new choice does not create
unexpected new dangers. Thus, in aiming to elaborate the significance of substituting
chemicals, a group of scientists in International Chemical Secretariat or ChemSec
developed a list called the SIN List.
The SIN List is short for “Substitute It Now!” and consists of chemicals that
ChemSec has identified as fulfilling the criteria for “Substances of Very High Concern”
as defined by the European Union chemicals regulation REACH. The list is based on
40
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
credible, publicly available information from existing databases and scientific studies,
as well as new research.
The aim of the SIN List is to spark innovation towards products without
hazardous chemicals by speeding up legislative processes and giving guidance to
companies and other actors on which chemicals to start substituting. The SIN List is a
known and used tool for chemicals management globally (Chemse.org, 2018).
ENGINEERING CONTROL
The University of Alberta (2018) emphasized that engineering control are built
into equipment or processes to minimize hazards. Engineering controls may be
implemented at the source of the hazard, along its path, or at the worker.
In addition, American Chemical Society (2018) added that if hazardous

chemicals cannot be replaced by less dangerous ones, exposure must be prevented
by protecting the worker. This method is often called the closed system. Enclosing the
hazardous process or chemical is also an effective method.
One example is to use sealed pipes to transfer solvents and other liquids
instead of pouring them in the open air. Vapours and gases caused by spray painting
or produced in pickling or hardening baths in the metal industry should be controlled,
ventilated and not allowed to enter the workplace air.
LOCAL EXHAUST VENTILATION

Work Safe New Zealand (2018) stressed that many work processes create
harmful dusts, vapours and fumes that contaminate the air. Breathing substances
hazardous to health and can cause lung diseases such as occupational asthma,
bronchitis and silicosis. It may also result in harm to other organs, such as the liver,
kidneys and brain.
LEV is an engineering system that captures dusts, vapours, and fumes at

their source and transports them away from the worker’s breathing zone. This prevents
workers from inhaling these substances and reduces contamination of the general
workplace air.
It is undeniable that it is not always possible to enclose all dangerous

operations. Properly designed local exhaust ventilation is the second choice in order
to remove the contaminants at the source. A local exhaust ventilation system consists
of a hood, ducts or pipes, a system to collect and separate the pollutants from the
clean air, and an efficient fan to create enough suction force.
The hazardous gases, fumes and dust can be collected from the vented air.
They should not go untreated, straight out, to pollute the surroundings of the factory
and the environment. Attention should be paid to the clean air inflow which replaces
41
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
the exhaust. Inspection, proper maintenance, regular cleaning and changing of filters
are essential to protect the worker against hazardous contaminants.
GENERAL VENTILATION
The University of Vermount (2018) stressed that laboratory ventilation
involves the use of supply and exhaust ventilation to control lab emissions, potential
exposures, and chemical and biological hazards. A general lab ventilation system is
designed to dilute and remove contaminants through general exhaust; provide
makeup or replacement air, provide heating, cooling, and humidification; and provide
local exhaust for specific lab activities.
However, general ventilation does not eliminate a potential exposure and the
local exhaust is still the preferred method. Still, where it is difficult or impossible to
prevent hazardous chemicals, fumes, dusts, mists or particles from entering the
workplace air at the source, general dilution ventilation can be installed.
This should be designed to meet the needs of the specific work process and
workplace. At its best it should consist of an inflow of clean air and an outflow of
exhaust forced by fans at right places. It can also be used with other preventive
measures.
HOUSEKEEPING
When working with dangerous chemicals, a proper housekeeping is
essential. It is understandable that it must be achieves. Storage areas must be well
organized and kept in order. The transport of chemicals within the industrial premises
should be planned and the transport routes kept clear. Maintenance of premises and
equipment should also be planned. These tasks should be dedicated to persons/work
groups/departments. Workers using the equipment should know the person
responsible for repairing faulty equipment.
Perhaps, the most famous role model of this notion is the Japanese’s 5s words:
Seiri (Sort), Seiton (Straighten, Set), Seiso (Shine, Sweep), Seiketsu (Standardize),
Shitsuke (Sustain) which describes the steps of a workplace organization process
(Leansixsigmadefinition.com, 2018).
In simple terms, the five S methodology helps a workplace remove items that
are no longer needed (sort), organize the items to optimize efficiency and flow
(straighten), clean the area in order to more easily identify problems (shine),
implement color coding and labels to stay consistent with other areas (standardize)
and develop behaviors that keep the workplace organized over the long term (sustain).
42
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Monitoring the efficiency of housekeeping and inspections should be carried

out regularly; this should involve the workers themselves, who are experts in their own
work.
PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT
According to Silva (2017) states that Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) it

refers to protective clothing, helmets, goggles, or other garments or equipment
designed to protect the wearer’s body from injury or infection. These hazards
addressed by protective equipment include physical, electrical, heat, chemicals,
biohazards, and airborne particulate matter. Also, this protective equipment may be
worn for job-related occupational safety and health purposes, as well as for sports and
other recreational activities.
Eye and Face Protection
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (2004) states that employees

can be exposed to a large number of hazards that pose danger to their eyes and face.
They require employers to ensure that employees have appropriate eye or face
protection if they are exposed to eye or face hazards from flying particles, molten
metal, liquid chemicals, acids or caustic liquids, chemical gases or vapors, potentially
infected material or potentially harmful light radiation. The most common types of eye
and face protection include the following:
Safety spectacles. These protective eyeglasses have safety frames

constructed of metal or plastic and impact-resistant lenses. Side shields are available
on some models (OSHA, 2004).
Goggles. These are tight-fitting eye protection that completely cover the eyes,
eye sockets and the facial area immediately surrounding the eyes and provide
protection from impact, dust and splashes. Some goggles will fit over corrective lenses
(OSHA, 2004).
Welding shields. It is constructed of vulcanized fiber or fiberglass and fitted

with a filtered lens, welding shields protect eyes from burns caused by infrared or
intense radiant light; they also protect both the eyes and face from flying sparks, metal
spatter and slag chips produced during welding, brazing, soldering and cutting
operations. OSHA requires filter lenses to have a shade number appropriate to protect
against the specific hazards of the work being performed in order to protect against
harmful light radiation (OSHA, 2004).
Laser safety goggles. These specialty goggles protect against intense

concentrations of light produced by lasers. The type of laser safety goggles an
employer chooses will depend upon the equipment and operating conditions in the
workplace (OSHA, 2004).
43
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Face shields. These transparent sheets of plastic extend from the eyebrows
to below the chin and across the entire width of the employee’s head. Face shields
protect against nuisance dusts and potential splashes or sprays of hazardous liquids
but will not provide adequate protection against impact hazards. Face shields used in
combination with goggles or safety spectacles will provide additional protection against
impact hazards. Each type of protective eyewear is designed to protect against
specific hazards (OSHA, 2004).
Head Protection
Furthermore, protecting employees from potential head injuries is a key

element of any safety program. A head injury can impair an employee for life, or it can
be fatal. Wearing a safety helmet or hard hat is one of the easiest ways to protect an
employee’s head from injury. Hard hats can protect employees from impact and
penetration hazards as well as from electrical shock and burn hazards (OSHA, 2004).
However, there are many types of hard hats available in the marketplace today.
In addition to selecting protective headgear that meets ANSI standard requirements,
employers should ensure that employees wear hard hats that provide appropriate
protection against potential workplace hazards. It is important for employers to
understand all potential hazards when making this selection, including electrical
hazards. This can be done through a comprehensive hazard analysis and an
awareness of the different types of protective headgear available. Hard hats are
divided into three industrial classes:
Class A Hard Hats. It provides impact and penetration resistance along with
limited voltage protection up to 2,200 volts (OSHA, 2004).
Class B Hard Hats. It provides the highest level of protection against electrical
hazards, with high-voltage shock and burn protection (up to 20,000 volts). They also
provide protection from impact and penetration hazards by flying/falling objects
(OSHA, 2004).
Class C Hard Hats. It provides lightweight comfort and impact protection but
offer no protection from electrical hazards (OSHA, 2004).
Foot and Leg Protection
OSHA (2004) states that employees who face possible foot or leg injuries from
falling or rolling objects or from crushing or penetrating materials should wear
protective footwear. Also, employees whose work involves exposure to hot substances
or corrosive or poisonous materials must have protective gear to cover exposed body
parts, including legs and feet. Foot and leg protection choices include the following:
44
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Leggings. It protects the lower legs and feet from heat hazards such as molten
metal or welding sparks. Safety snaps allow leggings to be removed quickly (OSHA,
2004).
Metatarsal Guards. It protects the instep area from impact and compression.
Made of aluminum, steel, fiber or plastic, these guards may be strapped to the outside
of shoes (OSHA, 2004).
Toe Guards. It fit over the toes of regular shoes to protect the toes from impact
and compression hazards. They may be made of steel, aluminum or plastic (OSHA,
2004).
Combination Foot and Shin Guards. It protects the lower legs and feet and
may be used in combination with toe guards when greater protection is needed
(OSHA, 2004).
Safety Shoes. Have impact-resistant toes and heat-resistant soles that protect
the feet against hot work surfaces common in roofing, paving and hot metal industries.
The metal insoles of some safety shoes protect against puncture wounds. Safety
shoes may also be designed to be electrically conductive to prevent the buildup of
static electricity in areas with the potential for explosive atmospheres or nonconductive
to protect employees from workplace electrical hazards (OSHA, 2004).
Hand and Arm Protection
In addition, OSHA (2004) states that there are many types of gloves available
today to protect against a wide variety of hazards. The nature of the hazard and the
operation involved will affect the selection of gloves. The variety of potential
occupational hand injuries makes selecting the right pair of gloves challenging. It is
essential that employees use gloves specifically designed for the hazards and tasks
found in their workplace because gloves designed for one function may not protect
against a different function even though they may appear to be an appropriate
protective device. Gloves made from a wide variety of materials are designed for many
types of workplace hazards. In general, gloves fall into four groups:
Leather, Canvas or Metal Mesh Gloves
Leather Gloves. It protects against sparks, moderate heat, blows, chips and
rough objects (OSHA, 2004).
Aluminized Gloves. It provides reflective and insulating protection against

heat and require an insert made of synthetic materials to protect against heat and cold
(OSHA, 2004).
45
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Aramid Fiber Gloves. It protects against heat and cold, are cut- and abrasive-
resistant and wear well (OSHA, 2004).
Synthetic Gloves. It offers protection against heat and cold, are cut- and
abrasive-resistant and may withstand some diluted acids. These materials do not
stand up against alkalis and solvents (OSHA, 2004).
Fabric and Coated Fabric Gloves
Fabric Gloves. It protects against dirt, slivers, chafing and abrasions. They do
not provide sufficient protection for use with rough, sharp or heavy materials. Adding
a plastic coating will strengthen some fabric gloves (OSHA, 2004).
Coated Fabric Gloves. It is normally made from cotton flannel with napping on
one side. By coating the unsnapped side with plastic, fabric gloves are transformed
into general-purpose hand protection offering slip-resistant qualities. These gloves
are used for tasks ranging from handling bricks and wire to chemical laboratory
containers. When selecting gloves to protect against chemical exposure hazards,
always check with the manufacturer or review the manufacturer’s product literature to
determine the gloves’ effectiveness against specific workplace chemicals and
conditions (OSHA, 2004).
Chemical- and Liquid-Resistant Gloves
Butyl Gloves. It is made of a synthetic rubber and protect against a wide variety
of chemicals, such as peroxide, rocket fuels, highly corrosive acids (nitric acid, sulfuric
acid, hydrofluoric acid and red-fuming nitric acid), strong bases, alcohols, aldehydes,
ketones, esters and nitro compounds. Butyl gloves also resist oxidation, ozone
corrosion and abrasion, and remain flexible at low temperatures. Butyl rubber does
not perform well with aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons and halogenated solvents
(OSHA, 2004).
Natural (latex) Rubber Gloves. It is comfortable to wear, which makes them a

popular general-purpose glove. They feature outstanding tensile strength, elasticity
and temperature resistance. In addition to resisting abrasions caused by grinding and
polishing, these gloves protect employees’ hands from most water solutions of acids,
alkalis, salts and ketones (OSHA, 2004).
Neoprene Gloves. It is made of synthetic rubber and offer good pliability, finger
dexterity, and high density and tear resistance. They protect against hydraulic fluids,
gasoline, alcohols, organic acids and alkalis. They generally have chemical and wear
resistance properties superior to those made of natural rubber (OSHA, 2004).
Nitrile Gloves. These are made of a copolymer and provide protection from
chlorinated solvents such as trichloroethylene and perchloroethylene. Although
46
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
intended for jobs requiring dexterity and sensitivity, nitrile gloves stand up to heavy
use even after prolonged exposure to substances that cause other gloves to
deteriorate. They offer protection when working with oils, greases, acids, caustics and
alcohols but are generally not recommended for use with strong oxidizing agents,
aromatic solvents, ketones and acetates (OSHA, 2004).
Body Protection
However, employees who face possible bodily injury of any kind that cannot be
eliminated through engineering, work practice or administrative controls, must wear
appropriate body protection while performing their jobs. In addition to cuts and
radiation, the following are examples of workplace hazards that could cause bodily
injury; temperature extremes, hot splashes from molten metals and other hot liquids,
potential impacts from tools, machinery and materials, hazardous chemicals.
In addition, there are many varieties of protective clothing available for specific
hazards. Students/employers are required to assure that their employees wear
personal protective equipment only for the parts of the body exposed to possible injury.
Examples of body protection include laboratory coats, coveralls, vests, jackets,
aprons, surgical gowns and full body suits. Protective clothing comes in a variety of
materials, each effective against particular hazards, such as:
Paper-like Fiber. It is used for disposable suits provide protection against dust
and splashes (OSHA, 2004).
Treated wool and Cotton. It adapts well to changing temperatures, is

comfortable, and fire-resistant and protects against dust, abrasions and rough and
irritating surfaces (OSHA, 2004).
Duck. It is a closely woven cotton fabric that protects against cuts and bruises
when handling heavy, sharp or rough materials (OSHA, 2004).
Leather. It is often used to protect against dry heat and flames (OSHA, 2004).
Rubber, Rubberized Fabrics, Neoprene and Plastics. It protect against

certain chemicals and physical hazards. When chemical or physical hazards are
present, check with the clothing manufacturer to ensure that the material selected will
provide protection against the specific hazard (OSHA, 2004).
Hearing Protection
OSHA (2004) presents some types of hearing protection include:
47
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Single-Use Earplugs. It is made of waxed cotton, foam, silicone rubber or

fiberglass wool. They are self-forming and, when properly inserted, they work as well
as most molded earplugs.
Pre-formed or Molded Earplugs. It must be individually fitted by a professional

and can be disposable or reusable. Reusable plugs should be cleaned after using it.
Earmuffs. It requires a perfect seal around the ear. The glasses, facial hair,
long hair or facial movements such as chewing may decrease the protective value of
earmuffs.
MINIMIZING THE RISK CAUSED BY CHEMICALS IN THE LABORATORY:

LABORATORY SAFETY EQUIPMENT
A research center or laboratory can be a risky place; working with synthetic

concoctions, bunsen burners, glass and other possibly unsafe hardware raises
numerous wellbeing and security concerns not to be trifled with (Edulab, 2017). The
availability and use of numerous types of safety equipment is fundamental to the
exercise of safe science. Safety equipment must be present in well-marked,
extraordinary visible, and easily reachable places in or near all laboratories that use
hazardous chemicals (Indiana University, 2018). In any case, there are precautionary
measures we can take by utilizing safety equipment, and in this document we expect
to list the basics that each research facility/ laboratory should be sheltered.
LABORATORY SAFETY EQUIPMENT
The following are the safety equipment that each laboratory should contain:
• Chemical Fume Hoods
Chemical fume hoods are one of the most

essential things utilized for the assurance of
specialists in the laboratory. A chemical fume hood is
a compound and fireproof walled in area with a
portable window (band) at the front to permit the client
access to the inside. Chemical fume hoods catch,
contain, and remove substance emanations.
Moreover, chemical fume hoods (with the band
down) give a defensive obstruction between
laboratory personnel and synthetic concoctions or
substance form compounds (Indiana University,
2018).
48
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
• Eye Wash Station and Safety/Emergency shower
Eye wash stations and safety showers are utilized to

manage substance spills. On the off chance that synthetic
compounds interact with the skin or e yes, the influenced
body parts ought to be washed altogether with a lot of clean
water, and your educator ought to be told. Any defiled
pieces of attire are ought to be removed (Texas Education
Agency, 2018).
• Fire extinguisher and Fire Blankets
Laboratory personnel have to recognize the places of all fire extinguishers

in the laboratory, the type of fires for which they are appropriate, and be trained on
how to operate them correctly (Indiana University, 2018).
There are different types of fire extinguishers according to Texas Education

Agency (2018) which are utilized to smother various types of flames. Utilizing the
wrong kind of fire extinguisher might worsen things.
Types of Fire Extinguishers
1. Class A - ordinary combustible materials (paper, wood, cardboard, most

plastics)
2. Class B - flammable or combustible liquids (gasoline,
kerosene, grease, and oil)
3. Class C – electrical equipment (appliances, wirings,
circuit breakers, outlets)
4. Class D - combustible materials often found in
chemical laboratories (magnesium, titanium,
potassium, sodium)
The second type of flame security hardware is the fire

blanket. Fire blankets are utilized to cover fires on individuals.
To utilize a fire blanket, first expel the blanket from its divider
holder. Next, wrap the blanket over the flares on the individual.
The fire blanket will obstruct the stream of air to the fire which
causes the flame to die (Texas Education Agency, 2018).
49
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
• Flammable Liquid Storage Cabinets
“Flammable storage cabinets” are type of safety

cabinets which are built and designed for the
storage of flammable liquids. To prevent
flammable liquids from instantly igniting in the
event of a workplace fire, flammable liquids must
be stored in flammable storage cabinets (Ingles,
2018).
• Safety Cans
A safety can is an approved, closed container, of not

more than 5 gallons capacity, having a flash arresting screen,
spring closing lid and spout cover and so designed that it will
safely relieve internal pressure when subjected to fire
exposure (Simplified safety, 2018). The essentials behind a
safety can or gas can is to control combustible vapors while
giving an advantageous methods for conveying, apportioning,
and putting away to five gallons of combustible fluid or fuel
(CP Lab Safety, 2018).
• Explosion-proof and laboratory-safe refrigeration equipment
For our laboratory refrigerators, we have

refrigerators for storing flammable, hazardous and
volatile materials within explosion proof environments.
Flammable material storage refrigerators are designed
to reduce the risk of explosion within the cabinet while
storing flammable and volatile materials whereas
explosion proof refrigerators are designed to reduce the
risk of explosion inside and outside of the cabinet while
storing hazardous and volatile materials within an
explosive environment (Labrepco, 2018).
50
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
• First Aid Kits
Apparently, according to Edulab (2018), a basic bit of security gear for any
condition; a great medical aid pack ought to contain everything expected to treat non-
serious accidents:
✓ Bandages;
✓ Plasters of varying shapes
and sizes;
✓ Sterile eye pads;
✓ Wound dressing;
✓ Disposable gloves;
✓ Safety pins; and
✓ Antiseptic Wipes
As the lab is such a perilous

place, we suggest checking the date
and load of everything in your first aid
packs week by week, renewing any
utilized things or any past its utilization
date.
WAYS TO MINIMIZE RISK CAUSED BY CHEMICALS: AT THE LABORATORY
The guidelines on laboratory safety and chemical use are formulated on the basis of
past happenings in the laboratory and the laboratory workers are expected to adhere
to safety guidelines and maintain safety standard.
Laboratory hazards are categorized into three:
Equipment
A wide variety of equipment is used for different activities. Most of the equipment is
delicate, sensitive and expensive.
Gases
A variety of compressed gases are used, some of which may be corrosive, flammable,
or explosive.
51
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Chemicals
Acids, bases, etching solutions and solvents are commonly used in materials
chemistry and device fabrication. Also called as “hands on” hazards which are hard to
control.
In order to minimize the risks there are safety precautions that must be implemented.
General Safety Measure
➢ Familiarize yourself with all aspects of safety before using any equipment.
➢ Be alert to unsafe conditions of the equipment, procedure and actions, call

attention to them so that corrections can be made as soon as possible.
➢ Label all storage areas, appropriately and keep all chemicals in properly labeled
containers.
➢ Date all chemical bottles when received and when opened.
➢ Note expiry dates on chemicals.
➢ Note storage conditions and adhere to them.
➢ Familiarize with the appropriate protective measures when exposed to the

following kinds of hazardous materials.
• Flammable
• Corrosive
• Toxic
• Carcinogen
• Compressed gases
• Poisons
52
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
➢ Post warning signs for unusual hazards such as flammable materials no naked
flames or other special problems.
➢ Pour more concentrated solutions into less concentrated solutions to avoid violent
reactions (add acid to water, not water to acid).
➢ Avoid distracting other worker.
➢ Use equipment for its designated purpose.
Personal Safety
➢ Always use extracted wet benches for chemical work.
➢ Always wear safety glasses at all times in the laboratory.
➢ Always wear laboratory coat in the laboratory.
➢ Appropriate shoes should be worn in the laboratory
➢ Wear breathing mask as when appropriate.
➢ Only trained personnel may use the breathing apparatus.
➢ Always use extracted wet benches for chemical work.
➢ Always wear safety glasses at all times in the laboratory.
➢ Always wear laboratory coat in the laboratory.
➢ Appropriate shoes should be worn in the laboratory
➢ Wear breathing mask as when appropriate.
➢ Only trained personnel may use the breathing apparatus.
Personal Hygiene
➢ Wash hands before leaving the laboratory.
➢ Never mouth suck anything in a pipette in the laboratory.

53
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
➢ No food or drink is allowed in laboratories areas where chemicals are used or

stored.
➢ Never eat or drink from the laboratory glassware.
➢ Keep skin covered in the laboratory.
Fire Prevention
➢ Aware yourself of ignition sources in the laboratory and service areas.
➢ Purchase chemicals in quantities that will be used in not distant future.
➢ Always store flammable liquids in appropriate cabinets.
➢ Do not store incompatible reagents together.
➢ Make sure that all electrical cords and all electrical outlet are in good conditions.
➢ Remain out of the area of a fire or incident if you are not in position to help.
➢ Familiarize with the setting and condition of fire extinguishers. Broken seals
mean its already used.
➢ Do not use fire extinguishers unless you are trained and feel confident to do so.
Housekeeping
➢ Eliminate safety hazards by maintaining the laboratory work areas in a good

state of order.
➢ Maintain clear passages to the laboratory exit.
➢ Wipe down bench tops and other laboratory surfaces after each use.
➢ All equipment should be inspected before use.
➢ Keep the laboratory floor dry at all times. Attend to spills immediately and notify
other lab workers of slipping hazards.
54
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
➢ Only authorized personnel should do maintenance work on laboratory

equipments.
Emergency Procedures
➢ Please familiarize with the location, use and limitations of the following safety
device:
➢ Eye wash station
➢ Breathing apparatus
➢ Spill cleanup materials
➢ First aid kit
➢ Fire alarm
➢ Fire extinguisher
➢ If volatile, flammable, or toxic material spill, shut off flames and spark-producing
equipment at once.
➢ In the event of explosion, call for help
CHEMICAL STORAGE, CHEMICAL WASTE

We had recently tackled many topics about chemistry dealing with different distinct
branches that emphasize subsets of chemical concepts, determining variety of
chemical compositions of substances, and the chemicals around us that we lived with.
We need to emphasize the essence of storing chemicals and how its wastes are
disposed.
Nearly all industries, including the agri-food industry and the service industry, use
chemicals in variable amounts and must therefore store them, as well as the produced
chemical waste before disposal. Acting as a warehouse, the storage facility also
shelters the chemicals: it protects the personnel and the environment from the effects
of a spill, or an aerosol or gas emission. While designing a chemical storage facility,
regardless of its size, it is thus essential to take into account all hazardous properties
of chemicals, intrinsic or arising from interactions (OSHwiki, 2017).
55
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Chemical Storage
Proper chemical storage is as important to safety as proper chemical
handling. Often, seemingly logical storage ideas, such as placing chemicals in
alphabetical order, may cause incompatible chemicals to be stored together.
The primary purpose of this plan is to control health or physical hazards posed
by chemical compounds during storage in the lab (TSU, 2014).
Inventory and Inspection
Each laboratory is to maintain an inventory of the chemicals stored in the

laboratory as part of the lab safety plan. Designate a storage place for each chemical
and return it to that place after each use. Store chemicals by hazard class, not the
alphabet, and post storage areas to show the exact location of the chemical groups.
Inspect chemical storage areas at least annually for outdated or unneeded items,
illegible labels, leaking containers, etc.
Examples of chemicals in poor condition, that you should NOT keep stored in your lab:
• Expired/outdated chemicals
• Illegible/removed labels
• Degraded containers
• Leaking lids
I. Proper sealing of Chemical containers
To prevent leakage, odors, or reaction with air, tightly seal all containers of
highly toxic, highly volatile, malodorous, carcinogenic or reactive chemicals. Make
sure that caps and other closures are tight on all hazardous chemicals. A limited
exception is freshly-generated mixtures such as acids and organics that may generate
gas pressure sufficient to burst a tightly sealed bottle. Use commercially available vent
caps or keep the lids loose until sufficient time passes to complete the reactions, and
then tightly close the lids. Until all reactions are completed, the contents of the bottle
are not waste, but are instead the last step of the chemical procedure.
The best seal is the screw cap with a conical polyethylene or Teflon insert.
Seal the caps with tape or Parafilm “M” as a further precaution. Additional protection
can include wrapping the container in an absorbent paper, sealing it inside a plastic
bag, and storing the bag inside a metal can with a friction fitting lid.
56
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
II. Smaller Container size
The real, or “life-cycle”, cost of a chemical includes its initial purchase price
plus the ultimate disposal costs. Keep the quantity of accumulated chemicals in the
laboratory at a minimum to reduce the risk of exposures, fires, and waste disposal
problems. Smaller package sizes provide the following advantages:
• Reduced storage hazards

• Reduced storage space
• Safety in handling smaller quantities
• Reduced losses due to out-of-date chemicals
• Minimized cost of disposal of “leftovers”
Frequently, it costs many times more than the original purchase price to
dispose of leftover chemicals. Chemical storerooms on campus keep supplies of the
most frequently used solvents and chemicals to lessen the need for laboratory
stockpiles.
III. Storage Symbols
Most chemical manufacturers include chemical storage symbols on their

labels. Many manufacturers use symbols that include a hazard ranking system, such
as the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA 704) diamond symbol or the
Hazardous Materials Identification System (HMIS) colored rectangle. Picture glyphs
are another common label element. Below are examples of the NFPA and HMIS
hazard ranking systems, and glyph systems from the European Union and Canada
which are commonly seen on U.S. chemical labels and safety data sheets.
NFPA diamond symbol (left), HMIS label (right)
57
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
European Union hazard glyphs(pictogram), which are now common on domestic

chemicals. (Top, left to right): Corrosive, Flammable, Oxidizing, Explosive. (Bottom,
left to right): Harmful, Irritant, Poisonous, Toxic to the Environment.
Canada’s national hazard communication standard, the Workplace Hazardous

Materials Information System (WHMIS) uses these symbols to represent and classify
various materials. (Top, left to right): Compressed Gases and Aerosols,
Flammable/Combustible, Oxidizing, Highly Toxic. (Bottom, left to right): Toxic,
Biohazards, Corrosive, and Reactive.
Recognizing the need for a universal method to identify potentially hazardous

substances, the United Nations has created a worldwide Globally Harmonized System
(GHS) for label elements and safety data sheets. Because of the numerous languages
used by the worldwide research community, the GHS relies heavily on picture glyphs
to convey the basic information. Below are GHS glyphs that will begin appearing on
chemical labels and SDSs.
United Nations GHS label elements (left to right): Flammable, Harmful, Oxidizing,
Toxic to the Environment, Corrosive, Compressed Gas, Explosive, Human Health
Hazard, Highly Toxic.
58
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
IV. Color Codes
Some chemical manufacturers also use color codes on labels and/or caps to
indicate health, physical, and chemical hazards. These colors can be used as a guide
for storage groups store same colors together, segregate from other colors.
Unfortunately, the color schemes are not always consistent among manufacturers.
Under most schemes, colors convey the following message:
Red
Fire Hazard and/or Flammables
White
Contact Hazard and/or Corrosive (acids or bases)
Blue
Health Hazard and/or Toxic or Poisonous
Yellow
Reactivity Hazard and/or Oxidizers
Green, Gray or Orange
Moderate or slight hazard (general chemical storage)
Striped or “Stop”
Exceptions within the same color code labels (example – yellow label chemicals are
stored apart from striped yellow label chemicals)
V. Chemical Storage Locations
Optimally, incompatible chemicals such as acids and alkalis should be stored

completely separate from one another to prevent mixing in the event of an accidental
spill or release of the materials. Limited storage space within the laboratories,
however, sometimes prevents such prudent practice of chemical segregation and
storage. If space is limited, you can store incompatible chemicals in the same storage
cabinet if you segregate the chemicals according to their hazard class and you store
59
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
them in tubs, trays, or buckets while in the cabinet. These secondary containers
reduce the chance that incompatible chemicals will inadvertently contact each other.
• Laboratory Hoods
Do not store chemicals in laboratory hoods because the containers may

impede airflow and thereby reduce the effectiveness of the hood.
• Refrigerated Storage
Store flammable solvents that require storage at reduced temperature (such

as isopentane) in refrigerators or freezers designed for storage of flammable liquids.
“Safety” refrigerators for flammable liquid storage and “explosion proof” refrigerators
are both acceptable. Ordinary household refrigerators are not appropriate for storage
of flammable liquids because of interior arcing contacts. Because refrigerators and
freezers have no interior space venting, all chemicals should have tightly sealed caps.
Apply signage to the doors of chemical refrigerators stating: NO FOOD, BEVERAGE,
OR ICE FOR HUMAN CONSUMPTION.
Example sign for a household refrigerator used for storage of lab materials.
Flammable storage requires a “safety” or “explosion-proof” refrigerator.
Sign for entry door to cold room.
60
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Cold rooms have closed air circulation systems that re-circulate escaped
vapors within the chamber. The refrigeration coils in cold rooms are aluminum and
subject to damage from corrosive atmospheres. The electrical systems normally have
vapor proof lights and duplex outlets, but added-on extension cords and plug strips
compromise these safety features. Cold rooms are not acceptable for storage of
flammables, dry ice, highly toxic liquid chemicals, or compressed gases. If you must
refrigerate these chemicals, store them in an approved refrigerator or freezer, rather
than a cold room. Post a hazard information sign on the cold room door as illustrated.
VI. Storage by Compatibility Group
Store chemicals in the laboratory according to their compatibility groups. Do

not store chemicals in alphabetical order, as this might place incompatible chemicals
next to each other (examples include acetic acid and acetaldehyde, sodium cyanide
and sulfuric acid, sodium borohydride and sodium chlorate), increasing the potential
for accidental mixing of incompatible chemicals. The diagram entitled “Suggested
Shelf Storage Pattern” indicates a recommended arrangement of chemicals according
to compatibility. These compatibility groups should be stored separately, especially
chemicals with an NFPA 704 or HMIS reactive rating of 3 or higher, (see Section IV)
and in dedicated and labeled cabinets. Within any compatibility group, you can arrange
chemicals alphabetically to facilitate ease of retrieval. The following are recommended
compatibility groupings:
Group A – Acids, Inorganics
Store large bottles of acid in special acid cabinets, cabinets under lab
benches, or on low shelves. Place acids in plastic trays for secondary containment in
case of breakage. Segregate inorganic and oxidizing acids from organic compounds
including organic acids (e.g., acetic acid) and other combustible materials. Segregate
nitric acid (>40%) from organic chemicals, including organic acids. Store acids
separate from bases and other reducing agents. Inorganic salts, except those of heavy
metals, may be stored in this group. Glacial acetic acid should be stored with
flammable and combustible materials since it is combustible.
Group B – Bases
Segregate bases from acids and oxidizers on shelves near the floor. The
preferred storage container for inorganic hydroxides is polyethylene instead of glass.
Place containers in trays for secondary containment in the event of leakage or breaks.
Group C – Organic chemicals
Segregate organic compounds from inorganics. Organics and inorganics with

NFPA 704 or HMIS reactive hazard rating of two (2) or less may be stored together.
61
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Chemicals with a reactive hazard rating of three (3) or four (4) are to be stored
separately.
Group D – Flammable and Combustible Organic Liquids
Flammable and combustible liquid storage per room is limited to 10 gallons

(37.9 liters) in open storage and use, 25 gallons (94.7 liters) in safety cans, and 60
gallons (227.3 liters) in flammable storage cabinets. Remember that only 30 gallons
(113.6 liters) of Class I liquids are permitted per room, and International Fire Code
restrictions might limit this even further if your lab is located on an upper floor in a new
or renovated building. Store flammable and combustible materials away from sources
of ignition such as heat, sparks, or open flames, and segregated from oxidizers.
Group E – Inorganic Oxidizers and Salts
Store inorganic oxidizers in a cool, dry place away from combustible materials
such as zinc, alkaline metals, formic acid, and other reducing agents. Inorganic salts
may also be stored in this group. Store ammonium nitrate separately.
Group F – Organic Peroxides and Explosives
Peroxides contain a double-oxygen bond (R1-O-O-R2) in their molecular

structure. They are shock and heat sensitive (e.g. benzoyl peroxide), and readily
decompose in storage. Store shock and heat-sensitive chemicals in a dedicated
cabinet.
Some non-peroxide chemicals can readily form shock-sensitive, explosive

peroxides when stored in the presence of oxygen. Examples include ethyl ether,
tetrahydrofuran, and cumene. Dispose of, or use, these by their expiration date.
Common explosive compounds include 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene (TNT),

nitroglycerin, and several metal fulminates and azides. 2,4,6-trinitrophenol, also
known as picric acid, is normally sold as a saturated solution containing at least 40%
water, and classified as a flammable solid. If allowed to dry to less than 10% water,
picric acid becomes a DOT Class 1.1 explosive. Nitroglycerin in research is usually
sold as a tincture mixed with alcohol, but if the alcohol evaporates, the result is
explosive nitroglycerin. Please contact EHS if you use or handle compounds that are
explosive or can become explosive with age or evaporation.
62
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Group G – Reactives
• Water Reactives
Store water reactives in a cool dry place protected from water sources. Alkali
metals (lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium, and cesium) should be stored under
mineral oil, or in waterproof enclosures such as glove boxes. A Class D fire
extinguisher should be available in case of fire. Contact EHS if one is not available in
your laboratory. As an added precaution, store containers in trays or other secondary
containers filled with sand.
• Pyrophorics (Air Reactives)
Store pyrophorics in a cool, dry place, and provide for an air tight seal. Store
white or yellow phosphorous under water in glass stoppered bottles inside a metal can
for added protection.
Group H – Cyanides and Sulfides
Cyanides and sulfides react with acids to release highly toxic gases. They
must be isolated from acids and other oxidizers.
Group I – Carcinogens, Highly Toxic Chemicals, and Reproductive Toxins
A dedicated lockable storage cabinet in a “designated area” for carcinogens

and highly toxic chemicals is the preferred storage method. Stock quantities of
reproductive toxins are to be stored in designated storage areas. Use unbreakable,
chemically resistant secondary containers. Post the storage cabinet with a sign stating
“CANCER SUSPECT AGENT”, “HIGHLY TOXIC CHEMICALS”, or
“REPRODUCTIVE TOXINS”. These signs are available at the EHS Safety Labels
Page. Maintain a separate inventory of all highly acute toxics, carcinogens, and
reproductive toxins (UNC, 2018).
63
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
64
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
VII. Chemical Incompatibilities
Chemical waste comes in many different forms and can cause costly damage to
structures and the health of those using a contaminated site.
65
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Chemical waste is extremely dangerous and can be safely managed by experts
• Toxic Waste
• Radioactive Waste
• Acid Disposal
• Plastic Disposal
• Sewage Disposal
• Waste Sludge
Geiser, K. (2015). Chemicals without harm : Policies for a sustainable world.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131877578/73749886CF37405DPQ/1?
accountid=31259 Chapters 1-2 pp 1-58
Cordner, A. (2016). Toxic safety : Flame retardants, chemical controversies, and
environmental health. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2130947777/AA0A8DC6ABE442E8PQ/
6?accountid=31259 Chapter 3: Defining Risk and Defining Safety pp 50-86
Brauer, R. L. (2016). Safety and health for engineers. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131912763/907D652332C44154PQ/1?
accountid=31259 Part I: Introduction pp lii-12a
66
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Let’s Check
1. Enumerate the classification of fires. Briefly discuss each.

2. What should be done if a chemical gets in the eye?
3. Describe the procedure used to operate a fire extinguisher.
4. Describe the procedure for smelling a chemical.
Let’s Analyze
1. Why is smoking not permitted in the laboratory?

2. What is the difference between incident and accident?
3. What is the difference between risk and hazard?
4. What is the difference between acute and chronic effect?
5. What is the difference between lethal dose and lethal concentration?
6. What is the difference between fire and flame?
7. What is the difference between flammable and combustible liquids?
In a Nutshell
1. How does your country regulate and control chemical safety and security?
Keywords Index
Accident Acute toxicity Biohazard Carcinogen

Chemical Chronic toxicity Corrosives Dermatotoxin
laboratory safety
Explosive Flammable Flash point Fume Hood
GHS Hazard Hematotoxins Hepatotoxins
Incident LC50 LD50 Nephrotoxins
Neurotoxins Oxidizers PPE Pyrophoric
Risk Safety Data Sheet Toxic
References
A guide to the Globally Harmonized System of Classification and labeling of chemicals

(GHS) https://www.osha.gov /dsg/hazcom/ghsguideoct05.pdf
67
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Ahmad, M. 2003. Laboratory and Chemical Safety. Imperial College, London
American Chemical Society.org (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from American
Chemical Society:
https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/policy/publicpolicies/sciencepolicy/safety-
in-the-chemistry-enterprise.html
Anbalagan, N. et.al. (2014). Toxicity, mechanism and health effects of some heavy
metals. Retrieved from
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4427717/
Beyond Pesticides. (N.D). What is a pesticide? Retrieved from

https://www.beyondpesticides.org/resources/pesticide-gateway/what-is-a-
pesticide
Canadian Centre for Occupational Health and Safety (CCOHS)
Chemical Safety. (n.d.). Retrieved from

http://www.iitb.ac.in/safety/sites/default/files/Chemical Safety_0.pdf
Chemical Secretariat.org (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from Chemsec.org:

https://chemsec.org/business-tool/sin-list/about-the-sin-list/
Chung, J.Y., Hong, Y.S., & Y, S.D. (2014). Environmental source of arsenic
exposure. Retrieved from
CP Lab Safety (2018). Safety cans. Retrieved from https://www.calpaclab.com/safety-

cans/
Duffus, J. & Howard, W. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://old.iupac.org/publicati

ons/cd/essential_toxicology/IUPACTOX7.pdf
Duffus, J. & Worth, H. (ND). Common types of chemical that cause health risk.
Edulab (2017). Laboratory safety equipment: the essentials. Retrieved

fromhttps://www.edulab.com/news/laboratory- safety-equipment-the-
essentials
Encyclopedia of Occupational Health and Safety (Part–II) – International Labour

Office. Guide, Geneva, 1991
Environmental Health, Safety & Risk Management. (2011). Proper Chemical

Storage. Retrieved from
https://www.fss.txstate.edu/ehsrm/safetymanual/chemical/chemstor.html
68
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Fishel, F.M. (2005). Defoliants and desiccants. Retrieved from

http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pi138
Fishel, F.M. (2005). Pesticide toxicity profile: carbamate pesticide. Retrieved from
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pi088
Handbook of Laboratory Safety- Norman V. Steere
Hazards in Chemical Laboratory- G. D. Muir
Health.mo.gov (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from Health.mo.gov:

https://health.mo.gov/living/environment/hazsubstancesites/healtheffects.php
Health and Safety Authority, www.hsa.ie ISBN No: 978-1-84496-147-4HSA0365
ILO, International Labour Organisation, Code of Practice: Safety in the Use of

Chemicals
Indian Standard (IS) 4209-1987 Code of Safety in Chemical Laboratories.
Indiana University (2018). Laboratory safety equipment. Retrieved from

https://protect.iu.edu/environmental-health/laboratory-safety/lab-safety-
chemical-hygiene/equipment.html
Ingles, W. (2018). What is the purpose of a flammable storage cabinet? Retrieved

from https://blog.storemasta.com.au/purpose-flammable-storage-cabinet
Jayaraj, R. et. Al. (2017). Organochlorine pesticides, their toxic effects on living
organisms and their fate in the environment. Retrieved from
Kemsley, (2013) Defining chemical safety hygiene and security, Oak Ridge National
Laboratory
Labrepco (2018). Flammable Materials Storage and Explosion Proof (Hazardous

Location) Refrigerators. Retrieved from
https://www.laprepco.com/store/categories/view/id/3542/title/Flammable_Mat
erials_Storage_and_Explosion_Proof_Hazardous_Location_Refrigerators
Leansixsigmadefinition.com (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from Lean

Manufacturing and Six Sigma Definitions:
http://leansixsigmadefinition.com/glossary/5s/
Iitb.ac.in (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from Iitb.ac.in:

https://www.che.iitb.ac.in/online/research/health-safety-and-environment-
hse/hse-plan-a-guide-laboratory-hazards-and-practices/chemic-0
Manufacture, Storage and Import of Hazardous Chemicals Rules -1989.
69
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Merriam-webster.com (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from Merriam -

webster.com: https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/chemistry
Oshwiki.eu (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from Oshwiki.eu:
https://oshwiki.eu/wiki/Organisational_measures_of_accident_prevention
Missouri Department of Health & Senior Services. Health chemical effects from
chemical exposure. Retrieved from
https://health.mo.gov/living/environment/hazsubstancesites/healtheffects.php
Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), (2004). Personal protective

equipment. U.S Department of Labor, pp. 9-32. Retrieved on October 8, 2018
from https://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3151.pdf
Organophophorus insecticides: a general introduction. (1986). Retrieved from

http://www.inchem.org/documents/pims/chemical/pimg001.htm#PartTitle:1.N
AME
OSHwiki. (2018). Chemical Storage. Retrieved from

https://oshwiki.eu/wiki/Chemical_storage.htm
Prudent Practices in the Laboratory: Handling and Disposal of Chemicals (1995),

National Research Council.
Russel, M. (2007). Retrieved from https://ehs.unl.edu/training/colloquium/200 7-

09_Presentation.pdf
Silberman, J. & Taylor, A. (2018). Carbamate toxicity. Retrieved from

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK482183/
Silva, M.D. (2017). What is ppe? Prevention and regulation. Health and Safety
International. Retrieved on October 8, 2018 from https://
www.hsimagazine.com/article/what-is-ppe-an-historical-overview
Simplified safety (2018). What is an approved safety can or DOT gas can? Retrieved
from https://simplifiedsafety.com/blog/does-your-gas-can-meet-osha-
requirements/
Texas Education Agency (2018). Firefighting measure and chemical spills. Retrieved
from https://www.texasgateway.org/resource/lab-safety-equipment
Top hazardous waste. (2018). Chemical waste. Retrieved from

http://www.tophazardouswaste.com/chemicalwaste.php
Ualberta.ca. (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from Ualberta.ca:

https://www.ualberta.ca/environment-health-safety/hazardmanagement/how-
can-i-control-them/engineering-controls
70
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. (2018). Laboratory manuals for chemical
storage. Retrieved from https://ehs.unc.edu/manuals/laboratory/chapter-
4.html
Uvm.edu. (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from Uvm.edu:

http://www.uvm.edu/safety/lab/general-laboratory-ventilation
WHO Human Health Risk Assessment Toolkit: Chemical Hazards. 2010. Available at
Work, Geneva 1993
http://www.who.int/ipcs/methods/harmonization/areas/ra_toolkit/en/index.htm
l
Work Safe New Zealand (2018). Retrieved October 11, 2018, from WorkSafe:
https://worksafe.govt.nz/topic-and-industry/dust-and-
fumes/fumes/localexhaust-ventilation-quick-guide/
World Health Organization (ND). Chemical hazards. Retrieved from

http://www.who.int/ceh/risks/cehchemicals/en/
Zacharia, J.T. (2011). Identity, physical and chemical properties of pesticides.

Retrieved from http://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/20983/InTech-
Identity_physical_and_chemical_properties_of_pesticides.pdf
Course Schedule
Activity Date Where to submit

Big Picture A: Let’s Check Activities Blackboard
Big Picture A: Let’s Analyze Activities Blackboard
Big Picture A: In a Nutshell Activities Blackboard
First Exam Face-to-face
71
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture 2
expected to
a. demonstrate understanding on the basic concepts of crystal structure;

b. differentiate metals and non-metals by understanding their
characteristics;
c. explain the concept of polymers;
d. show understanding of the concept of engineered nanomaterials.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO2a. demonstrate understanding on the basic

concepts of crystal structure
Metalanguage
crystal structure to demonstrate ULOa will be reviewed. Please refer to these
definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.
Amorphous an amorphous or non-crystalline solid is a solid that lacks the long-range

order that is characteristic of a crystal
Atomic Packing the ratio of volume occupied by the atoms in a unit cell to the total
Factor volume of the unit cell
Body-centered has lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus an additional
cubic point at the center of the cell.
Bravais lattice the fourteen distinguishable ways of arranging the points independently
in three-dimensional space
Coordination defined as the number of equidistant nearest neighbors that an atom
number has in a given structure
Crystal lattice is the symmetrical three-dimensional arrangement of atoms inside a

crystal.
72
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Cystalline is a solid material whose constituents are arranged in a highly ordered

microscopic structure, forming a crystal lattice that extends in all
directions.
Crystallographic the lines drawn parallel to the lines of intersection of any three faces of
axes the unit cell which do not lie in the same plane
Density mass per unit volume

Face-centered has lattice points at the eight corners of the unit cell plus additional
cubic points at the centers of each face of the unit cell.
Hexagonal layers of spheres are packed so that spheres in alternating layers
close-packed overlie one another. As in cubic close packing, each sphere is
surrounded by 12 other spheres.
Interfacial the angles between three crystallographic axes
angles
Lattice collective term for primitives and interfacial angles
parameters
Primitives the dimensions of a unit cell
Simple cubic is the simplest repeating unit in a simple cubic structure. Each corner of
the unit cell is defined by a lattice point at which an atom, ion, or
molecule can be found in the crystal.
Space lattice defined as an infinite array of points in three dimensions in which every
point has surroundings identical to that of every other point in the array.
Unit cell the smallest group of atoms of a substance that has the overall
symmetry of a crystal of that substance, and from which the entire lattice
can be built up by repetition in three dimensions.
Void space vacant space left or unutilized space in unit cell , and more commonly
known as interstitial space
Essential Knowledge
BASIC CONCEPTS OF CRYSTAL STRUCTURE

In crystallography, crystal structure is a description of the ordered
arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in a crystalline material. Ordered structures
occur from the intrinsic nature of the constituent particles to form symmetric patterns
that repeat along the principal directions of three-dimensional space in matter (Moore
& Smart, 2005).
The smallest group of particles in the material that constitutes the repeating
pattern is the unit cell of the structure. The unit cell completely defines the symmetry
and structure of the entire crystal lattice, which is built up by repetitive translation of
73
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
the unit cell along its principal axes. The repeating patterns are said to be located at
the points of the Bravais lattice.
The lengths of the principal axes, or edges, of the unit cell and the angles
between them are the lattice constants, also called lattice parameters.
The symmetry properties of the crystal are described by the concept of space
groups. All possible symmetric arrangements of particles in three-dimensional space
may be described by the 230 space groups.
The crystal structure and symmetry play a critical role in determining many
physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical
transparency.
Crystal structure is one of the most important aspects of materials science and
engineering as many properties of materials depend on their crystal structures. The
basic principles of many materials characterization techniques such as X-ray
diffraction (XRD), Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) are based on
crystallography. Therefore, understanding the basics of crystal structures is of
paramount importance.
Matter exist usually in solid or fluid (liquid, gas) state. According to modern
concept matter classification is specified as condensed state and gaseous state.
Solids and liquids come under condensed state. Any material whose position of
constituent particles is fixed can be regarded as solids.
Solids are characterized by incompressibility, rigidity and mechanical strength.

This indicates that the molecules, atoms or ions that make up as solid is closely
packed. Thus in solids we will have a well ordered molecular, atomic or ionic
arrangement.
In general solids can be classified into:
• Crystalline - particles are orderly arranged (long range order).

• Amorphous - particles are randomly oriented.
If the atoms or molecules are uniquely arranged in crystalline solid or liquid, we

call it a crystal structure. A crystal possesses long range order and symmetry. The
main property of crystal structure is its periodicity. This periodicity is due to the
arrangement of atoms/molecules in the lattice points. The crystal structure as a whole
can be considered as the repetition of unit cell. For a given crystal structure the shape
of unit cell is same but varies from crystal to crystal (Schaffer et al, 1999).
74
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 1. General classification of solids
Unit Cell
Crystal structure is described in terms of the geometry of arrangement of
particles in the unit cell. The unit cell is defined as the smallest repeating unit having
the full symmetry of the crystal structure. The geometry of the unit cell is defined as
a parallelepiped, providing six lattice parameters taken as the lengths of the cell edges
(a, b, c) and the angles between them (α, β, γ). The positions of particles inside the
unit cell are described by the fractional coordinates (xi, yi, zi) along the cell edges,
measured from a reference point. It is only necessary to report the coordinates of a
smallest asymmetric subset of particles. This group of particles may be chosen so that
it occupies the smallest physical space, which means that not all particles need to be
physically located inside the boundaries given by the lattice parameters. All other
particles of the unit cell are generated by the symmetry operations that characterize
the symmetry of the unit cell. The collection of symmetry operations of the unit cell is
expressed formally as the space group of the crystal structure (Atkins & de Paula,
2006).
Figure 2. Unit cell

Unit cell can be of primitive as well as non-primitive type. A primitive cell is a
minimum volume unit cell and has only one lattice point in it and the latter contains
more than one.
75
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 3. Primitive and non-primitive unit cell

In the given figure below, simple cube is a primitive cell. No. of atoms per unit
cell is one for it. The rest two is non primitive. No. of atoms per unit cell is 2 and 4
respectively.
Figure 4. Primitive cell (P) and Non-primitive cell (I and F)

Bravais Lattices
The number of lattices that can fill two- or three-dimensional space with
periodically repeating units without leaving gaps or causing overlaps is limited.
Therefore, there is a finite number of different crystal structures, and different
crystalline solids may crystallise according to the same pattern. The metrics of the
lattice may be different, but the symmetry is the same in such cases. Lattices which
fill space without gaps are called Bravais lattices. There are five of them in two
dimensions and 14 in three dimensions (Hermann, 2017).
Bravais Lattices in Two Dimensions

The most general and least symmetric Bravais lattice in two dimensions is
the oblique lattice. If the angle between the two lattice vectors is 90°, the higher
symmetry of the cell gives rise to a distinct Bravais lattice, either rectangular
or square depending on whether the unit cell vectors have different length or not. In
the case of a rectangular lattice, we can distinguish between a primitive
76
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
rectangular lattice and a centred rectangular lattice, which has an extra lattice point
(atom) at the centre. The centred rectangular lattice could be set up as a primitive
lattice with lower symmetry (unit cell shown in green), but convention prefers the more
symmetric description. Finally, if the lattice vectors are the same length and the angle
is 120°, we have another special case with higher symmetry, the hexagonal lattice
(Ellis et al, 1995).
Figure 5. Bravais lattices in two dimensions

Bravais Lattices in Three Dimensions
Based on the lattice parameters a, b, c, α, β and γ and applying the restrictions
as above, only 14 types of lattices are possible in three dimensions. One general
(triclinic) and thirteen special. Only seven different systems of axis are found to be
sufficient to represent all Bravais lattice. This fourteen space lattice is divided into
seven crystal systems (Callister, 2002).
They are triclinic, monoclinic, orthorhombic, tetragonal, trigonal, hexagonal and

cubic.
77
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Lattice Simple Base- Body- Face- Example

System Centered Centered Centered
triclinic CuSO4.5H2O
K2Cr2O7
monoclinic CaSO4.2H2O
FeSO4
Na2SO4
orthorhombic KNO3
BaSO4
rhombohedral
As
Sb
Bi
tetragonal
TiO2
SnO2
NiSO4
hexagonal SiO2
Zn
Mg
Cd
cubic Au
Cu
NaCl
Table 1. Bravais lattices in three dimensions
78
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Atomic Coordination
In chemistry, crystallography, and materials science the coordination
number, also called ligancy, of a central atom in a molecule or crystal is the number
of atoms, molecules or ions bonded to it. The ion/molecule/atom surrounding the
central ion/molecule/atom is called a ligand. This number is determined somewhat
differently for molecules than for crystals.
By considering the arrangement of atoms relative to each other, their
coordination numbers (or number of nearest neighbors), interatomic distances, types
of bonding, etc., it is possible to form a general view of the structures and alternative
ways of visualizing them.
Simple cubic, face-centered cubic (FCC) and body-centered cubic (BCC) have
coordination numbers 6, 8, and 12 respectively (Atkins, 2006).
Atomic Packing Factor (APF)
Atomic packing fraction mainly gives us an idea about the arrangement of
atoms/ions in solids. It will give the efficiency with which the available space is being
filled by atoms (Callister, 2002).
Packing fraction is defined as the ratio of volume of atoms occupying the unit
cell to the volume of unit cell.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙

𝐴𝑃𝐹 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
Examples:
1. Simple Cubic
Consider a cube of side 'a'. Atoms of radius ‘r’ is placed at the corner. So that
length of cube a=2r.
Figure 6. Simple cubic unit cell
79
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
In a simple cubic structure, the atoms occupies at the eight corners. An atom
at the corner is equally shared by 8 unit cells. So the contribution of one atom to a unit
cell is 1/8. Therefore the no. of atoms per unit cell is (1/8)*8(corner atoms) =1.
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎3 = (2𝑟)3 = 8𝑟 3
4 3
𝜋𝑟 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 3 = = 𝟓𝟐%
8𝑟 6
2. Body-centered Cube
Consider a cube of side ‘a’, and atoms of radius ‘r’ are placed at corners and at
the body centre. Length of body diagonal, √3a=4r.
Figure 7. Body-centered cubic unit cell

4 8
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 2 ∗ 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
In a body centered cube, there will be one atom at the centre along with 8 corner
atoms. This corner atom is shared by 8 unit cell and the atom at the centre is not a
shared one. Therefore no. of atoms per unit cell= (1/8)*8(corner atoms)+1(body
centre)=2.
3
3
64𝑟 3
4𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎 = ( ) =
√3 3√3
8 3
𝜋𝑟 √3𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 3 = = 𝟔𝟖%
64𝑟 8
3√3
3. Face-centered Cube
Consider a cube of length ‘a’ and atoms of radius ’r’ are placed at the corners
as well as at the face centre. Length of face diagonal √2a=4r.
80
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 8. Face-centered cubic unit cell

4 16 3
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 4 ∗ 𝜋𝑟 3 = 𝜋𝑟
3 3
In a face centered cube, each face possess one atom along with 8 corner
atoms. The atoms at the faces are equally shared by two unit cell. Corner atoms by 8
unit cells. So the no. of atoms per unit cell is=(1/8)*8(corner atoms)+(1/2)*6(atoms at
face)=4.
3
3
4𝑟
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 = 𝑎 = ( )
√2
16 3
𝜋𝑟 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = 3 3 = = 𝟕𝟒%
4𝑟 3√2
( )
√2
4. Hexagonal Close-Packed
For the hexagonal close-packed structure, the unit cell (equivalent to 3 primitive
unit cells) is a hexagonal prism containing six atoms (if the particles in the crystal are
atoms). Indeed, three are the atoms in the middle layer (inside the prism); in addition,
for the top and bottom layers (on the bases of the prism), the central atom is shared
with the adjacent cell, and each of the six atoms at the vertices is shared with other
five adjacent cells. So the total number of atoms in the cell is 3 + (1/2)×2 + (1/6)×6×2
= 6. Each atom touches other twelve atoms. Now let a be the side length of the base
of the prism and c be its height. The latter is twice the distance between adjacent
layers, i.e., twice the height of the regular tetrahedron whose vertices are occupied by
(say) the central atom of the lower layer, two adjacent non-central atoms of the same
layer, and one atom of the middle layer "resting" on the previous three. Obviously, the
8
edge of this tetrahedron is a. If a=2r, then its height can be easily calculated to be √3 𝑎,
2 3√3
and, therefore, 𝑐 = 4√3 𝑟. So the volume of the hcp unit cell turns out to be 𝑎2 𝑐,
2
that is 24√2𝑟 3 .
It is then possible to calculate the APF as follows:
81
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
4 3
𝑁𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 6 ∙ 3 𝜋𝑟
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = =
𝑉𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙 3√3 2
2 𝑎 𝑐
4 4
6 ∙ 3 𝜋𝑟 3 6 ∙ 3 𝜋𝑟 3
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = =
3√3 2√ 2 3√3 √2 3
2 (2𝑟) 3 ∙ 4𝑟 2 3 ∙ 16𝑟
𝜋 𝜋
𝐴𝑃𝐹 = = = 0.74048048
√18 3√2
Figure 9. Hexagonal close-packed structure.
Density Calculation
The density of a solid is that of the unit cell, obtained by dividing the mass of
the atoms (n atoms x Matom) and dividing by Vc the volume of the cell (a3 in the case of
a cube). If the mass of the atom is given in amu (A), then we have to divide it by the
Avogadro number to get Matom. Thus, the formula for the density is:
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
where:
𝜌 = 𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦
𝑛 = 𝑛𝑜. 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
𝐴 = 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑐/𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
𝑉𝑐 = 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑙
𝑁𝐴 = 𝐴𝑣𝑜𝑔𝑎𝑑𝑟𝑜′ 𝑠 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟
Example:
1. Polonium crystallizes in a simple cubic pattern with a unit cell length of 3.36
angstrom (Å). Estimate the density of Po in g/cm3. (1 Å = 1x10-8 cm)
82
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Basis: 1 unit cell

Given:
n = 1 atom; a = 3.36x10-8 cm; A = 209 g/mol
Solution:
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
𝑔
(1 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚) (209 )
𝜌= 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
(3.36𝑥10−8 𝑐𝑚)3 (6.022𝑥1023 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝝆 = 𝟗. 𝟏𝟓 𝒈/𝒄𝒎𝟑
2. Aluminum has a face-centered cubic unit cell, that is, an atom at each corner
of the unit cell and an atom at the center of each face. The Al-Al distance (2r)
is 0.2863 nm. Calculate the density of aluminum in g/mL. The mass of
aluminum atom is 26.98 amu.
Basis: 1 unit cell

Given:
n = 4 atoms; A = 26.98 g/mol; 2r = 0.2863 nm = 0.2863x10-7 cm
Solution:
(4𝑟)2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎2
16𝑟 2 = 2𝑎2
𝑎2 = 8𝑟 2
𝑎 = 2√2 𝑟
𝑛𝐴
𝜌=
𝑉𝑐 𝑁𝐴
(4 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠)(26.98 𝑔/𝑚𝑜𝑙)
𝜌= 3 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠
[√2(0.2863𝑥10−7 𝑐𝑚)] (6.022𝑥1023 )
𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝒈
𝝆 = 𝟐. 𝟕 = 𝟐. 𝟕 𝒈/𝒎𝑳
𝒄𝒎𝟑
83
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for

surface scientists and nanoscientists. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131386643/9651CF2002EF494EPQ/4?
accountid=31259. Chapter 2 Bulk Crystals: Three-Dimensional Lattices pp 7-
90
Let’s Check
Exercises:
1. Molybdenum forms body-centered cubic crystals and at 20 oC the density is
10.3 g/mL. Calculate the distance between the centers of the nearest
molybdenum atoms.
2. An element crystallizes in a body-centered cubic lattice. The edge of the unit
cell is 0.286 nm, and the density of the crystal is 7.92 g/cm3. Calculate the
atomic weight of the element.
3. Austenite form of iron has FCC crystal lattice structure, whereas its alpha form
has BCC crystal lattice structure. Assuming closest packed arrangement of iron
atoms, what will be the ratio of density of Austenite to that of alpha iron?
4. Sodium crystallizes in the body-centered cubic structure with a=0.424 nm.
Calculate the theoretical density of Na in kg/m3.
5. Find the distance (in nm) between the body-centered atom and one corner atom
in Na, given a=0.424 nm.
Let’s Analyze
Activity 1. Compare and contrast the 7 crystal system.
Activity 2. Compare and contrast the 3 Bravais lattice of the cubic crystal
system.
In a Nutshell
Activity 1. Illustrate the: (a) simple cubic, body-centered, and face-centered cubic of
the cubic crystal system; and (b) hexagonal crystal system.
84
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Activity 2. How is learning crystal structure relevant in the study of engineering?
Keywords Index
Amorphous Crystal lattice Face- Space lattice Coordination

centered number
cubic
Hexagonal
close-packed
Atomic Cystalline Interfacial Unit cell Face-
Packing angles centered
Factor cubic
Body-centered Crystallographic Lattice Void space Simple cubic
cubic axes parameters
Bravais lattice Density Primitives
References
Atkins, P., & de Paula, J. (2006). Atkins’ Physical Chemistry 8th ed. Oxford University
Press. Chapter 20: Materials 2: The Solid State
Callister, W. (2002). Materials Science and Engineering (6th ed.). San Francisco,
CA: John Wiley and Sons.
Ellis, Arthur B.; et al. (1995). Teaching General Chemistry: A Materials Science
Companion (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Chemical Society.
Hermann, K. (2017). Crystallography and surface structure : An introduction for
surface scientists and nanoscientists. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131386643/9651CF2002EF494EPQ/4?
accountid=31259. Chapter 2 Bulk Crystals: Three-Dimensional Lattices pp 7-
90
Moore, Lesley E.; Smart, Elaine A. (2005). Solid State Chemistry: An
Introduction (3rd ed.). Boca Raton, Florida: Taylor & Francis, CRC.
Schaffer; Saxena; Antolovich; Sanders; Warner (1999). The Science and Design of
Engineering Materials (2nd ed.). New York, NY: WCB/McGraw-Hill.
85
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO2b. differentiate metals and non-metals by

understanding their characteristics.
Metalanguage
metals to demonstrate ULO2b will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in
case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
Actinides any of the series of fifteen metallic elements from actinium (atomic
number 89) to lawrencium (atomic number 103) in the periodic table.
They are all radioactive, the heavier members being extremely
unstable and not of natural occurrence.
Alkali metals the metals in Group 1 of the periodic table of elements
Alkaline earth
metals metals which belong to group 2 in the periodic table
Alloy a mixture of a metal with at least one other element, usually another
metal
Amalgam an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings
because it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Brass an alloy of copper and zinc; does not tarnish and is used for door
knobs, buttons and musical instruments.
Corrosion a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically-
stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual
destruction of materials by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction
with their environment.
Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic
deformation before rupture, which may be expressed as percent
elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test.
Electrical
conductivity the degree to which a specified material conducts electricity.
Lanthanides are a group of 15 chemical elements, with atomic numbers 57 through
71. All of these elements have one valence electron in the 5d shell.
Luster is a gentle sheen or soft glow, especially that of a partly reflective
surface.
Malleability is a physical property of metals that defines the ability to be

hammered, pressed or rolled into thin sheets without breaking.
Ore a naturally occurring solid material from which a metal or valuable
mineral can be profitably extracted.
Reactivity the ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with
other elements and compounds
86
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Rusting the specific name given to the corrosion of iron; a chemical reaction
between iron, oxygen and water.
Solder an alloy of zinc and lead; is used in electronics to attach components
to circuit boards.
Sonority is a nonbinary phonological feature categorizing sounds into a relative
scale.
Steel an alloy containing iron and other elements
Thermal is the rate at which heat passes through a specified material,
conductivity expressed as the amount of heat that flows per unit time through a
unit area with a temperature gradient of one degree per unit distance.
Transition the elements in Groups 3 through 12 in the periodic table
metals
Essential Knowledge
A metal is a material that, when freshly prepared, polished, or fractured, shows

a lustrous appearance, and conducts electricity and heat relatively well. Metals are
typically malleable (they can be hammered into thin sheets) or ductile (can be drawn
into wires). A metal may be a chemical element such as iron; an alloy such
as stainless steel; or a molecular compound such as polymeric sulfur nitride (Gaffney
& Marley, 2018).
Approximately three-quarters of all known chemical elements are metals. The
most abundant varieties in the Earth’s crust
are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, and magnesium. The vast majority
of metals are found in ores (mineral-bearing substances), but a few such
as copper, gold, platinum, and silver frequently occur in the free state because they
do not readily react with other elements.
Metals are usually crystalline solids. In most cases, they have a relatively
simple crystal structure distinguished by a close packing of atoms and a high degree
of symmetry. Typically, the atoms of metals contain less than half the full complement
of electrons in their outermost shell. Because of this characteristic, metals tend not to
form compounds with each other. They do, however, combine more readily with
nonmetals (e.g., oxygen and sulfur), which generally have more than half the
maximum number of valence electrons.
Metals, as chemical elements, comprise 25% of the Earth's crust and are
present in many aspects of modern life. The strength and resilience of some metals
has led to their frequent use in, for example, high-rise building and bridge construction,
as well as most vehicles, many home appliances, tools, pipes, and railroad
tracks. Precious metals were historically used as coinage, but in the modern
era, coinage metals have extended to at least 23 of the chemical elements (Roe,
1992).
87
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Physical Properties
The physical properties of metals include shininess/luster, malleability, ductility,

and conductivity. A malleable material is one that can be hammered or rolled into flat
sheets and other shapes. A ductile material is one that can be pulled out, or drawn,
into a long wire. For example, copper can be made into thin sheets and wire because
it is malleable and ductile. Conductivity is the ability of an object to transfer heat or
electricity to another object. Most metals are good conductors. In addition, a few
metals are magnetic. For example, iron (Fe), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) are attracted
to magnets and can be made into magnets. Most metals are also solids at room
temperature. However, one metal—mercury (Hg)—is a liquid at room temperature
(Holleman & Wiberg, 2001).
Chemical Properties
The ease and speed with which an element combines, or reacts, with other
elements and compounds is called its reactivity. Metals usually react by losing
electrons to other atoms. Some metals are very reactive. For example, you read that
sodium (Na) reacts strongly when exposed to air or water. To prevent a reaction,
sodium and metals like it must be stored under oil in sealed containers. By comparison,
gold (Au) and platinum (Pt) are valued for their lack of reactivity and because they are
rare. The reactivities of other metals fall somewhere between those of sodium and
gold. Iron, for example, reacts slowly with oxygen in the air, forming iron oxide, or rust.
If iron is not protected by paint or plated with another metal, it will slowly turn to reddish-
brown rust. The destruction of a metal through this process is called corrosion
(Mortimer, 1975).
Corrosion
Corrosion is the gradual destruction of a metal due to reactions with other
chemicals in its environment. Over time, corrosion changes the appearance of the
metal as it breaks down and it becomes weaker. Corrosion can seriously damage
metallic objects and structures. Coating the surface of a metal with paint and certain
chemicals can protect it from corrosion.
Figure 1. Example of corrosion.
88
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Do all metals corrode?

Metals behave differently when exposed to the environment. Gold is an
unreactive metal and does not corrode easily. In many cultures, gold is considered a
precious metal and is used to make sacred and decorative objects. Items made from
gold can survive for thousands of years and have even been found in good condition
underwater. In general, objects made from metals that corrode easily do not survive
for as long.
Why doesn’t aluminum corrode?
Aluminum is a very reactive metal. However, it does not corrode in the presence
of oxygen. The outer aluminum atoms react with oxygen in the atmosphere. This forms
a thin layer of aluminum oxide on the metal’s surface, which protects the metal from
corrosion.
Figure 2. Mechanism why aluminum doesn’t corrode.

What is rusting?
Rusting is the specific name given to the corrosion of iron. It is a chemical
reaction between iron, oxygen and water. The chemical name for rust is hydrated iron
oxide. Rust can form on cars and buildings, making them unsafe. It is an expensive
problem. Salt can increase the rate of rusting. This iron bolt is on a seaside structure
and is nearly completely corroded.
𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 + 𝑜𝑥𝑦𝑔𝑒𝑛 + 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 → ℎ𝑦𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑒
Metals in the Periodic Table
The metals in a group, or family, have similar properties, and these family
properties change gradually as you move across the table (Walther, 2013).
The reactivity of metals tends to decrease as you move from left to right across
the periodic table.
89
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Alkali Metal
The metals in Group 1, from lithium to francium, are called the alkali metals.
They have low melting point and boiling point compared to other metals. They are
very soft and cut easily by knife. Also, they have low densities. The alkali metals
have the high thermal and electrical conductivity, ductility, and malleability that are
characteristics of a metal. Every alkali metal atom has a single electron in its
outermost shell. Sodium, Lithium, Potassium, Rubidium, and Cesium are Alkali
Metals.
Alkaline Earth Metal
The Alkaline Earth Metals are all of the elements in the second column (column
2A) of the periodic table. Beryllium, Magnesium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, and
Radium belong to this group. These metals have two electrons in their outermost
electron layer. Alkaline Earth Metals in their pure forms are generally shiny and
silvery.
Transition Metals
Transition metals are the elements that feature atoms that have an incomplete
d sub-shell. D-block simply implies that the element d-blocks are the final element
to build up all accords to building up principle. They give off electrons from their
outer s orbital but mostly they lose electrons on d orbital. They are unique from all
other elements because of their common properties. One property is they form a
lot of compounds in a quite amount few states of oxidation. Another property is
they are famous for their tendency to form a lot of paramagnetic compounds. This
is mainly due to their low reactivity of their d unpaired electrons (Yonezawa, 2017).
For the most part they are good source of conductors. They are malleable,
ductile, lustrous & silver-white in color. But exception of it is the copper which is
brownish red in color.
A great characteristic is they easily mix. The reason for it is because they have
the same atomic size. This results in more proficient mixture of one another in a
crystal lattice. When two or more metals mix or replace each other, we call the new
name of a metal an alloy.
They can be found anywhere on earth at various amount. They are mostly not
found on pure substance, but rather on the certain compounds on earth’s crust.
This signifies that we need to extract the metals on an existing compound in one
or two ways: pyrometallurgical which uses high temperature and
hydrometallurgical which uses aqueous solution.
They can also be sold at higher prices because of their rarity on the market.
One of the examples is the gold which is also known as shining dawn.
Lanthanides
Two rows of elements are placed below the main part of the periodic table. This
makes the table more compact. The elements in the top row are called the
90
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
lanthanides. Lanthanides are soft, malleable, shiny metals with high conductivity.
They are mixed with more common metals to make alloys. An alloy is a mixture of
a metal with at least one other element, usually another metal. Different
lanthanides are usually found together in nature. They are difficult to separate from
one another because they all share very similar properties.
Actinides
Actinides are composed of 15 elements which ranges from number 89 to 103,
which are composed from actinium to lawrencium. The name of this certain metal
derives from its first element which is the actinium. While mostly of the actinides
are synthetic elements, small amount of uranium and thorium can be found on
nature. Another property that is possessed by these elements is radioactivity.
Examples are the plutonium, thorium and uranium which are utilized on building
nuclear reactors or weapons.
For many years the chemical elements reach its bottleneck and ended with a
number of 92, uranium. The scientists are uncertain of whether there is any other
heavy element than uranium. Until a discovery made by the scientists of University
of California physicists by Edwin McMillan (1907–1991) and Philip Abelson (1913–
2004) on their study on nuclear fission. (Nuclear fission is the splitting of an atomic
nucleus, a process that releases large amounts of energy. Atomic bombs and
nuclear power plants operate on nuclear fission.). During their experiments on
nuclear fission, they found new evidence that support the research of another
heavier element with an atomic number of 94. They have found new elements
which are the transuranium elements heavier than uranium. The first discovery
named as neptunium, comes from the planet Neptune. Just as the name uranium
derives from Uranus. Later on another discovery of transuranium found which is
the plutonium, which was named after Pluto. Later on more discoveries founded
on transuranium: americium (number 95) and curium (number 96) in 1944;
berkelium (number 97) in 1949; californium (number 98) in 1950; einsteinium
(number 99) and fermium (number 100) in 1952; mendelevium (number 101) in
1955; nobelium (number 102) in 1958; and lawrencium (number 103) in 1961.
Metalloids
They often create amphoteric oxides and behave in the same manner as
semiconductors. The usually considered elements on this group are boron, silicon,
germanium, arsenic, antimony & tellurium. They more likely behave as non-metals
when they cooperate with metals and behave as metals when they react with non-
metals. Hence, they are known as semi-metals. The uncommon elements
polonium and astatine are sometimes considered as metalloids.
Other metals
They are metals that can be based on two criterion: Each of these elements
can be classified as a metal or a non-metal based on the characteristics on their
general chemical and physical properties. These are group of elements that can
91
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
be found on the right corner of the transition metals on periodic table and also
known as the post-transition metals. The elements classed as "other metals"
generally have the following properties in common: strong, ductile and malleable,
good conductors of heat and electricity, have a relative high density, and opaque.
Alloys
An alloy is a mixture of a metal with at least one other element. Steel is a
common example of an alloy. It contains iron mixed with carbon and other elements.
Adding other elements to a metal changes its structure and so changes its properties.
The final alloy may have very different properties to the original metal. By changing
the amount of each element in an alloy, material scientists can custom-make alloys to
fit a given job (Shamsuddin, 2016).
Alloys have been used for thousands of years. Bronze, an alloy of copper and
tin, was commonly used by civilizations before iron extraction methods were
developed. Other well-known alloys include:
⚫ brass: an alloy of copper and zinc. It does not tarnish and is used for door
knobs, buttons and musical instruments.
⚫ solder: an alloy of zinc and lead. It is used in electronics to attach components
to circuit boards.
⚫ amalgam: an alloy of mercury and silver or tin. It is used for dental fillings
because it can be shaped when warm and resists corrosion.
Is gold an alloy?
Although pure gold is sometimes used in electronics, gold jewellery is always
a mixture of gold and other metals. Pure gold is actually quite soft. Adding small
amounts of other metals makes the gold hard enough to use in jewellery. Alloying gold
with different metals also affects its colour. The familiar yellow gold is an alloy of gold
with copper and silver. Adding more copper than silver gives redder shades. White
gold is an alloy of gold with nickel, platinum or palladium. Around 12% of people may
be allergic to the nickel in white gold.
When is a copper coin not a copper coin?
A copper coin is not a copper coin when it is a copper-coated alloy!
Copper coins used to be made from pure copper but most ‘copper’ coins used
around the world are now made from copper alloys. Previously, as the value of copper
increased, the metal used to make the coin became worth more than the actual coins.
A melted-down, pure copper coin could have been sold for more than the face value
of the coin! Since 1992, UK copper coins have been made from copper-plated steel
and are magnetic. A magnet can be used to separate copper coins by age.
What is steel?
Steel is an alloy of iron and other elements, including carbon, nickel and
chromium. Steel is stronger than pure iron and can be used for everything from sauce
pans to suspension bridges. The atoms in pure iron are arranged in densely-packed
92
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
layers. These layers can slide over each other. This makes pure iron a very soft
material. The atoms of other elements are different sizes. When other elements are
added to iron, their atoms distort the regular structure of the iron atoms. It is more
difficult for the layers of iron atoms in steel to slide over each other and so this alloy is
stronger than pure iron.
Figure 3. Sauce pan.
Figure 4. Suspension bridge.

Steel can contain up to 2% carbon. Varying the amount of carbon gives steel
different properties. For example, a higher carbon content makes a hard steel.
Different types of steel are classified by how much carbon they contain.
⚫ low carbon steel contains less than 0.25% carbon
⚫ high carbon steel contains more than 0.5% carbon.
Two other important types of steel are:
93
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
⚫ stainless steel – an alloy of iron that contains at least 11% chromium and
smaller amounts of nickel and carbon
⚫ titanium steel – an alloy of iron and titanium.
Smart Alloy
A smart material can change one or more of its physical characteristics under
the influence of an external stimulus. Shape memory alloy is a type of smart material
made from metals that returns to its original shape after being deformed. Nitinol is a
type of shape memory alloy made from nickel and titanium. This material can be used
to make a pair of glasses that ‘remembers’ its shape and does not break when
crushed. Nitinol has also been used to hold badly broken bones in place while they
heal.
Figure 5. A smart alloy made of nitinol.
Shamsuddin, M., & TMS (2016). Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135961388/8194550C103C4BA4PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1 Introduction pp 1-38.
Let’s Check
1. What is stainless steel?
94
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
2. What are the most common metals used in construction?

3. What is the difference between Iron and Steel?
4. Why isn’t steel termed as a metal?
Let’s Analyze
1. Differentiate metals from non-metals.

2. What makes stainless steel stainless? Explain.
3. Which is stronger, Steel or Titanium? Explain.
4. What are the 4 types of steel?
In a Nutshell
1. Construct a vis-à-vis comparison of different alloyed materials. Cite the

advantages, disadvantages, and its best application.
Keywords Index
Actinides Alkali metals Alkaline earth Alloy Alloy

metals
Amalgam
Brass Corrosion Ductility Electrical Lanthanides
conductivity
Luster Malleability Ore Reactivity Rusting
Solder Sonority Steel Thermal Transition
conductivity metals
References
Gaffney, J., & Marley, N. (2018). General chemistry for engineers. Elsevier Inc.
Holleman, A.F.; Wiberg, E. "Inorganic Chemistry" Academic Press: San Diego,
2001.
Mortimer, Charles E. (1975). Chemistry: A Conceptual Approach (3rd ed.). New
York: D. Van Nostrad Company.
Roe, J; Roe, M (1992). "World's coinage uses 24 chemical elements". World
Coinage News. 19 (4, 5): 24–25, 18–19.
Shamsuddin, M., & TMS (2016). Physical chemistry of metallurgical processes.
Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135961388/8194550C103C4BA4PQ/1
?accountid=31259.
95
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Walther, John V. (2013). Earth's Natural Resources. Jones & Bartlett Publishers.
Yonezawa, F (2017). Physics of Metal-Nonmetal Transitions. Amsterdam: IOS
Press.
96
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO2c. explain the concept of polymers
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study of polymers to
demonstrate ULO2c will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in case you will encounter
difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
Copolymers molecules which are built up of at least two different kinds of monomer
Crosslinking process of forming covalent bonds or relatively short sequences of
chemical bonds to join two polymer chains together.
Elastomer a natural or synthetic polymer having elastic properties, e.g. rubber.
Homopolymers polymers consisting of monomer of identical chemical structure
Kevlar a heat-resistant and strong synthetic fiber, related to other aramids
such as Nomex and Technora. Developed by Stephanie Kwolek at
DuPont in 1965, this high-strength material was used first
commercially in the early 1970s as a replacement for steel in racing
tires.
Monomer 1. a molecule that can be bonded to other identical molecules to form a
polymer.
Polymer a large molecule which is formed by repeated linking of small
molecules called "monomers"
Polymerization the process by which simple (monomer) molecules join together to
form very large (polymer) molecules.
Resin a solid or highly viscous substance of plant or synthetic origin that is
typically convertible into polymers.
Thermoplastic a material, usually a plastic polymer, which becomes more soft when
heated and hard when cooled.
Thermoset a polymer that is irreversibly hardened by curing from a soft solid or
viscous liquid prepolymer or resin.
Vulcanization a process of treating natural rubber with sulphur
Essential Knowledge
POLYMERS
According to (Chang, 2008), a polymer is a molecular compound distinguished

by a very high molar mass, ranging into thousands and millions of grams, and is made
97
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
up of many repeating units. The physical properties of these so-called macromolecules

vary greatly from those of small ordinary molecules and special techniques are
required to study them.
This statement is true. Polymers are not like an ordinary compound. They
involve complex chemical reactions to form. The words polymer comes from the Greek
prefix poly- “Many” and mers- “Parts”, thus many parts. Though, the word polymer is
equated to the word macromolecules (giant molecules). It is after a German Physicist,
Hermann Staudinger, who clearly prove that such giant molecules exist and called it
macromolecules (Chang, 2008).
MONOMER, MER AND POLYMER
The process on which the formation of polymers undergoes is called

polymerization, which involves the chemical combinations of many small chemical
units known as monomers “single parts” (Winslow, 1979), a mer “repeating units” and
a polymer “the macromolecule”. The diagram below shows the molecular structure of
polyethylene, an example of a polymer.
(POLYMERS)
POLYETHYLENE
ETHYLENE
Characteristics of Polymers
Every polymer has very distinct characteristics, but most polymers have the
following attributes. First, polymers can be very resistant to chemicals. Many
chemicals we are using today such as muriatic acid, chlorine and many more are so
strong that it even damages our skin. The characteristics of plastics provide safe, non-
breakable packages for aggressive solvent. Second, polymers can be both thermal
and electrical insulators. A walk through your house will reinforce this concept, as
you consider all the appliances, cords, electrical outlets and wiring that are made or
covered with polymeric materials. Polymers (e.g. kitchenware made of Teflon) can
resist extreme heat. The thermal underwear that many skiers wear is made of
polypropylene and the fiberfill in winter jackets is acrylic and polyester. Third,
generally, polymers are very light in weight with significant degrees of strength.
Kevlar is one example of this which is really strong yet light in weight. Fourth,
polymers can be processed in various ways. Injection Molding - plastic is melted
98
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
in a heating chamber and then forced by a plunger into cold molds to set; and
Extrusions - melted polymer is extruded through a die in continuous form to be cut into
lengths or coiled. Fifth, polymers are materials with a seemingly limitless range of
characteristics and colors, because polymers can mimic cotton, silk, wool fibers,
porcelain, marble, aluminum and zinc. Lastly, Polymers can be used to make items
that have no alternatives from other materials. Polymers are used in many medical
purposes such as Dacron for artificial artery of the heart and blood bag used in blood
transfusion. These were according to American Chemistry Council (2005) and Smith
(2005).
Polymers can be based on the ff.: origin, type of monomer involved, structure,
mode of polymerization, thermal response, and physical properties/application.
Polymers Based on Origin: Natural, Semi-synthetic and Synthetic Polymers
There are three types of polymers based on origin: natural, semi-synthetic and
synthetic polymers. Synthetic polymers are derived from petroleum oil, and made by
scientists and engineers. Examples of synthetic polymers include nylon, polyethylene,
polyester, Teflon, and epoxy. Natural polymers occur in nature and can be extracted.
They are often water-based. Examples of naturally occurring polymers are silk, wool,
DNA, cellulose and proteins (Natural vs Synthetic Polymers, 2016). Semi-synthetic
polymers are mostly derived from naturally occurring polymers by chemical
modifications. For example, cellulose is a naturally occurring polymer. Cellulose on
acetylation with acetic anhydride in the presence of sulphuric acid forms cellulose
diacetate polymers. It is used in making thread and materials like films, glasses etc.
Vulcanized rubber is also an example of semisynthetic polymers used in making tires
etc.; gun cotton which is cellulose nitrate used in making explosive (Gouda, 2018).
Polymers Based Type of Monomer involved in the Structure: Homopolymer and

Copolymer
Polymers Based on Structure: Linear, Branched, Cross-Link and Network
There are two types of Monomer involved in the Structure of Polymers. First,
homopolymer- same monomer is repeated throughout the chain of polymer; and
copolymer- this is also known as heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more
different kinds of monomers.
99
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Homopolymers
Homopolymers can be classified as linear, branched, cross linked and

network homopolymers.
Linear polymers
Considered to be the simplest polymer, linear polymers have linear long

polymeric chain of same types of monomer units or simply a chain in which all of the
carbon-carbon bonds exist in a single straight line. Examples are HDPE (High-density
polyethylenes) and Teflon which is made from tetrafluoroethylene, a single strand of
units made from two carbon atoms and four fluorine atoms.
Branched Polymers
Branched polymers have short or long branches bonded on parent polymeric

or it occurs when groups of units branch off from the long polymer chain. These
branches are known as side chains and can also be very long groups of repeating
structures. A polymer with many branches is called dendrimers. Example is LDPE
(Low- density polyethylenes).
100
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
“HDPE (High-density polyethylenes) vs. LDPE (Low- density polyethylenes)”
High-density polyethylenes (HDPEs)
HDPEs are mostly linear molecules that pack closely together and can assume
fairly ordered crystalline structure. It’s rigid and has good tensile strength.
Examples: threaded bottles caps, toys, bottles and gallon milk jugs
Low- density polyethylenes (LDPEs)
LDPEs have plenty of side chains branching off polymer molecules. It’s waxy,
bendable plastics that are lower melting than HDPE (Smith, 2005).
Examples: Plastic bags, plastic film, electric wire insulation, etc.
Cross linked and Network polymers
They form long chains, either branched or linear, that can form covalent bonds
between the polymer molecules. As a result, it produces a stronger and more stable
material, because cross-linked polymers form covalent bonds that are much stronger
than the intermolecular forces that attract other polymer chains. Important example of
this is when natural rubber is vulcanized.
* Vulcanization
Vulcanization is a process where the rubber is heated so the sulfur

molecules in the rubber polymer chains form covalent bonds with each other.
This process was discovered by Charles Goodyear in 1839, utilizing Hevea
brasiliensis, a tree which produces a liquid resin from the inner bark forming a
natural rubber
101
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
- Chemically a polymer Isoprene, C5H8
Cis- from the latin word

“meaning “on the side”
From the book Chemistry the Central Science (8th Edition) author Theodore L.
Brown.
Copolymers
According to Raymond Chang and Goldsby (2016), copolymers are also known
as heteropolymer as they are composed of two or more different kinds of monomers.
It has two major types, namely, polyamides and polyesters.
Polyamides are the condensation of carboxylic acid and amine monomers while
polyesters are the condensation of carboxyclic acid and alcohol monomers. Example
of polyamide is Nylon-66 produced by mixing equimolar amounts of a six-C diamine
(1,6- diaminohexane) and a six-C diacid (1,6- hexanedioic acid). Example of polyester
is Dacron, a popular polyester fiber, woven from 1,4 benzenedicarboxylic acid and
1,2 ethanediol. Blending these polyester fibers with various amounts of cotton gives
fabrics that are durable, easily dyed, and crease resistant. Another example is mylar
films, used for recording tape and food packaging.
Copolymer can be further classified as alternating copolymer, block copolymer,

graft copolymer and random copolymers, gradient, periodic and aperiodic.
102
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
*Random Copolymer -the monomers are arranged in any order such as

AABAAABBBBAB.
*Block Copolymers - two blocks of homopolymers are joined together. It can be

represented as AAAAAAABBBBBBB.
*Alternating Copolymer - the two monomers are arranged in an alternative way

and can be represented as ABABABABAB.
*Graft Copolymer -The composition of the main chain is a preformed

macromolecule and is compositionally or configurationally different from the side
chains or branches w/ repeat units.
Kevlar
Kevlar is an extended application of Nylon and other polymers have stimulated

a strong demand for new “super” fibers with the heat resistance of asbestos, the
stiffness of glass, and strength much greater than steel. The average molecular mass
of each polymer chain is 10⁵ amu. Kevlar ropes can replace steel ropes and cables
(offshore oil drilling). In seawater, kevlar has 20 times the strength of steel. Kevlar is
also used in manufacturing bulletproof vests and high-performance sports gear. It’s
very stable at high temperature, thus, can be used as protective clothing by firefighters.
Classification of Polymers based on Molecular Forces: Thermoplastic and

Thermosets, Elastomers, Fiber-Forming Polymers
*Thermoplastics and Thermosets
103
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Thermoplastics - polymers become soft on the application of heat and thus can be
molded in the desired shape.
Thermosets - polymers have individual chain bonded covalently during

polymerization by application of heat or chemical treatment. The shape cannot be
changed and resist subsequent mechanical deformation or heat softening or solvent
attack.
Furthermore, thermoplastic can be classified as crystalline or amorphous

according to Institute of Applied Chemistry of NCTU.
104
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
*Glass transition temperature (Tg)
The glass–liquid transition, or glass transition, is the gradual and reversible

transition in amorphous materials (or in amorphous regions
within semicrystalline materials) from a hard and relatively brittle "glassy" state into a
viscous or rubbery state as the temperature is increased.[1] An amorphous solid that
exhibits a glass transition is called a glass. The reverse transition, achieved
by supercooling a viscous liquid into the glass state, is called vitrification.
The glass-transition temperature Tg of a material characterizes the range of
temperatures over which this glass transition occurs. It is always lower than
the melting temperature, Tm, of the crystalline state of the material, if one exists.
Despite the change in the physical properties of a material through its glass transition,
the transition is not considered a phase transition.
Above this temperature – polymer is rubbery and tough
*Materials with low Tg - if we want automobile tires to be tough and elastic
*Plasticizers- can make them more flexible and less brittle by lowering the Tg
Below temperature - polymer is like glass - hard, stiff and brittle
105
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
*Materials w/ Tg values above room temperature - if we want plastic substitutes

for glass to be glassy
ELASTOMERS
Elastomers (or rubbers) are polymers with considerable extensions which are
reversible, examples are natural and synthetic rubbers. Synthetic rubbers are now
used much more extensively and they are based on other polymers and produced
from the distillation of oil. Many components do not require great strength but they do
require softness, flexibility and reversible elongation. Thus, elastomers are ideal for
such applications as resilient floor coverings, footwear and vehicle tires.
Fiber-Forming Polymers
The fiber forming polymers are linear macromolecules that are usually suitable
for making man-made fibers. The term “synthetic fiber” will be used to denote all man-
made fibers manufactured from non-cellulosic raw materials. Examples are
hydrophobic polymer fibers like nylon and polyester often blended with cotton, viscose
or wool.
Polymer Recycling
According to Smith (2005), in recycling plastic in the United States, they follow
the “Big Six” Recycling code (1-6). The lower the number, the easier to recycle.
106
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
POLYMERIZATION
Polymerization s a chemical reaction in which two or more molecules combine

to form larger molecules that contain repeating structural units. It is usually formed
with the same type of repeating molecules (homopolymers) or form with two or more
different molecules (copolymer).
TYPES OF POLYMERIZATION
There are two general types of polymerization reactions: addition

polymerization and condensation polymerization. In addition polymerization, the
monomers add to one another in such a way that the polymer contains all the atoms
of the starting monomers. Ethylene molecules are joined together in long chains
(Chanda, 2017).
Chain-Reaction (Addition) Polymerization
The polymerization can be represented by the reaction of a few monomer

units:
107
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The bond lines extending at the ends in the formula of the product indicate that
the structure extends for many units in each direction. Notice that all the atoms—two
carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms—of each monomer molecule are incorporated
into the polymer structure. Because displays such as the one above are cumbersome,
the polymerization is often abbreviated as follows:
nCH2=CH2 → [ CH2CH2 ] n
During the polymeriation of ethene, thousands of ethene molecules join

together to make poly(ethene) - commonly called polythene. The reaction is done at
high pressures in the presence of a trace of oxygen as an initiator.
Step 1: Chain Initiation
The oxygen reacts with some of the ethene to give an organic peroxide. Organic
peroxides are very reactive molecules containing oxygen-oxygen single bonds which
are quite weak and which break easily to give free radicals. You can short-cut the
process by adding other organic peroxides directly to the ethene instead of using
oxygen if you want to. The type of the free radicals that start the reaction off vary
depending on their source. For simplicity we give them a general formula: Ra∙Ra∙
Step 2: Chain Propagation
In an ethene molecule, CH2=CH2, the two pairs of electrons which make up the
double bond aren't the same. One pair is held securely on the line between the two
carbon nuclei in a bond called a sigma bond. The other pair is more loosely held in an
orbital above and below the plane of the molecule known as a ππ bond.
108
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The sigma bond between the carbon atoms isn't affected by any of this. The
free radical, Ra , uses one of the electrons in the ππ bond to help form a new bond
between itself and the left hand carbon atom. The other electron returns to the right
hand carbon. You can show this using "curly arrow" notation if you want to:
This is energetically worth doing because the new bond between the radical
and the carbon is stronger than the ππ bond which is broken. You would get more
energy out when the new bond is made than was used to break the old one. The more
energy that is given out, the more stable the system becomes. What we've now got is
a bigger free radical - lengthened by CH2CH2. That can react with another ethene
molecule in the same way:
So now the radical is even bigger. That can react with another ethene - and so
on and so on. The polymer chain gets longer and longer.
Step 3: Chain Termination
The chain does not, however, grow indefinitely. Sooner or later two free radicals
will collide together.
That immediately stops the growth of two chains and produces one of the final
molecules in the poly(ethene). It is important to realize that the poly(ethene) is going
to be a mixture of molecules of different sizes, made in this sort of random way.
Because chain termination is a random process, poly(ethene) will be made up of
chains of different lengths.
Step-Reaction (Condensation) Polymerization
A large number of important and useful polymeric materials are not formed by
chain-growth processes involving reactive species such as radicals, but proceed
instead by conventional functional group transformations of polyfunctional reactants.
These polymerizations often (but not always) occur with loss of a small byproduct,
such as water, and generally (but not always) combine two different components in an
alternating structure. The polyester Dacron and the polyamide Nylon 66, shown here,
are two examples of synthetic condensation polymers, also known as step-growth
polymers. In contrast to chain-growth polymers, most of which grow by carbon-carbon
bond formation, step-growth polymers generally grow by carbon-heteroatom bond
109
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
formation (C-O & C-N in Dacron & Nylon respectively). Although polymers of this kind
might be considered to be alternating copolymers, the repeating monomeric unit is
usually defined as a combined moiety.
Examples of naturally occurring condensation polymers are cellulose, the

polypeptide chains of proteins, and poly (β-hydroxybutyric acid), a polyester
synthesized in large quantity by certain soil and water bacteria. Formulas for these will
be displayed below by clicking on the diagram.
(Polymers and Polymerization Reactions, 2016)
In summary, the table below presents the classification of polymers.

Table 1. Classification of Polymers
Basis of Polymer Types Examples

Classification
1. Origin (a) Natural (as available in Natural rubber, natural silk,
nature) cellulose, proteins, starch etc.
(b) Hydrogenated, halogenated and
Semisynthetic cyclo (natural) rubber; cellulosics
(Man – made) (cellulose
esters/ethers), etc.
110
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
(c) Synthetic Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-

(Man – made) styrene, polybutadiene, nylon poly-
amides, polycarbonates,
phenolics, amino resins, epoxy
resins etc.
2. Thermal response (a) Thermoplastics (they Polyethylene, polypropylene, poly-
soften or melt on heating and styrene, nylon polyamides, linear
harden on cooling over many polyester [poly
cycles of (ethylene
heating and cooling and terephthalate)] , etc.
retain solubility and
fusibility).
(b) Thermosetting (they Phenolic resin, amino resins,
usually soften or melt initially epoxy resins, diene rubbers
on heating, but fast undergo (vulcanized), unsaturated
chemical changes to finally polyesters.
turn insoluble and infusible).
3. Mode of formation (a) Chain – growth or Polyethylene and other polyolefins,
addition Polystyrene and related vinyl
polymers etc.
(b) Step – growth or Polyesters and polyamides,
condensation polycarbonates, phenol (urea,
melamine) – formaldehyde resins,
epoxy resins etc.
4. Line Structure (a) Linear High density polyethylene (HDPE),
(having no branches) polyvinyls, bifunctional (polyesters
and polyamides) etc.
(b) Branched Low density polyethylene (LDPE),
(having branches) higher poly (α-olefins), phenolic
resoles and resitols, poly (3-
hydroxy alkanoates) etc.
(c) Cross linked or network Phenolic C-stage (resite) resin, C-
(having a complex network stage amino (urea / melamine-
structure) formaldehyde) resins, cured
epoxy resin and
unsaturated polyester resin etc.
5. Application and (a) Rubbers Natural rubber, (1, 4 cis poly
Physical properties (showing long – range isoprene) synthetic rubbers
elasticity) (polybutadiene, SBR, nitrile
rubber, polychlo- roprene rubber,
polylacrylate rubber, polyurethane
rubbers, silicone rubbers etc.)
(b) Plastics Polyethylenes,
(shapable under pressure, polypropylen
aided by heat) e (isotactic), polystyrene, poly
(vinyl chloride), nylon polyamides
linear
aromatic polyesters and
111
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
polyamides, polycarbonates,
acetal resins etc.
(c) Fibres Cotton (cellulose), natural silk,

(available in fibrillar or artificial silk (rayons), poly
filamentous form) (ethylene terephthalate) fibre,
nylon polyamide fibres etc.
Chanda, M. (2017). Plastics technology handbook. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2133323950/66F3718BC0C64A70PQ/5
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1: Characteristics of Polymers and
Polymerization Processes pp 1-160
Let’s Check
1. What is a polymer?
2. What are the classifications of plastics according to Society of Plastic Industry?
3. Give examples of synthetic polymers and indicate their uses.
Let’s Analyze
1. How are plastics formed?

2. Differentiate thermoplastic from thermoset and give examples.
3. Why do different polymers have different properties?
In a Nutshell
1. How does the molecular-level structure of polymers influence their physical

properties?
2. "Teflon" is the polymer that results from the polymerization of
tetrafluoroethylene. Write a chemical formula for this reaction. What are some
112
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
of the properties of Teflon?
Keywords Index
Copolymers Crosslinking Elastomer Homopolymers Kevlar

Monomer Polymer Polymerization Resin Thermoplastic
Thermoset Vulcanization
References
American Chemistry Council, 2005 “The Basics: Polymer Definition and Properties”
Retrieved from http//www.plastics.americanchemistry.com/plastic
Brown, Theodore L. Chemistry the Central Science, 8th Edition Chapter 12,
pp. 440-448 “Modern Material”
Chanda, M. (2017). Plastics technology handbook. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2133323950/66F3718BC0C64A70PQ/5
?accountid=31259.
Chang, R. (2008). General Chemistry: The Essential Concepts. New York: McGraw-
Hill.
Chang, Raymond & Goldsby Kenneth A. Chemistry, 12th Edition

McGraw-Hill International Edition 2016, Chapter 25, pp. 1059-1064 “Synthetic
and Natural Organic Polymers”
Hill, John W. and Kolb, Doris K. Chemistry for Changing Times, 9th Edition
Chapter, pp 283-286 “Polymers”
Natural vs Synthetic Polymers. (2016). Retrieved August 27, 2018, from

www.cmu.edu: https://www.cmu.edu/gelfand/education/k12-
teachers/polymers/natural-synthetic-polymers/
Smith, Janice Gorzynski. Organic Chemistry, 5th Edition

McGraw-Hill Education International Edition, 2005. Chapter 30,
pp. 1217-1221 “Synthetic Polymers”
Silverberg, Principles of General Chemistry, 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill

International Edition, Chapter 15 pp. 483-486 “ The Monomer- Polymer”
Winslow, F. B. (1979). MACROMOLECULES: The Introduction to Polymer Science.

New York: ACADEMIC PRESS, INC.
113
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO2d. show understanding of the concept of

engineered nanomaterials
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study
of nanomaterials to demonstrate ULO2d will be reviewed. Please refer to these
concepts.
Bottom-up Approach includes the miniaturization of materials components (up to
atomic level) with further selfassembly process leading to the
formation of nanostructures
Buckminsterfullerene also known as buckyball, is a spherical close- caged structure
made of sixty sp2 carbons it has a highly symmetrical structure
which give it its electronic properties
Carbon nanotubes are tubes made of carbon with diameters typically measured
in nanometers; often refer to single-wall carbon
nanotubes (SWCNTs) with diameters in the range of a
nanometer.
Dendrimers are highly branched, star-shaped macromolecules with
nanometer-scale dimensions
Engineered materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and are intentionally
nanomaterials produced for specific product application
Fullerene an allotrope of carbon whose molecule consists of carbon
atoms connected by single and double bonds so as to form a
closed or partially closed mesh, with fused rings of five to seven
atoms. The molecule may be a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube,
or many other shapes and sizes.
Graphene a carbon-based nanomaterial derived from graphite through
exfoliation
Nanocomposites are materials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix
of standard material. The result of the addition of nanoparticles
is a drastic improvement in properties that can include
mechanical strength, toughness and electrical or thermal
conductivity.
Nanomaterials materials that have structural components smaller than 1
micrometer in at least one dimension
Nanoparticles particles with at least one dimension smaller than 1 micron and
potentially as small as atomic and molecular length scales
(~0.2 nm)
Nanotechnology the design, synthesis, and application of materials and devices
whose size and shape have been engineered at the nanoscale
114
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Top-down Approach uses larger (macroscopic) initial structures, which can be

externally-controlled in the processing of nanostructures
Essential Knowledge
In our fast advancing technology, we are introduced to on-blink discoveries and

innovation. One of these is the introduction of the usage on nanomaterials in different
applications that make our lives more convenient and better. We will now discover
what nanomaterials are delving specifically to engineered ones. We will discuss its
four main types and some of their examples.
What are nanomaterials?
Nanomaterials are any material with any external dimension in the nanoscale
which ranges from 1-100 nanometers or internal or surface structure are in nanoscale
(IOS, 2015). Moreover, the European Commission (2011) defined a nanomaterial as
any natural, incidental or manufactured material containing particles in an unbound
state or as an aggregate where 50% or more of the particles’ size extends from 1-100
nm.
Fundamental Properties of Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials nucleate, grow, and dissolve via a set of elementary chemical
processes that spontaneously redistribute charge and mass at the atomic scale. These
processes include electron and proton transfer reactions that rearrange ions and
complexes into nanophases. They can be understood by using thermodynamic,
kinetic, and transition-state theory to describe intermediate states along reaction
pathways on free-energy landscapes. Classical nucleation theory describes ion-by-ion
assembly to form crystals, but nonclassical growth pathways are also important; these
pathways involve formation of intermediate multinuclear ion clusters and small
nanomaterials that can transition to relatively larger nanomaterials and bulk crystals
by particle-based crystallization (Yoreo et al 2015 & Van Driessche, 2017).
The distinct properties of all natural and anthropogenic nanomaterials stem

primarily from the comparatively high proportion of surface atoms relative to interior
ones. At times, these properties are best described using quantum mechanics.
Smaller particles have fewer atoms, which translates to fewer electron energy levels.
Therefore, electron energy bands become discrete electron energy states, of energies
that are sensitive to particle size, a condition known as quantum confinement.
Nevertheless, however “nano” is defined or considered, size and shape are essential
characteristics because they exert primary control over reactivity and transport
physics. Size and shape also determine the types and distributions of reactive surface
sites capable of chemical transformations and, at times, the toxicity of nanomaterials.
Owing to the high proportion of surface versus bulk atoms, even the smallest variations
in surface structures may control the fate and reactivity of nanomaterials in air, water,
soil, or biota. Through their influence on surface charging behavior, size and shape
also control the tendency for aggregation, a critically important aspect that can blend
115
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
or obscure the characteristics of individual particles as they adopt new characteristics

in nanocomposites.
The interplay between growth, dissolution, evaporation, and aggregation are

key aspects of nanomaterials in the environment (Fig. 1). Oriented aggregation can
result in the formation of larger particles with complex shapes (Penn et al, 1998). But
because of the complexity of natural settings, most nanomaterials are found in
heteroaggregated composites of different inorganic and organic materials. These
aggregates can diverge markedly from spherical shapes and may even form highly
branched or fractal structures, thereby fundamentally affecting transport properties
and reactivities. Rates of particle dissolution, although known or experimentally
measurable for many pure-phase nanomaterials in a well-dispersed state (Cwiertny et
al 2009 & Schoepf Schoepf et al 2017), are challenging to predict for complex
nanomaterial aggregates that have substantial internal surface areas with limited
accessibility (Liu et al, 2008). Furthermore, these physical associations change as the
nanomaterials encounter and transition through different local environments. Only in
relatively simple systems can the evolution of particle size, shape, and aggregation
state, and thus the distribution of effective particle diameters, be predicted with
reasonable accuracy (Mullaugh & Luther, 2011).
Figure 1. Conceptual free-energy landscape for the formation and interactions that
define the typical state of nanomaterials in the environment.
Shown are chemical formation mechanisms of nanomaterials, from complexes

to clusters and beyond, within aqueous solutions. This creates nanomaterials (teal
solid curve) that are more stable than the product of continuous growth (teal dashed
curve), which results in larger bulk crystals (represented here as a precipitated single
crystal or a crystal formed by oriented attachment of nanocrystals, OA) that have a
free energy represented by the horizontal red dotted line. Moving across the graphic
from left to right, as shown by the curved arrow, symbolizes the myriad interactions of
116
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
stable nanomaterials in environmental media. Individual nanoparticles at an energy

represented by the horizontal purple dotted line tend to form heteroaggregates at an
even lower free-energy state. Here, net attractive interactions with unlike particles and
compounds (green curve) tend to outcompete processes that could lead to single-
phase bulk crystals assembled by, for example, OA (green dashed curve), producing,
instead, long-lived composites of complex composition and structure.
Engineered Nanoparticles
Engineered nanomaterials are materials with sizes 1 to 100 nanometers and

are intentionally produced for specific product applications. Furthermore, they possess
different chemical and physical properties from those larger forms of the same material
(National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, 2018).
According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (2007), there

are four main types of engineered nanomaterials. These are mainly Carbon-Based,
Metal-Based, Dendrimers, and Nanocomposites.
❖ Carbon- Based Nanomaterials (CBNs)
From its name, carbon- based nanomaterials are composed mostly of carbon
which may form hollow spheres, ellipsoids or tubes. Spherical and ellipsoidal carbon
nanomaterials are generally called fullerenes whereas cylindrical ones are called
nanotubes. These particles are best used in improved films and coatings, stronger and
lighter materials and electronics application.
Some examples of Carbon- Based Nanomaterials
Carbon Nanotubes
It is referred as the most widely used CBN. It is known for its tunable physical
properties such as diameter, length, surface functionalization and chirality. It is
produced through arc discharge or chemical water deposition of graphite. Carbon
nanotubes have cylindrical carbon structure and wide range of electrical and optical
properties (Saito, et al, 1998).
117
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 2. Carbon nanotube
Graphene
Graphene is the latest CBN to burst into the scene. It is derived from graphite
through exfoliation, a method introduced by Geim and Novoselov (2007). In addition,
graphene is extraordinarily strong and is famed as the strongest material ever known
and tested. It is supernaturally light and electrically super conductive (Science 321,
385 and Changu, 2008).
Figure 3. Graphene
Fullerenes
Fullerene was discovered in 1985 by Rice University’s researchers and was

named after Buckminster Fuller. Spherical fullerenes are called buckyballs, the C 60
variant which resembles a typical black and white soccer ball. On the other hand,
cylindrical ones are called buckytubes (Science Daily, 2018).
Buckminsterfullerene
Also known as buckyball, is a spherical close-caged structure made of sixty sp2

carbons. It has a highly symmetrical structure which gives it its electronic properties
(Kroto, et al, 1985).
118
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 4. Buckyball
❖ Metal- Based Nanomaterials
These are nanomaterials made up of metals, semiconductors and oxides. They

have very interesting mechanical, electrical, magnetic, optical and chemical properties
(Stephenson and Hubler, 2015). Metal- based nanomaterials may include quantum
dots, nanogold, nanosilvers and metal oxides.
Some examples of Metal-Based Nanomaterials
Iron oxide (Fe2O3) Nanoparticles
Iron oxide is one of the three main oxides of iron. It is a reddish brown, inorganic
and is paramagnetic in nature delivery and imaging, molecular and cellular tracking,
detection of cancer, diabetes, etc. Superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles are
known for their magnetic properties and biocompatibility. Due to these properties, iron
oxide nanoparticles are used in biomedical applications such as for enhanced
resolution content agents for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). (Morales, et al,
2003)
Gold Nanoparticle (Colloidal Gold)
Gold nanoparticles also known as colloidal gold are suspension or colloid of

nanomaterial particles of gold (Giljohan, et al, 2010). Colloidal gold solutions have
either intense red color or dirty yellowish color (Murphy, et al, 2008). According to Link,
et al. (1999), the properties and applications of gold nanoparticles depend upon its
shape.
❖ Dendrimers
Dendrimers are nanosized polymers built from branched units. Their surfaces
have numerous chains which can be tailored to perform a specific chemical function.
119
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Moreover, this is also the reason for being useful in catalysis. They may also be used
for drug delivery due to its interior cavities which other molecules could be placed. This
is particular for three-dimensional dendrimers.
Some types of Dendrimers
Polyamidoamine (PAMAM)
Perhaps, the most well-known dendrimer. PAMAM has a diamine core,

commonly ethylenediamine which is reacted with methyl acrylate. Then, another
ethylenediamine is reacted to make the generation-0 (G-0). Eventually successive
reactions create higher generations (Hermanson, 2008).
Figure 5. PAMAM dendrimer
Peptide Dendrimers
These are dendrimers which held amino acid as branching or interior units.
Diagnostic purposes and vaccine delivery are some of its applications (Yasukawa, et
al, 2008).
Multilingual Dendrimers
Dendrimers which hold multiple copies of functional group on their surface

(Pushkar, et al, 2006).
❖ Nanocomposites
120
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
These are nanomaterials that incorporate nanosized particles into a matrix of a

standard material. The potential effect of this addition are mechanical strength and
electrical and thermal conductivity. They work as thin-film capacitors for computer
chips, solid polymer electrolytes for batteries, impellers, oxygen and gases barriers
and many more (AzoNano, 2015)
Types of Nanocomposites (according to matrix)
Ceramic-Matrix Nanocomposite
In this type of nanocomposite, the main part or the matrix is a ceramic (a

chemical compound from the group of oxides, nitrides, borides, etc.). Usually, ceramic-
matrix nanocomposites have metal as the second component. The two components
are finely dispersed in each other to create a particular nanoscopic properties (Kruis,
et a, 1998).
Metal-Matrix Nanocomposites
Also defined as reinforced metal matrix composites, having metal as the

primary component. The best example is the Carbon nanotube metal-matrix
composite (Janas and Liszka, 2007). Other examples are boron nitride reinforced
metal matrix nanocomposites and carbon nitride metal-matrix nanocomposites
(Bakshi, et al, 2010).
Polymer-Matrix Nanocomposites
This type of nanocomposite can be produced by adding a nanoparticle to a

polymer matrix to enhance performance, functions, and properties. These are
sometimes called nanofilled polymer composites (Manias, 2007). Nanoparticles such
as carbon nanotubes, graphene, molybdenum, disulfide and tungsten disulfide are
usually used as reinforcing agents (Rafiee, et al, 2009).
Generally, the realm of engineered nanomaterials is considerably vast as well

as their applications. They were categorized according to composition and those
categories were further divided into types. To sum up, there are four main types of
engineered nanomaterials, namely, Carbon-Based Nanomaterials, Metal-Based
Nanomaterials, Dendrimers and Nanocomposites. Some of the types and examples
are recognized in this section to give a brief outlook in the bigger and wider concept
of engineered nanomaterials.
Synthesis of Engineered Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials Production – How nanomaterials are made?
121
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Materials in the nanometer size are in demand for production for the past years. It is
used in a broad variety of applications. So as years continue to pass by, so is the
production of nanomaterials. Its production rate continues to immerse that almost all
materials were made after it. It has been compromising many products and is used in
various technologies. For example, the Carbon Black, has been used in tires since
1930 and as of now it is still being used by companies to produce tires. Moreover,
most nanoproducts are required to be processed through a series of production that
inhabits a precisely defined, narrow range of particle sizes (monodispersity) to attain
a result.
The said series of processes are used to produce diverse nanoparticles,
coatings, dispersions or composites that are needed to make an engineered
nanomaterial. This production involves a thorough defined production and reaction
conditions for obtaining such size-dependent particle features. Particle size, chemical
composition, crystallinity and shape can be controlled by temperature, pH-value,
concentration, chemical composition, surface modifications and process control.
• Approaches in the Synthesis on Nanomaterials

There are two approaches in the production of nanomaterials:
1. Top-Down Approach
It is a mechanical-physical particle synthesis based on the principles of
Microsystems technology. From its name Top-Down, it merely means that the process
is done from top (bigger) up to its base (lesser). Its production is done through the
mechanical crushing of the source material using a milling process or a chemical
technique like engraving metals by acids to obtain desired particles. This approach
also seeks to make a small strategy by using the larger ones to address the making
of the particles. Examples of this approach are the High Energy Ball Milling, Laser
Ablation, and Lithography (Zabara, 2016).
2. Bottom-Up Approach
This approach is patterned on physicochemical principles of molecules or
atomic self-organization. Its production begins with that of the atom of a specific
material by chemical processes based on its alteration in different mediums such as a
solution medium or gaseous medium (Zabara, 2016). This kind of synthesis
manufactured selected and more complex structures from atoms or molecules, better
controlling sizes, shapes and size ranges. The production seeks to arrange smaller
components into more complex groups.
This approach also depends merely on the chemical variation to come up with
the desired designs in manufacturing engineered nanomaterials. This includes the
Gas (Vapor) Phase Fabrication like the Pyrolysis and the Liquid Phase Fabrication
such as Solvothermal Reaction and Sol-Gel.
Synthesis in the Top-Down Approach
122
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
A. High Energy Ball Milling
It is a milling process in which a powder mixture is placed in a ball mill that is

subjected to have high-energy collision from the balls. This process was coined by
Benjamin and his co-workers at the International Nickel Company on 1960. They found
out that this method, termed mechanical alloying, could successfully produce fine,
uniform dispersions of oxide particles (Al2O3, Y2O3, and ThO2) in nickel-based
superalloys that the conventional powder metallurgy method can’t do. With this kind
of production, the Engineered Nanomaterials came to life for its production are not
easy to produce for its unique size. This had changed the traditional method in which
production of materials is carried out by high temperature. (Cao, 2007).
This method is using different kinds of instrument to produce such production

such as attritor, planetary mill or a horizontal ball mill. The principle of this procedure
is merely to establish the nanomaterials. Planetary ball mill is the most frequently used
system for mechanical alloying since only a very small amount of powder is required.
Therefore, the system is particularly suitable for research purposes in the laboratory.
The ball mill system consists of one turn disc (turn table) and two or four bowls. The
turn disc rotates in one direction while the bowls rotate in the opposite direction. The
centrifugal forces, created by the rotation of the bowl around its own axis together with
the rotation of the turn disc, are applied to the powder mixture and milling balls in the
bowl. The powder mixture is fractured and cold welded under high energy impact.
(Cao, 2007).
B. Laser Ablation
Laser ablation has been studied for various applications in the late 1963 but
has been employed for synthesizing nanomaterials in the mid 1990s. Laser ablation
means the removal of materials from a surface by means of laser irradiation. The word
“Laser ablation” is used to emphasize the non-equilibrium vapor or plasma conditions
that is created at the surface by laser pulse, to distinguish from “laser evaporation,”
which is heating and evaporation of material in condition of thermodynamic
equilibrium. Briefly, there are two essential parts in the laser ablation device: a pulsed
laser (CO2 laser, Nd-YAG laser, ArFexcimer laser, or XeClexcimer laser) and an
ablation chamber. The high power of the laser beam induces large light absorption on
the surface of target, which makes temperature of the absorbing material increase
rapidly.
As a result, the material on the surface of target vaporizes into laser plume. In
some cases, the vaporized materials condensate into cluster and particle without any
chemical reaction. In some other cases, the vaporized material reacts with introduced
reactants to form new materials. The condensed particle will be either deposited on a
substrate or collected through a filter system consisting of a glass fiber mesh. Then,
the collected nanoparticle can be coated on a substrate through drop-coating or
screen-printing process. (Cao, 2007).
123
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Synthesis in the Bottom-Up Approach
Pyrolysis
A technique usually classified as vapour phase synthesis process in the

production of the nanomaterials. It is considered a chemical synthesis for it uses
chemical reactions to obtain its specific objective in synthesizing nanoparticles to
produce nanomaterials. The routes of this synthesis are: the Nanomaterial starts
abruptly when a sufficient degree of supersaturation of condensable products is
reached in the vapour phase. When the nucleation occurs, fast particle growth takes
place by coalescence/coagulation rather than further nucleation. At sufficiently high
temperatures, particle coalescence (sintering) is faster than coagulation and spherical
particles are formed. At lower temperatures, coalescence slows down and partially
sintered, non-spherical particles and/or loose agglomerates of particles are formed.
It follows that, to prepare small, spherical particles, it is necessary to create a

high degree of supersaturation for inducing the formation of a high density of nuclei
and then quickly quench the particle growth either by removing the source of
supersaturation or by slowing down the kinetics. The products that resulted from this
process are done thoroughly to achieve the best engineered nanomaterials we’re
aiming for (Zabara, 2016).
• Solvothermal Reaction
Solvothermal Reaction is a method for preparing engineered nanomaterials such as
nanobots and nanorods. A liquid phase synthesis that involves the use of solvent
under moderate to high pressure typically between 1 atm and 10,000 atm and
temperature typically between 100 °C and 1000 °C that is responsible for the
interaction of precursors during synthesis. The formation of nanocrystal is controlled
by manipulating the solvent supersaturation, chemical of interest concentration, and
kinetic control. This method can be used to prepare thermodynamically stable and
metastable states including novel materials that cannot be easily formed from other
synthetic routes. Over the last decade, a majority (~80%) of the literature concerning
solvothermal synthesis has focused on nanocrystals. If water is used as the solvent,
the method is called “hydrothermal synthesis.” The synthesis under hydrothermal
conditions is usually performed below the supercritical temperature of water (374 °C).
The process can be used to prepare much geometry including thin films, bulk powders,
single crystals, and nanocrystals to produce engineered nanomaterials (Zabara,
2016).
• Sol-Gel
A well-established colloidal chemistry technology, which offers possibility to
produce variety of nanomaterials with novel, predefined characteristics in a simple
process at a low cost. The term “sol” originated from the name of a colloidal solution
made of solid particles few hundred nm in diameter, suspended in a liquid phase, while
the gel refers to the solid macromolecule immersed in a solvent. Sol-gel process
124
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
consists in the chemical transformation of a liquid (the sol) into a gel state and with
subsequent post-treatment and transition into solid oxide material. The main benefits
of sol–gel processing are the high purity and uniform nanostructure achievable at low
temperatures (Zabara, 2016).
Applications of Engineered Nanomaterial
Types of Carbon-Based Nanomaterial
Graphene, Nanodiamonds, Nanofiber, Fullerenes and Nanotube
Graphene can be used as energy storage and it is being studied and developed
to be used in manufacture of super capacitors which are able to be charged very
quickly. Also it can be able to store a large amount of electricity. Graphene – enhanced
lithium ion batteries could be used in much higher energy usage application such as
electricity powered vehicles, smart phones, laptops, and tablets PCs but at significant
lower level of size and weight (La Fuente, n.d.).
The nontoxicity and biocompatibility of nanodiamonds (NDs) in their excellent

physical performance have rendered them attractive candidates for biomedical
applications. Nanodiamonds have great potential in drug nano formulations because
of its small size compared with any carbon-based nanomaterial. Nanodiamonds are
nontoxic so they have the excellent absorption properties that can be formulated into
skin care products. Other application of nanodiamond is for skin care meditation and
wound healing.
Nanofiber layers produced from biopolymers (chitosan, gelatin, collagen,

polykaprolakton and etc.) can be used as wound healing for significant support of the
wound healing process. Also, it is possible to add antibacterial material and drugs to
the nanofiber structure that can be used in contaminated wounds.
Fullerenes belong to the class of inorganic molecules and show wide availability
due to their small size and biological activity. The fullerene core is hydrophobic and
the functional group is attached to its core. By attaching hydrophilic moieties, fullerene
become water-soluble and capable of carrying drugs and gene for the cellular delivery.
Derivatized fullerene can cross the cell membrane and bind to the mitochondria
(Folley, 2002).
Carbon nanotubes or (CNTs) have the intrinsic characteristics desired in

materials used as electrodes in batteries and capacitors. They have tremendously high
surface area that’s good for electrical conductivity, their linear geometry makes their
surface highly accessible to the electrolyte. Aside from good electrical conductivity,
they also have good mechanical properties which lead to wealth application including
advanced components.
125
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Types of Metal-Based Nanomaterial
Quantum Dots, Nanogold and Nanosilver
Quantum dots can be used for producing images of cancer tumors and it is
used to evaluate the performance of cancer treatments. Also, it is used to produce
miniature laser to be used in communication devices. The advantage of this laser is
its high speed data transfer with low power consumption. Quantum dots can be used
in computer or TV displays. Using quantum dot display should be thinner, lower than
current displays as well as able to be flexible.
The application of nanogold conjugated with therapeutic agents improve the

pharmacokinetics of the “free” drug and sustain release properties that makes it an
attractive tool for drug delivery and gene delivery.
Large surface area to volume ratio of gold nanoparticles enables their surface
to be coated with hundreds of molecules including therapeutics, targeting agents, and
anti-fouling polymers. Also, in DNA combined assembly, gold particles are used as
efficient gene transfection tools.
Nanosilvers have antibacterial and conductive applications. For antibacterial

application, nanosilvers are used for wound dressing, appliances and cosmetics. For
conductive application, they are used as conductive inks and integrated into
composites to enhance thermal and electrical conductivity (Oldenburg, n.d.).
Dendrimers
The most promising potential of dendrimers is in their possibility to perform

controlled and specified drug delivery, which regards the topic of nanomedicine. One
of the most fundamental problems that are set toward modern medicine is to improve
pharmacokinetic properties of drug for cancer (Sampathkumar and Yarema, 2007).
There are many other areas of biological chemistry where application of

dendrimer system may be useful. One example is cellular delivery using carrier
dendritic polymer used in the purification of water dendrimer-based product (Tiwari,
2008).
PAMAM dendrimers have several applications in pharmaceutical and

biomedical fields. It has also been used for gene delivery and delivery of diagnostic
agents. PAMAM dendrimers are nonimmunogenic, are water soluble, and possess
terminal functional groups for binding various targeting or guest molecules (Araújo et
al, 2018). Polyadoamine (PAMAM) is a type of dendrimer, containing variety of
molecules, such as drugs and therapeutic agents that can be loaded in the interior
space and also in the surface of PAMAM dendrimers to control the rate of release of
these agents into the body.
126
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Types of Composites
Ceramic Matrix and Metal Matrix Nanocomposite
Carbon nanotube is used to give more applications in nanocomposites.

Ceramic matrix nanocomposites are good in applications that require good thermal
and electrical properties. They are used as medical devices and implants, automotive,
aerospace and power generation, tool and die material (Soutter, 2013).
The other example is metal matrix nanocomposites. With the use of carbon
nanotube, they can be used in different industries, such as in sports: badminton, tennis
racket and light weight bicycle; aerospace: landing gears and aircraft brakes;
automobile: gears, break shoes, piston rings and cylinder liners.
Kumar, N., & Kumbhat, S. (2016). Essentials in nanoscience and nanotechnology.

Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2135420731/2FD5DC110D374426PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1: Introduction pp xlv-lxxiii
Let’s Check
1. What is nanotechnology?
2. What are engineered nanomaterials? Give examples and discuss each.
3. What analytical techniques are used to characterize nanomaterials?
Let’s Analyze
1. Compare nanomaterials with microplastics.

2. What active ingredient/s in sunscreen is/are considered nanomaterial? Why
does sunscreen contain nanomaterials in the first place?
3. Can nanomaterials used in sunscreen cross the skin barrier and enter the
body?
127
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
4. Is the UV-protection in nanomaterial-containing sunscreens only effective if

the nanomaterials enter the skin and how are they excreted later?
In a Nutshell
1. What are the environmental implications of nanotechnology?

2. How can you ascertain the release of nanomaterials from products into the
environment?
3. How can you differentiate between natural and engineered nanoparticles in
the environment?
4. Is it possible to specifically recycle nanomaterials from products?
Keywords Index
Bottom-up Buckminsterfullerene
Approach
Fullerene Graphene
Engineered Nanocomposites
nanomaterials
Nanoparticles Nanomaterials
Carbon Nanotechnology
nanotubes
Dendrimers Top-down Approach
References
A. E. S. Van Driessche, T. M. Stawski, L. G. Benning, M. Kellermeier, in New

Perspectives on Mineral Nucleation and Growth: From Solution Precursors to
Solid Materials, A. E. S. Van Driessche, M. Kellermeier, L. G. Benning, D.
Gebauer, Eds. (Springer, 2017), pp. 227–256.
Araújo, R., Santos, S., Igne Ferreira, E., & Giarolla, J. (2018). New Advances in
General Biomedical Applications of PAMAM Dendrimers. Molecules, 23(11),
2849. doi:10.3390/molecules23112849
AzoNano. (2015). Nanocomposites- An overview of properties, application and

definition.
Bakshi, S.R, et al. (2010). Carbon nanotube reinforced metal matrix composites. A
review, International Materials Reviews, vol. 55
128
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Cao, W., (2007) “Synthesis of Nanomaterials by High Energy Ball Milling”

Retrieved from: https://www.understandingnano.com/nanomaterial-synthesis-
ball-milling.html
D. M. Cwiertny, G. J. Hunter, J. M. Pettibone, M. M. Scherer, V.

H. Grassian, Surface chemistry and dissolution of α-FeOOH nanorods and
microrods: Environmental implications of size-dependent interactions with
oxalate. J. Phys. Chem. C 113, 2175–2186 (2009). 10.1021/jp807336t
Folley, S., et.al. (2002). Cellular localization of a water soluble fullerene derivative.
Biochem Biophys Res Commun
Geim, A.K; Novoselov, K.S. (2007). The rise of graphene. Nat Mater. 6: 183-189
Giljohan, et al. (2010). Gold nanoparticles for biology and medicine.
Hermanson, Greg T. (2008). “7”. Bioconjugate techniques (2nd ed). Academic Press
of Elsevier: London.
International Organization for Standardization. (2015). Nanotechnologies-

Vocabulary- Part 1: Core Terms.
Janas, Dawid; Liszka, Barbara. (2017). Copper matrix nanocomposites based on

carbon nanotubes or graphene.
J. J. De Yoreo, P. U. P. A. Gilbert, N. A. J. M. Sommerdijk, R. L. Penn, S. Whitelam,

D. Joester, H. Zhang, J. D. Rimer, A. Navrotsky, J. F. Banfield, A. F. Wallace,
F. M. Michel, F. C. Meldrum, H. Cölfen, P. M. Dove, Crystallization by particle
attachment in synthetic, biogenic, and geologic environments. Science 349,
eaaa6760 (2015). 10.1126/science.aaa6760pmid:26228157
J. J. Schoepf, Y. Bi, J. Kidd, P. Herckes, K. Hristovski, P. Westerhoff, Detection and

dissolution of needle-like hydroxyapatite nanomaterials in infant formula.
NanoImpact 5, 22–28 (2017). 10.1016/j.impact.2016.12.007
J. Liu, D. M. Aruguete, J. R. Jinschek, J. Donald Rimstidt, M. F. Hochella Jr., ., The

non-oxidative dissolution of galena nanocrystals: Insights into mineral
dissolution rates as a function of grain size, shape, and aggregation state.
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 72, 5984–5996 (2008).
10.1016/j.gca.2008.10.010
K. M. Mullaugh, G. W. Luther, Growth kinetics and long-term stability of CdS

nanoparticles in aqueous solution under ambient conditions. J. Nanopart.
Res. 13, 393–404 (2011). 10.1007/s11051-010-0045-9
Kroto, H.W, et al. (1985). Buckminsterfullerene. Nature. 318: 162-1623.
129
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Kruis, F.E, et al. (1998). Synthesis of nanoparticles in the gas phase for electronic,
optical and magnetic applications.
La Fuente, J. (n.d.). Graphene Application and Uses. Retrieved from

https://www.grapehenea.com/pages/grapehene-uses-
applications#.w37yeqSFPIU
Link, et al. (1999). Simulation of the optical absorption spectra of gold nanorods as a
function of their aspect ratio and the effect of the medium dielectric constant.
Manias, Evangelos. (2007). Nanocomposite: Stiffer by design. Nature Materials
Morales, et al. (2003). Contrast agent for MRI based on iron oxide nanoparticles
prepared by laser pyrolysis.
Murphy, CJ, et al. (2008), Gold nanoparticles biology: beyond toxicity to cellular
imaging
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health. (2018). Protecting workers
during the handling of nanomaterials.
Oldenburg, S. (n.d.). Silver Nanoparticles: Properties and Application. Retrieved from

https://www.sigmaaldrich.com/technical-documents/articles/materials-
science/nanomaterial/silver-nanoparticles.html
Pushkar, et al. (2006). Dendrimers: Nanotechnology derived field, polymers in drug
delivery. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Education and Research.
R. L. Penn, J. F. Banfield, Imperfect oriented attachment: Dislocation generation in

defect-free nanocrystals. Science 281, 969–971 (1998).
10.1126/science.281.5379.969pmid:9703506
R. L. Penn, J. F. Banfield, Oriented attachment and growth, twinning, polytypism,

and formation of metastable phases: Insights from nanocrystalline TiO2. Am.
Mineral. 83, 1077–1082 (1998). 10.2138/am-1998-9-1016
Refiee, M.A, et al. (2009). Enhanced mechanical properties of nanocomposites at

low graphene content.
Saito, R, et al. (1998). Physical properties of carbon nanotubes. Imperial College

Press, London.
Sampathkumar, SG., Yarema, KJ. (2007). Nanomaterials for Cancer Diagnosis and
Theraphy. Nanotechnologies for the Life Sciences. Volume 6: pp 1-47.
Science 321, 385 (2008); Changu, Lee, et al. Measurement of the elastic properties
and intrinsic strength of monolayer graphene.
Science Daily. (2018). Fullerenes. Britannica Encyclopedia.
130
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Soutter, W. (2013). Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites with Carbon Nanotube.
Stephenson, C and Hubbler, A. (2015). Stability and conductivity of self-assembled

wires in a transverse electric field.
The European Commission. (2011). Commission Recommendation of the 18

October 2011 on the Definition of Nanomaterials.
Tiwari, DK., et.al. (2008). Application of nanoparticles in waste water management.

Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4074873/
United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2007). Classification of

nanomaterials, the four main types of intentionally produced nanomaterials.
Yasukawa, et al. (2004). Drug Delivery Systems for vitro Retinal Diseases. Progress
in Retinal and Eye Research
Zabara, M., (2016) “Metallic Nanoparticles, part II (Top- Down and Bottom-Up)”
Retrieved from: https://nanografi.com/blog/metallic-nanoparticles-part-ii-top-
down-and-bottom up/
Course Schedule

Big Picture B: Let’s Check Activities Blackboard
Big Picture B: Let’s Analyze Activities Blackboard
Big Picture B: In a Nutshell Activities Blackboard
Big Picture C: Let’s Check Activities Blackboard
Big Picture C: Let’s Analyze Activities Blackboard
Big Picture C: In a Nutshell Activities Blackboard
Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities Blackboard
Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities Blackboard
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell Activities Blackboard
Second Exam Face-to-face
131
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture 3
expected to
a. demonstrate understanding on the chemistry of atmosphere;

b. explain the chemistry of water;
c. show understanding of the concept of soil chemistry.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO3a. demonstrate understanding on the

chemistry of atmosphere
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study of the
chemistry of atmosphere to demonstrate ULO3a will be reviewed. Please refer to
these definitions in case you will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational
concepts.
Acid Rain rain, or precipitation, with a pH of 5.6 or lower. It is caused by the

pollutants sulfur dioxide and nitric oxides.
Ammonification a process when an organism excretes waste or dies, the nitrogen
in its tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen (e.g. amino acids,
DNA)
Assimilation the formation of organic nitrogen compounds like amino acids
from inorganic nitrogen compounds present in the environment.
Organisms like plants, fungi and certain bacteria that cannot fix
nitrogen gas depend on the ability to assimilate nitrate or
ammonia for their needs.
Combustion or burning, is a high-temperature exothermic redox chemical
reaction between a fuel and an oxidant, usually atmospheric
oxygen, that produces oxidized, often gaseous products, in a
mixture termed as smoke.
Conduction the transfer of heat energy through matter from particle to particle;
most effective in solids
Convection the transfer of heat energy in gases or liquids due to density
differences
Coriolis Effect an effect whereby a mass moving in a rotating system
experiences a force (the Coriolis force) acting perpendicular to the
132
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
direction of motion and to the axis of rotation. On the earth, the

effect tends to deflect moving objects to the right in the northern
hemisphere and to the left in the southern and is important in the
formation of cyclonic weather systems.
Denitrification the process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing
bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere
Exosphere a thin, atmosphere-like volume surrounding a planet or natural
satellite where molecules are gravitationally bound to that body,
but where the density is too low for them to behave as a gas by
colliding with each other.
Humidity the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere at a given location
on Earth’s surface
Ionosphere the layer of the earth's atmosphere that contains a high
concentration of ions and free electrons and is able to reflect
radio waves. It lies above the mesosphere and extends from
about 50 to 600 miles (80 to 1,000 km) above the earth's surface.
Latitude an angle (defined below) which ranges from 0° at the Equator to
90° (North or South) at the poles. Lines of constant latitude, or
parallels, run east–west as circles parallel to the equator.
Longitude a geographic coordinate that specifies the east–west position of a
point on the Earth's surface, or the surface of a celestial body. It is
an angular measurement, usually expressed in degrees and
denoted by the Greek letter lambda. Meridians connect points
with the same longitude.
Mesosphere the third layer of the atmosphere, directly above the stratosphere
and directly below the thermosphere. In the mesosphere,
temperature decreases as altitude increases.
Nitrification the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate
Nitrogen fixation the process of converting N2 into biologically available nitrogen
Ozone also called trioxygen; an inorganic molecule with the chemical
formula O₃; a pale blue gas with a distinctively pungent smell.
Radiation waves that directly transport energy through space; brings heat to
our planet.
Smog fog or haze combined with smoke and other atmospheric
pollutants.
Soot a black powdery or flaky substance consisting largely of
amorphous carbon
Stratosphere the second layer of the atmosphere, it is just above the troposphere
Thermosphere the layer in the Earth's atmosphere directly above the
mesosphere and below the exosphere. Within this layer of the
atmosphere, ultraviolet radiation causes
photoionization/photodissociation of molecules, creating ions in
the ionosphere.
Troposphere the lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere
133
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Essential Knowledge
Atmospheric Chemistry
According to Dharmesh Patel (2016), atmospheric chemistry studies the chemical
composition of the natural atmosphere, the way gases, liquids, and solids in the
atmosphere interact with one another and with the Earth's surface and associated
biota.
This field is also concerned with how the activities of the human race changed or
is changing the both physical and chemical characteristics of the atmosphere.
It is a multidisciplinary approach of research and draws on: Environmental

Chemistry, Physics, Meteorology, Computer Molding, Oceanography, Geology,
Volcanology and etc.
The composition of the Earth's atmosphere changes as result of natural

processes such as volcano emissions and lightning. But, it has also been changed by
human activity and these changes are harmful to human health, crops, and,
ecosystems.
Some of the problems addressed by atmospheric chemistry include acid rain,

ozone depletion, photochemical smog, greenhouse gases, and global warming.
LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE
The lowest part of the Earth's atmosphere is referred to Troposphere. It harbors

about every single living thing and almost all human activity. It is also the area of
atmosphere where the weather occurs. The temperature in this area decreases as the
altitude increases.
Stratosphere is the second layer of the atmosphere; it is just above the

troposphere. It is also where the ozone can be found. Unlike the troposphere,
stratosphere temperature increases as the altitude decreases.
The third layer of the atmosphere is Mesosphere. Similar to troposphere, as

you get higher, the temperature gets colder.
Thermosphere is the next layer above the mesosphere. It has a very thin air. It
is also where the ionosphere located. Ionosphere is full of electrically charged ions.
The UV rays ionizes these gases.
134
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Exosphere is the outermost layer of the atmosphere. It extends up to 10,000

km above the surface. (Cassie’s Chemistry)
COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
Early Atmosphere
4.7 billion years ago, volcanic activity formed the Earth’s atmosphere and
mainly composed of carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O), methane (CH4), and
ammonia (NH3).
As the Earth cooled, the water vapour (H2O) condensed and formed the
oceans. This result to bacteria, algae and small organism to evolve and carried out the
process called photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide (CO2) dissolved in the oceans and was
taken by organism and eventually "locked up" in sedimentary rocks and fossil fuels.
As plant evolved, photosynthesis took CO2 and produced O2.

Other gases such as methane (CH4) and ammonia (NH3) decreased as they reacted
with oxygen. As for nitrogen (N2), it is very unreactive so it has built up over time.
Today’s Atmosphere
The changes in the early atmosphere resulted to the atmosphere in the present.
The atmosphere today is mostly nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) with very small
amounts of other gases such as water vapour (H2O), carbon dioxide (CO2) and noble
gases such as argon, neon, xenon, and krypton.
The Pie chart shows the percentage by mass of the composition of a dry air
atmosphere.
135
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen (N2) molecules can't be utilize straightforwardly by plant or creatures.

It also held by a very strond triple bond. Thus, there is a process that an organism
needed to do. (Hill, 2013)
According to Bernhard (2010), the major transformations of nitrogen are

nitrogen fixation, assimilation, nitrification, denitrification, and ammonification.
Nitrogen Fixation is the process of converting N2 into biologically available

nitrogen. Although most nitrogen fixation is done by prokaryotes, some nitrogen can
be settled abiotically by lightning or certain modern procedures, including the burning
of fossil fuels.
In Assimilation, plants can absorb nitrate or ammonium from the soil by their
root hairs. If nitrate is absorbed, it is first reduced to nitrite ions and then ammonium
ions for incorporation into amino acids, nucleic acids, and chlorophyll. In plants that
have a symbiotic relationship with rhizobia, some nitrogen is assimilated in the form of
ammonium ions directly from the nodules. It is now known that there is a more complex
cycling of amino acids between Rhizobia bacteroids and plants. The plant provides
amino acids to the bacteroids so ammonia assimilation is not required and the
bacteroids pass amino acids (with the newly fixed nitrogen) back to the plant, thus
forming an interdependent relationship. While many animals, fungi, and
other heterotrophic organisms obtain nitrogen by ingestion of amino
acids, nucleotides, and other small organic molecules, other heterotrophs (including
many bacteria) are able to utilize inorganic compounds, such as ammonium as sole N
sources. Utilization of various N sources is carefully regulated in all organisms.
Nitrification is the process that converts ammonia to nitrite and then to nitrate.
Anammox bacteria oxidize ammonia by utilizing nitrite as the electron acceptor

to produce gaseous nitrogen.
Denitrification the process that converts nitrate to nitrogen gas, thus removing
bioavailable nitrogen and returning it to the atmosphere.
Ammonification, it is a process when an organism excretes waste or dies, the

nitrogen in its tissues is in the form of organic nitrogen (e.g. amino acids, DNA).
Various fungi and prokaryotes then decompose the tissue and release inorganic
nitrogen back into the ecosystem as ammonia.
136
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
OXYGEN CYCLE
Plants are the main creators of oxygen in the atmosphere through the process
of photosynthesis. Plant uses sunlight and carbon dioxide to produce energy and
releases oxygen. Animals breathe in the oxygen and then breathe out carbon dioxide.
The plant can then use this carbon dioxide and the cycle is complete.
Processes That Use Oxygen:
Respiration - animals and plants use up oxygen when they breathe.
Decomposing - When plants and animals die, they decompose. This process uses up
oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
Rusting - This is also called oxidation. When things rust they use up oxygen.
Combustion - There are three things needed for fire: oxygen, fuel, and heat. Without
oxygen you can't have a fire. When things burn, they use up oxygen and replace it
with carbon dioxide.
PHOTOCHEMICAL REACTION IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Photochemical reaction is a chemical reaction initiated by the absorption of

energy in the form of light.
The upper atmosphere forms outer defense against radiation and high energy
particles that continuously bombard the Earth. These causes to two chemical changes:
photodissociation and photoionization.
Photodissociation is a chemical reaction that degrades compounds by

bombarding the molecule with photons. Photodissociation of O2 formed atomic
oxygen (O). Photoionization is when a molecule in the upper atmosphere absorbs
solar radiation, it ejects an electron to form cation (Brown, et al., 2012).
OZONE IN THE ATMOSPHERE
Ozone shapes a sort of layer in the stratosphere, where it is more focused than
anyplace else and this generally high fixation is referred to "ozone layer" or "ozone
shield"
Ozone and oxygen atoms in the stratosphere ingest bright light from the Sun,
giving a shield that keeps this radiation from going to the Earth's surface. While both
oxygen and ozone together absorb 95 to 99.9% of the Sun's ultraviolet radiation, only
137
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
ozone effectively absorbs the most energetic ultraviolet light, known as UV-C and UV-
B. This ultraviolet light can cause biological damage like skin cancer, tissue damage
to eyes and plant tissue damage.
Acid Rain
It is also called as Acid Deposition. It is any kind or form of precipitation that

contains acidic components such as sulfuric acid or nitric acid that falls into the ground
from the atmosphere (United States Environment Protection Agency, 2017).
It is the result when sulfuric dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides are released into
the atmosphere. The SO2 and NOX react with water, oxygen, and other chemicals that
is present in the atmosphere to form sulfuric and nitric acids. Small portions of the SO2
and NOX that cause acid rain is from that natural sources such as volcanoes but
majority of it comes from the burning of fossil fuels in the industrial plants.
The major sources of SO2 and NOX in the atmosphere are:
❖ Burning of fossil fuels to generate electricity.
❖ Vehicles and heavy equipments. and
❖ Manufacturing, oil refineries and other industries.
❖ SO2 and NOX can be blown by the winds over long distances and across
borders, making it not only the problem of those people who live close
to the source but for everyone in general.
❖ Forms of Acid Deposition
❖ Dry Deposition
-A form of acid deposition. This is when gases and dust particles

become acidic. The amount of acidity in the atmosphere that
deposits to earth through dry deposition depends on the amount
of rainfall an area receives.
❖ Wet Deposition
-Is what we commonly think of as acid rain. The sulfuric acid and
nitric acids fall to the ground mixed in rain, snow, fog, or hail.
138
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
❖ Measuring Acid Rain
Ozone depletion
According to the National Geographic (2009), the deteriorating of the ozone layer
is due to the emission of pollution that contains Bromine (Br) and Chlorine (Cl). This
deterioration allows large amount of ultraviolet (uv) B rays to reach Earth, which can
cause harm to animals and skin cancer and cataracts in human.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s) are the primary culprit of the ozone layer

deterioration. When CFC’s reach the upper atmosphere, they are exposed to
ultraviolet rays, which causes them to breakdown into substances. The chlorine in the
CFC reacts with oxygen atoms in ozone and rips apart the ozone molecule.
139
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The ozone layer, particularly the layer above the Antarctic has been impacted
by the pollution since the mid-1980’s. About 90 percent of the CFC’s currently in the
atmosphere were emitted by the industrialized countries in the Northern Hemisphere,
including the United States and Europe.
Seinfeld, J. H., & Pandis, S. N. (2016). Atmospheric chemistry and physics : From air
pollution to climate change. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2130891422/D95F6363E04B4AC6PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Part I: The Atmosphere and Its Constituents pp 1-66
Casparian, A. S., & Sirokman, G. (2016). Applied chemistry for environmental
engineering. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131182488/10450024B2084AFBPQ/1?
accountid=31259. Chapter 2: The Atmosphere and the Chemistry of Air pp
21-44
Let’s Check
1. What are the compositions of air?

2. Differentiate climate from weather.
3. What are examples of greenhouse gases? Discuss each.
Let’s Analyze
1. The amount of carbon dioxide in the Earth's early atmosphere decreased because
it was used by plants and algae for photosynthesis, dissolved in the oceans and
formed fossil fuels. Give one other way that the amount of carbon dioxide in the
Earth's early atmosphere decreased.
2. A student burned a hydrocarbon fuel and collected the products of combustion by
placing a funnel over the burning fuel. Air was sucked through the funnel using a
pump. The student saw that soot had collected inside the funnel. Explain why soot
forms.
3. A student is investigating the energy released during the combustion of different
alcohols. The student notices that a black substance forms on the bottom of the
beaker which is held above the burning fuel. What is the identity of the black
substance and why was it produced during the combustion of the alcohols?
4. Sulfur is burned in oxygen. The gas produced is then mixed with water which
140
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
contains some universal indicator. Describe the colour change that you would
expect to see due to the indicator and explain your answer.
5. Whilst investigating the combustion of hydrocarbon fuels, a student collected the
gases released and passed them through limewater. Describe the change in the
appearance of the limewater and explain why this happens.
In a Nutshell
1. The vast majority of scientists believe that human activities are causing global
warming. Describe some of the human activities which release greenhouse
gases. Suggest changes that humans could make to reduce global warming.
2. Sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides and particulate carbon are all atmospheric
pollutants. Describe the causes and effects of these pollutants.
Keywords Index
Acid Rain Ammonification Assimilation Combustion

Conduction Convection Coriolis Effect Denitrification
Exosphere Humidity Ionosphere Latitude
Longitude Mesosphere Nitrification Nitrogen fixation
Ozone Radiation Smog Soot
Stratosphere Thermosphere Troposphere
References
Bernhard, A. (2010) The Nitrogen Cycle: Processes, Players, and Human

Impact. Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):25
Brown, T, et al, (2012), Chemistry: the central science, Library of Cingress

Cataloging- in-Publication Data
Hill,J, et al., (2010) Chemistry for Changing Times, International EditioLayers Of

The Atmosphere retrieved from:
http://chemistrycassiestarzyk.weebly.com/atmosphere.html
Patel D. (2016). Atmosphere Chemistry. Retrieved from

https://www.slideshare.net/mobile/DharmeshPatel200/atmosphere-chemistry
United States Environment Protection Agency (2017). What is Acid Rain?. Retrieved
from https://www.epa.gov/acidrain/what-acid-rain
141
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
National Geographic (2009). Ozone Depletion: How is Earth's Atmosphere Losing its
most important layer?. Retrieved from
https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/global-warming/ozone-
depletion/
142
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO3b. explain the chemistry of water
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study of the
chemistry of water to demonstrate ULO3b will be reviewed. Please refer to these
concepts.
Adhesion refers to the tendency of some substances to cling to other

substances. It comes from the root words “ad” for “other” and
“hesion” for “to stick to.” Adhesion is usually caused by
interactions between the molecules of the two substances.
Capillary action a reaction that results from adhesion that enables water to
“climb” upwards through thin glass tubes (called capillary
tubes) placed in a beaker of water.
Cohesion a measure of how well molecules stick to each other or group
together. It is caused by the cohesive attractive force between
like molecules.
Condensation the process by which water vapor in the air is changed into
liquid water.
Desalination the process of removing excess salt and minerals from water in
order to produce fresh or potable water that is suitable for both
humans and animals to consume and for irrigation.
Diffusion the tendency of substances to move from areas of high
concentration to areas of low concentration
Dissolved Oxygen the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in the water.
Epilimnion 1. the upper layer of water in a stratified lake.
Eutrophication excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of water,
frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense
growth of plant life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.
Evaporation the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid state
back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor.
Evapotranspiration
1. the process by which water is transferred from the land to the
atmosphere by evaporation from the soil and other surfaces
and by transpiration from plants.
Hydrosphere the combined mass of water found on, under, and above the
surface of a planet, minor planet or natural satellite.
Hypolimnion 1. the lower layer of water in a stratified lake, typically cooler than
the water above and relatively stagnant.
143
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Osmosis the net movement of water across a selectively permeable

membrane driven by a difference in solute concentrations on
the two sides of the membrane
pH a scale used to specify how acidic or basic (or alkaline) a
water-based solution is. Acidic solutions have a lower pH, while
basic solutions have a higher pH.
Precipitation water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing rain,
sleet, snow, or hail.
Runoff the draining away of water (or substances carried in it) from the
surface of an area
Salinity the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water.
Surface Tension a physical property equal to the amount of force per unit area
necessary to expand the surface of a liquid.
Thermal when an appreciable temperature difference exists between
stratification the two layers, they do not mix, but behave independently and
have very different chemical and biological properties
Thermocline a steep temperature gradient in a body of water such as a lake,
marked by a layer above and below which the water is at
different temperatures.
Transpiration the process in which some water within plants evaporates into
the atmosphere
Essential Knowledge
Introduction
Water is very essential no one has ever proclaimed that they do not need water.
Approximately 3/4 of the world is water, 72.8% of it is saltwater and therefore is
undrinkable and the remaining 21.2% is the freshwater. Approximately 60% of the
freshwater is the glaciers, 30% of it is the freshwater on ground and 10% is beneath.
About 60-70% of our body is made up of water (Khan Academy,2018). Not just
humans but most of the other animals needed water. Even bacteria are made up of
water.
Water is made up of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of Oxygen.
144
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
PROPERTIES OF WATER:
1. POLARITY
Khan Academy (2018) states that water is a "polar" molecule which means that
it has an uneven distribution of electron density. Water has a partial negative charge
near the oxygen atom due the unshared pairs of electrons, and partial positive charges
near the hydrogen atoms. An electrostatic attraction between the partial positive
charge near the hydrogen atoms and the partial negative charge near the oxygen
results in the formation of a hydrogen bond as shown in the illustration. The ability of
ions and other molecules to dissolve in water is due to polarity. For example, in the
illustration below sodium chloride is shown in its crystalline form and dissolved in
water.
2. HYDROGEN BONDING
Due to their polarity, water molecules attract each other. The positive end of a
hydrogen atom associates with the negative end of another oxygen atom. Hydrogen
bonds, weak interactions that form between a hydrogen with a partial positive charge
and a more electronegative atom, such as oxygen. The hydrogen atoms involved in
hydrogen bonding must be attached to electronegative atoms, such as O, N, or F
(Khan Academy, 2018).
145
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
3. COHESION
According to Khan Academy (2018), cohesion refers to the attraction of

molecules for other molecules of the same kind, and water molecules have strong
cohesive forces due to their ability to form hydrogen bonds with one another. This will
result into forming surface tension.
➢ SURFACE TENSION, the tendency of a liquid’s surface to resist

rupture when placed under tension or stress. Water molecules at
the surface (at the water-air interface) will form hydrogen bonds
with their neighbors, just like water molecules deeper within the
liquid. However, because they are exposed to air on one side,
they will have fewer neighboring water molecules to bond with,
and will form stronger bonds with the neighbors they do have.
Surface tension causes water to form spherical droplets and
allows it to support small objects, like a scrap of paper or a needle,
if they are placed carefully on its surface.
4. ADHESION
Khan Academy (2018), defines that adhesion is the attraction of molecules of

one kind for molecules of a different kind, and it can be quite strong for water,
especially with other molecules bearing positive or negative charges.
➢ CAPILLARY ACTION is a reaction that results from adhesion that

enables water to “climb” upwards through thin glass tubes (called
capillary tubes) placed in a beaker of water. This upward motion
against gravity, known as capillary action, depends on the
attraction between water molecules and the glass walls of the
146
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
tube (adhesion), as well as on interactions between water

molecules (cohesion).
5. DENSITY
Water has lower density in its solid form due to the way hydrogen bonds are
oriented as it freezes. Specifically, in ice, the water molecules are pushed farther apart
than they are in liquid water. That means water expands when it freezes. You may
have seen this for yourself if you've ever put a sealed glass container containing a
mostly-watery food (soup, soda, etc.) into the freezer, only to have it crack or explode
as the liquid water inside froze and expanded (Khan Academy, 2018).
6. HEAT CPACITY
Water has a high specific heat capacity, which is defined as the amount of heat
needed to raise the temperature of one gram of a substance by one degree Celsius.
The amount of heat needed to raise the temperature of 1 g water by 1 °C is has its
own name, the calorie. Because of its high heat capacity, water can minimize changes
in temperature(Khan Academy,2018).
7. EVAPORATIVE COOLING
Water has a high heat of vaporization, the amount of energy needed to change
one gram of a liquid substance to a gas at constant temperature. Water’s heat of
vaporization is around 540 cal/g at 100 °C, water's boiling point. Note that some
147
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
molecules of water – ones that happen to have high kinetic energy – will escape from
the surface of the water even at lower temperatures. As water molecules evaporate,
the surface they evaporate from gets cooler, a process called evaporative cooling
(Khan Academy, 2018).
8. UNIVERSAL SOLVENT
Khan Academy (2018) states that water can form electrostatic interactions
(charge-based attractions) with other polar molecules and ions. The polar molecules
and ions interact with the partially positive and partially negative ends of water, with
positive charges attracting negative charges (just like the + and - ends of magnets).
When there are many water molecules relative to solute molecules, as in an aqueous
solution, these interactions lead to the formation of a three-dimensional sphere of
water molecules, or hydration shell, around the solute. Hydration shells allow particles
to be dispersed (spread out) evenly in water. If you stir table salt into water, the crystal
lattice of NaCl will begin to dissociate into Na+ and Cl- ions. (Dissociation is just a
name for the process in which a compound or molecule breaks apart to form ions.)
Water molecules form hydration shells around the ions: positively charged Na+ ions
are surrounded by partial negative charges from the oxygen ends of the water
molecules, while negatively charged Cl- ions are surrounded by partial positive
charges from the hydrogen ends. As the process continues, all of the ions in the table
salt crystals are surrounded by hydration shells and dispersed in solution.
9. ACIDS AND BASES
According to Khan Academy (2018), solutions are classified as acidic or basic

based on their hydrogen ion concentration relative to pure water. Acidic solutions have
a higher H+ concentration than water (greater than 1 × 10^ (-7)), while basic (alkaline)
solutions have a lower H+ concentration (less than 1 × 10^(-7)) Typically, the hydrogen
ion concentration of a solution is expressed in terms of pH.
10. pH SCALE
The pH scale is used to rank solutions in terms of acidity or basicity (alkalinity).

Since the scale is based on pH values, it is logarithmic, meaning that a change of 1
pH unit corresponds to a ten-fold change in H+ ion concentration. The pH scale is often
said to range from 0 to 14, and most solutions do fall within this range, although it’s
possible to get a pH below 0 or above 14. Anything below 7.0 is acidic, and anything
above 7.0 is alkaline, or basic (Khan Academy, 2018).
148
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
11. BUFFERS
Buffers, solutions that can resist changes in pH, are key to maintaining stable
H+ start superscript, plus, end superscript ion concentrations in biological systems.
When there are too many H+ ions, a buffer will absorb some of them, bringing pH back
up; and when there are too few, a buffer will donate some of its own H+ ions to reduce
the pH. Buffers typically consist of an acid-base pair, with the acid and base differing
by the presence or absence of a proton (a conjugate acid-base pair) (Khan Academy,
2018).
Freshwater
Definition of Freshwater
Fresh water is vital to life and yet it is a finite resource. Of all the water on Earth,
just 3% is fresh water. Although critical to natural and human communities, fresh water
is threatened by a myriad of forces including overdevelopment, polluted runoff and
global warming. With this in mind, WWF partners with communities, businesses and
others to decrease pollution, increase water efficiency and protect natural areas to
ensure enough clean water exists to conserve wildlife and provide a healthy future for
all.
149
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Water Cycle
Water cycle, also called hydrologic cycle, cycle that involves the continuous
circulation of water in the Earth-atmosphere system. Of the many processes involved
in the water cycle, the most important are evaporation, transpiration, condensation,
precipitation, and runoff. Although the total amount of water within the cycle remains
essentially constant, its distribution among the various processes is continually
changing.
Process of Water Cycle
1st Process Evaporation
Evaporation is the primary pathway that water moves from the liquid
state back into the water cycle as atmospheric water vapor. Studies have shown that
the oceans, seas, lakes, and rivers provide nearly 90 percent of the moisture in the
atmosphere via evaporation, with the remaining 10 percent being contributed by
plant transpiration (Perlman, 2016).
2nd Process Condensation
Condensation is the process by which water vapor in the air is changed

into liquid water. Condensation is crucial to the water cycle because it is responsible
for the formation of clouds. These clouds may produce precipitation, which is the
primary route for water to return to the Earth's surface within the water cycle.
Condensation is the opposite of evaporation (Perlman, 2016).
3rd Process Precipitation
Precipitation is water released from clouds in the form of rain, freezing

rain, sleet, snow, or hail. It is the primary connection in the water cycle that provides
for the delivery of atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation falls as rain
(Perlman, 2016).
Water on Earth
150
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Types of Water
Ocean
The ocean is a continuous body of saltwater that covers more than 70 percent
of the Earth's surface. Ocean currents govern the world's weather and churn a
kaleidoscope of life. Humans depend on these teeming waters for comfort and
survival, but global warming and overfishing threaten to leave the ocean agitated and
empty.
Ice/Icebergs
An iceberg or ice mountain is a large piece of freshwater ice that has broken off
a glacier or an ice shelf and is floating freely in open water. It may subsequently
become frozen into pack ice (one form of sea ice). As it drifts into shallower waters, it
may come into contact with the seabed, a process referred to as seabed gouging by
ice. About 90% of an iceberg is below the surface of the water.
River and Lakes
A river is a natural flowing watercourse, usually freshwater, flowing towards an

ocean, sea, lake or another river. In some cases a river flows into the ground and
becomes dry at the end of its course without reaching another body of water.
Groundwater
Groundwater is the water found underground in the cracks and spaces in soil,
sand and rock. It is stored in and moves slowly through geologic formations of soil,
sand and rocks called aquifers.
Dissolved Oxygen
Definition of Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen is the amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in the

water. Oxygen enters the water by direct absorption from the atmosphere, by rapid
movement, or as a waste product of plant photosynthesis. Water temperature and the
volume of moving water can affect dissolved oxygen levels.
Importance of Dissolved Oxygen in Aquatic Life
According to Zactruba (2009), dissolved oxygen is necessary to many forms

of life including fish, invertebrates, bacteria and plants. These organisms use oxygen
in respiration, similar to organisms on land. Fish and crustaceans obtain oxygen for
respiration through their gills, while plant life and phytoplankton require dissolved
151
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
oxygen for respiration when there is no light for photosynthesis. The amount of
dissolved oxygen needed varies from creature to creature. Bottom feeders, crabs,
oysters and worms need minimal amounts of oxygen (1-6 mg/L), while shallow water
fish need higher levels (4-15 mg/L).
Where Does DO Come From?
Dissolved oxygen enters water through the air or as a plant by-product. From
the air, oxygen can slowly diffuse across the water’s surface from the surrounding
atmosphere, or be mixed in quickly through aeration, whether natural or man-made.
The aeration of water can be caused by wind (creating waves), rapids, waterfalls,
ground water discharge or other forms of running water. Man-made causes of aeration
vary from an aquarium air pump to a hand-turned waterwheel to a large dam.
Eutrophication Process
Eutrophication is the excessive richness of nutrients in a lake or other body of

water, frequently due to runoff from the land, which causes a dense growth of plant
life and death of animal life from lack of oxygen.
Different Methods of Analysis
152
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Field and lab meters to measure dissolved oxygen have been around for a long
time. As this picture shows, modern meters are small and highly electronic. They still
use a probe, which is located at the end of the cable. Dissolved oxygen is dependent
on temperature (an inverse relation), so the meter must be calibrated properly before
each use.
Water Quality
Definition of Water Quality
Water quality is fundamental for good river health. Water quality sustains
ecological processes that support native fish populations, vegetation, wetlands and
birdlife.
Water Properties: Dissolved Oxygen
Millions of measurements and analyses have been made. Some
measurements, such as temperature, pH, and specific conductance are taken almost
every time water is sampled and investigated, no matter where in the U.S. the water
is being studied. Another common measurement often taken is dissolved oxygen
(DO), which is a measure of how much oxygen is dissolved in the water - DO can tell
us a lot about water quality.
pH -- Water Properties
The pH of water determines the solubility (amount that can be dissolved in the
water) and biological availability (amount that can be utilized by aquatic life) of
chemical constituents such as nutrients (phosphorus, nitrogen, and carbon) and heavy
metals (lead, copper, cadmium, etc.).
Measuring pH
153
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
OCEAN WATER
Definition of Ocean Water
Ocean waters are waters are from the ocean and seas that covers more than
70 percent of the surface of our planet. About 97 percent of the Earth’s water are from
the ocean and two percent of it are glaciers and ice caps. Less than one percent of all
the water is fresh.
Composition of Ocean Water
The ocean water is composed of various minerals namely Chloride (55%),

Sodium (31%), Magnesium (7.7%), Sulfur (3.7%), Calcium (1.2%) and others (1.4%)
(NOAA, 2018).
SALINITY OF OCEAN WATER
Definition of Salinity and examples
Salinity is the saltiness or amount of salt dissolved in a body of water. Ocean

water’s salinity differs on the environment that the body of water is located at. The Red
Sea is considered the most saline sea among the ocean water. The red sea is very
saline because of its high temperature and confined circulation which results in high
rates of surface evaporation (high evaporation means high salinity because in
evaporation, the water vapor or the water that is evaporated into the air are tiny
droplets that has no minerals or salt thus the water that is left in the sea was left with
all the minerals and/or salt making the sea more saline with every evaporation).
Effects of Salinity in Ocean Water
Salinity in ocean water affects the water in it in many different ways. The ocean
water is affected in its phase change, buoyancy and density. In phase change, the
more saline an ocean water is, it is more difficult to freeze it since the salt in the ocean
water disrupts the crystal formation. In buoyancy, the higher the salinity of water the
higher its buoyancy is, making less dense object float. (This is the reason why people
float in Red Sea) and higher buoyancy means higher density.
DESALINATION PROCESSES
Since less than one percent of the total amount of water in the surface of the
Earth is fresh water, scientists and researchers found ways to desalinate ocean waters
to produce potable water that is needed for residential homes, agricultural and
industrial purposes.
154
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Definition of Desalination
Desalination is the process of removing excess salt and minerals from water in
order to produce fresh or potable water that is suitable for both humans and animals
to consume and for irrigation.
Two Methods of Desalination Processes
There are two methods of desalination processes: the thermal/distillation

process and the membrane processes. Under the thermal/distillation processes are
three types of distillation processes namely Multistage Flash Distillation Process or
MSF which is subdivided into two: The Once Through Multistage Flash and the Brine
Recirculation Multistage Flash; Multiple Effect Distillation Process or MED and; the
Vapor Compression or VC which is subdivided into two: The Mechanical Vapor
Compression or MVC and the Thermal Vapor Compression or TVC. Under the
membrane processes is Reverse Osmosis or RO.
Thermal/Distillation Processes
The Thermal/Distillation Processes is one of the oldest processes of

desalination. It uses phase separation method where saline or ocean water is heated
to produce water vapor and then the water vapors are condensed to produce fresh
water (Tzen,2006).
Multistage Flash Distillation Process or MSF
According to Zactruba, the Once Through MSF makes the ocean water goes
directly to the heat recovery section recovery section, is then pre-heated while passing
up through the condensing coils or condensers, is heated then lastly in the brine heater
and then it passes down the flash chambers. The brine that is collected will be rejected
and then sent back to the ocean water.
155
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
In the Brine Recirculation MSF, the seawater is pre-treated in the order that is
only one-third of the once through design. The purpose of the brine recycling pump is
to reuse the brine that has been pre-treated again in the flash chambers thus obtaining
higher efficiency in desalinating the water in each chamber.
Multiple Effect Distillation Process
The Multiple Effect Distillation Process uses a series of vessels called effects
that utilize the principle of evaporation and condensation at reduced ambient
temperatures to produce fresh water.
Vapor Compression Process
Vapor Compression process is used for small-and-medium scale seawater

desalting units. In mechanical vapor compression or MVC, it is operated by
electromotor or diesel engine and in thermal vapor compression, it is operated by
steam jet thermos-compressor. The process is the same in both.
156
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Membrane Processes
Reverse Osmosis or RO is a process in which water passes through a semi-

permeable barrier that is subjected to hydrostatic pressure which is greater than
osmotic pressure. This is from a process called osmosis which is a naturally occurring
process that allows a low concentrated water such as fresh water to pass through a
semi-permeable barrier to a high concentrated water which is ocean water
(Heimbuch,2010).
Chandrappa, R., & Das, D. B. (2014). Sustainable water engineering : Theory and
practice. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2130855869/A2FA6332EF354B99PQ/1
?accountid=31259. 4 Fundamentals of Treatment and Process Design, and
Sustainability pp 163-236
Let’s Check
1. What is water? How are water molecules bond together?

2. What is eutrophication, what causes it and what are the dangers?
3. What is acid rain and how does it develop?
4. What is the difference between salt water and freshwater?
Let’s Analyze
1. How come not all substances are water-soluble?

2. How is drinking water purified?
3. Is bottled water safer than tap water? Support your answer.
4. Why should we not drink seawater?
5. What is hard water? Are there any risks to hard water?
6. What health effects do microorganisms in water cause?
157
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
In a Nutshell
1. What are the specific ways through which water pollutants enter the
environment and how are pollutants transported through water?
2. As an engineering student, how can you contribute in mitigating the problem in
water pollution?
Keywords Index
Adhesion Capillary action Cohesion Condensation

Desalination Diffusion Dissolved Oxygen Epilimnion
Eutrophication Evaporation Evapotranspiration Hydrosphere
Hypolimnion Osmosis pH Precipitation
Runoff Salinity Surface Tension Thermal
stratification
Thermocline Transpiration
References
Tzen, E. (2006). Freshwater definition. (Web post). Retrieved from

http://www.britannica.com
Lenntech, B.V. (1998). Water Cycle definition. (Web post). Retrieved from http://
water.usgs.gov
Perlman. H. (July,2016). Process of Water Cycle. (Web post). Retrieved from

http://scholar.google.com
El-Dessouky, H. (2009). Dissolved Oxygen definition. (Web post). Retrieved from

http://scholar.google.com
Boomer, R. (2011). Dissolved Oxygen definition. (Web post). Retrieved from http://
water.usgs.gov
Lunt, G.P. (1974). Water Quality and its Properties. (Web post). Retrieved from
http:// www.fondriest.com
NOAA. (June,2018). How much water is in the ocean. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://oceanservice.noaa.gov.
Tzen, E. (2006). Desalination Technologies. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://scholar.google.com.
158
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Boomer, R. (1974). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from

Lunt, G.P. (1949). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from
Rolf, A. (1952). Vapor compression distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from

Zactruba, J. (December, 2009). How Desalination by Multi-stage Flash Distillation

Works. (Web post). Retrieved from https://www.brighthubengineering.com
El-Dessouky, H. (1998). Process synthesis: the multi-stage flash desalination

system. (Web post). Retrieved from https://www.infona.pl.
Smith, et al. (2018). Desalination by distillation. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://www.oas.org.
Parise, T. (December, 2012). Water Desalination. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://large.stanford.edu.
Lenntech, B.V. (1998). Key Issues in Seawater Desalination. (Web post). Retrieved
from https://www.lenntech.com
Heimbuch, J. (July, 2010). How Desalination Works. (Web post). Retrieved from
https://www.treehugger.com.
Perlman, H. (July, 2018). Drink Seawater. (Web post). Retrieved from

https://water.usgs.gov.
MarineBio Conservation Society. (September, 2018). Ocean Chemistry. (Web post).

Retrieved from https://marinebio.org.
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Acids, bases, pH and buffers. Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-
bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent.
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Cohesion and Adhesion. Retrieved from

bases/cohesion-and-adhesion/a/cohesion-and-adhesion-in-water.
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Hydrogen Bonds. Retrieved from

bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/hydrogen-bonding-in-water.
159
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Solvent properties of water. Retrieved from

bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent.
Khan Academy (September 5, 2018). Specific heat, heat of vaporization and

densityofwater. Retrieved from
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/water-
as-a-solid-liquid-and-gas/a/specific-heat-heat-of-vaporization-and-freezing-of-
water
160
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO3c. show understanding of the concept of

soil chemistry
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study of soil
chemistry to demonstrate ULO3c will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in
Bedrock the lithified rock that lies under loose softer material called
regolith within the surface of the Earth's crust or other
terrestrial planets.
Cation exchange the exchange of cations from the surface of a soil colloid to
another material.
Cation Exchange the capacity of soil to adsorb and exchange cations. It is
Capacity defined as directly proportional to the surface area and the
surface charge of the clay.
Clay is made of tiny or fine particles with a diameter less than 0.002
millimeters.
Drainage refers to the frequency and duration of periods of saturation or
partial saturation.
Humus the organic component of soil, formed by the decomposition of
leaves and other plant material by soil microorganisms.
Infiltration the downward entry of water into the immediate surface of the
soil and is influenced by texture, structure, bulk density, and
the type and connectivity of macropores.
Loam a fertile soil of clay and sand containing humus.
Permeability the state or quality of a material or membrane that causes it to
allow liquids or gases to pass through it.
Porosity a measure of the void spaces in a material, and is a fraction of
the volume of voids over the total volume, between 0 and 1, or
as a percentage between 0% and 100%
Sand is made of large or coarse particles with diameters ranging
from 0.05 to 2.00 millimeters.
Saprolite a chemically weathered rock. Saprolites form in the lower
zones of soil profiles and represent deep weathering of the
bedrock surface. In most outcrops its color comes from ferric
compounds.
Silt is made of medium-sized particles with a diameter of 0.002 to
0.05 millimeters.
161
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Subsoil the layer of soil under the topsoil on the surface of the ground.
Topsoil the upper, outermost layer of soil, usually the top 5–10 inches
(13–25 cm). It has the highest concentration of organic matter
and microorganisms and is where most of the Earth's biological
soil activity occurs.
Weathering the mechanical breakdown of rock and the associated
chemical alteration of minerals that occurs at the Earth's
surface.
Essential Knowledge
INTRODUCTION
Soil is an important material in sustaining life on our planet. It is a very special

mix of inorganic and organic material in form of colloids, water and different gases,
and decomposed plant and animal material, all in a variable but balanced proportions
(Bear, 1964). This is the reason why soil is very important for the underlying systems
that govern how our environment works, because the soil is the interface between the
different spheres of our planet (i.e. Atmosphere for the air in soil; lithosphere for the
weathered rocks and mineral in soil; hydrosphere for the water content of soil; and the
biosphere for the organic matter, living and dead, in the content of soil).
On the soil is where we plant our crops that keeps most of the living things alive,
it is where we build our buildings and houses that shelter and protect us, and it is
where we lived our lives and where we will be living our lives for a very long time. And,
it is evident that we just take for granted the wonders of soil that we depend on. So
now, this report will help us appreciate and understand the important role of soil and
its chemistry.
Basic Soil Components:
Mineral Material
The largest component of soil is the mineral portion. Soils mineral have two
types, the primary minerals and secondary minerals. Primary minerals are those soil
materials that are the same to the parent material from which they formed, such as
those found in sand and silt. On the other hand, secondary minerals are result from
the weathering of the primary minerals, which releases important ions and form more
stable mineral forms such as silicate clay (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Primary minerals are formed at high temperature and pressure under reducing
condition without free oxygen. The secondary minerals are normally found in the clay
fraction of the soil (Balasubramanian, 2017).
162
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Water
Water is the second basic component of soil. It is important for transporting

nutrients to growing plants, soil organisms and facilitating chemical decomposition.
Also, the capacity of soil to hold water is dependent on soil texture. The smaller
particles in soils, the more water the soil can retain. Clay soil have the greatest water
holding capacity and sand the least (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Organic Matter
Organic matter is the next basic component that is found in soils at level of
approximately 1% to 5%. Soil organic matter is any material produced originally by
living organisms that is returned to the soil and goes through the decomposition
process. At any given time, it consists of a range of materials from the intact original
tissues of plants and animals to the substantially decomposed mixture of materials
known as humus. Most soil organic matter originates from plant tissue. Plant residues
contain 60 – 90 percent moisture. The remaining dry matter consists of carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen, and small amounts of Sulphur, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium,
calcium and magnesium (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Gases
Air is the next basic component of soil because air can occupy the same space
as water. Oxygen is essential for root and microbe respiration which helps support
plant growth, carbon dioxide and nitrogen are also important for belowground plant
function (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Microorganisms
Microorganism are very small forms of life that can sometimes live as single
cells. Many more microorganisms exist in topsoil because it has more food supplies,
than the sub soil. They are specially existing in the area next to plant roots, which
called rhizosphere (Balasubramanian, 2017).
Physical Properties:
Soil Texture
According to Moody (2008), that the soil texture is depends on the balance of
sand, silt, and clay in soil. Texture is significant since it will affect the soil’s water-
holding capacity, porosity and aeration, hydraulic conductivity, compatibility,
resistance to root penetration, nutrient-holding capacity and resistance to acidification.
163
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Soil colour
Soil color does not affect the behavior and use of soil; however, it can indicate
the composition of the soil and give clues to the conditions that the soil is subjected
to. Soil can exhibit a wide range of colour; gray, black, white, reds, browns, yellows
and under the right conditions green. Soil color has been found to be the property of
soil that most reflects its pedogenic environment and history. Soil organic matter and
iron oxides contribute most to soil color. Organic matter darkens soil, while iron oxides
produce a range of soil colors that are dependent on the oxidation state of the iron
(Moody, 2008).
Soil Structure
According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger
sized aggregates that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of
aggregation and the whole size affect a soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that
the soil structure describes the proportion and shape of the aggregate. Also, the soil
consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance. Consistence has major
effects on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease of
seedling emergence and deepness of root penetration.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF SOIL
The soil is composed, in the mineralogical sense, of mostly minerals from rocks
found in the crust of the Earth. The rocks found in the surface of the Earth are formed
due to the cooling of magma; these rocks go through the rock cycle, and they transform
and weather physically, chemically, and biologically. This process of weathering is a
key factor in the formation of soil. The most abundant type of rock found in the Earth’s
crust is the igneous rocks since the other types of rocks (the metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks) are derived from the igneous rocks. Since igneous rocks are the
most abundant type of rock it is the major contributor of the soil’s mineralogical content;
simply put the mineralogical content of an igneous rock is closely related to the
mineralogical content of the average soil. The minerals that consist the average
igneous rocks and intensively weathered soil are as follows:
Minerals Average of Igneous Columbiana Clay

Rocks (Costa Rica)
SiO2 60 26
Al2O3 16 49
Fe2O3 7 20
TiO2 1 3
MnO 0.1 0.4
CaO 5 0.3
MgO 4 0.7
K2O 3 0.1
Na2O 4 0.3
164
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
P2O5 0.3 0.4

SO3 0.1 0.3
Total 100.5% 100.4%
Chemical Composition of Average Igneous Rocks and an Intensively
Weathered Soil.
Adapted from Bohn, McNeal, and O'Connor, 1985. Retrieved from: Fundamentals of
Soil Science (Foth, 1991)
The minerals in the soil from the rocks are divided into two groups: Primary
minerals and Secondary minerals. The primary minerals comprise and provides all
the chemical elements in soils in the form of minerals. These minerals react with other
substances creating cations and anions, or they maybe cations and anions
themselves. The most common type of primary minerals are the silicates and oxides
of different metals (Karthanasis, 2006). And, it is evident in the table that the
abundance of these minerals greatly affects the chemical elements found in the soil.
Element (Symbol) Parts Per Million Percentage (%)

(ppm) by weight
Oxygen (O) 461,000ppm 46.1%
Silicon (Si) 282,000ppm 28.2%
Aluminum (Al) 82,300ppm 8.23%
Iron (Fe) 56,300ppm 5.63%
Calcium (Ca) 41,500ppm 4.15%
Sodium (Na) 23,600ppm 2.36%
Magnesium (Mg) 23,300ppm 2.33%
Potassium (K) 20,900ppm 2.09%
Titanium (Ti) 5,650ppm 0.565%
Hydrogen (H) 1,400ppm 0.14%
Elements in the Earth’s Crust
Adopted from: CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 77th Edition. Retrieved
from: https://education.jlab.org
From the table, we can see that oxygen constitutes almost half of the elements
in the soil, this is because of the oxygen bonded with different metal ions (or oxides)
and most of the elemental composition of most minerals have oxygen in them (e.g.
silicates, aluminosilicates, hydroxides, etc.). Silicon is the second most abundant in
the composition of Earth’s crust, because most of the minerals are composed with a
silicon tetrahedra, and since silicon is very much like carbon (they both have 4 valence
electron) and is very abundant in the Earth’s mantle most of the rocks and minerals
that are formed here in the crust will most likely be silicon based.
Soil Structure
According to Moody (2008), the prior soil particles bond together into larger
sized aggregates that are separated by surface of weakness. The proportion of
aggregation and the whole size affect a soil’s water-holding capacity. He also said that
165
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
the soil structure describes the proportion and shape of the aggregate. Also, the soil
consistence is a measure of the soil’s strength and balance. Consistence has major
effects on pathways of water movement through or over the soil surface, ease of
seedling emergence and deepness of root penetration.
Soil Horizon
According to Balasubramanian (2017), each soil horizon might be slightly or

very much different from the other layer existing above or below it. Each horizon also
tells a story about the makeup, age, texture and other characteristics of that layer. The
layers are divided as top-soil layer, sub-soil layer, and the bed rock layers. He also
said that most of the soils have four or five major horizons. These are designated as
O, A, B, C, E and R.
The O-Horizon (humus +litter layer):
The O horizon is very common in many surfaces with lots of vegetative cover.
It is the layer made up of organic materials such as dead leaves and surface
organisms, twigs and fallen trees. It has about 20% organic matter and this horizon is
often black or dark brown in color (Balasubramanian, 2017).
The A-Horizon (top-soil + root zone):
The A horizon may be seen in the absence of the O horizon, usually known as
the top soil. It is the top layer soils for many grasslands and agricultural lands.
Typically, this horizon is made of sand, silt and clay with high amounts of organic
matter. This layer is most vulnerable to wind and water erosion and it is also known
as the root zone (Balasubramanian, 2017).
The E-Horizon:
The E horizon is usually lighter in color, often occurring below O and A horizons.
It is often rich in nutrients that are leached from A and O horizons. It has a lower clay
content and common in forested lands or areas with high quality O and A horizons
(Balasubramanian, 2017).
The B-Horizon (Mineral Dominated Zone):
The B horizon has some similarities with the E horizon. This horizon is formed
below the O, A and E horizons and may contain high concentrations of silicate clay,
iron, aluminum and carbonates. It is also called the illuviation zone because of the
accumulation of minerals and in this layer where roots of big trees exist
(Balasubramanian, 2017).
166
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The C-Horizon (Saprolite layer):
C horizon are mineral layers which are not bedrock and are little affected by
pedogenic processes and lack properties of O, A, E or B horizons. The C horizon lacks
all the properties of the layers above it. It is mainly made up of broken bedrock and no
organic material (Balasubramanian, 2017).
The R-Horizon:
The R horizon is bedrock horizon. It contains materials that are compacted and
cemented by the weight of the overlying horizons. It is the hard layer of unweathered
parent material and all kinds are rock types exist as basement (Balasubramanian,
2017).
COLLOIDAL PROPERTIES OF SOIL
According to Tan (2010), a colloid is defined in the textbook term as a state of

matter consisting of very fine particles that approach, but never reach molecular sizes.
And, according to Bear (1964), a colloidal system is a dispersion of finely divided
particles distributed in a continuous phase. This means that colloids are the particles
that have the upper size limit of 0.2µm, and a lower sized limit of approximately
0.005µm or 50Å (the size of a molecule).
Many chemical and biological properties and reactions happen in the colloidal
state of matter, and these reactions are: adsorption, absorption, desorption. Sorption
in general is “a physical and chemical process by which one substance becomes
attached to the other”. Adsorption is “the uptake and retention of one material within
another” (Tan, 2010), this process only refers to the accumulation of the molecules or
substances in the surface of the adsorbing substance. Whereas absorption is the
process where a fluid will be dissolved in solid or a liquid throughout their entire bulk.
These two sorption processes are often confused with one another. To avoid
confusion, we must keep in mind that absorption involves the entire bulk of the
absorbing material to assimilate and dissolve the molecules or substances, while
adsorption only involves the surface of the adsorbing material to accumulate the
molecules or substances. Desorption is the removal of molecules or substances that
was either absorbed or adsorbed.
The inorganic constituents in the soil are the sand (2 - 0.1mm), silt (0.1 -
0.002mm), and clay (< 0.002mm). Since sand and silt are too big to be classified as a
colloid, only fine clay particles are considered as soil colloids. These clay particles
can structurally be crystalline, disordered, or amorphous (Tan, 2010).
The organic constituents in the soil or the Soil Organic Matter (SOM) are
composed of Liable SOM and Stable SOM (Foth, 1991). The liable SOM is composed
of the readily decomposable plant or animal material in the soil, while the stable SOM
167
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
is the fully decomposed animal or plant material also called humus. Soil humus or
humus particles are the organic colloid particles in the soil. These organic matters in
the soil is mostly composed of carbohydrates, amino acids, peptides, proteins, nucleic
acid, lipids, and lignins. These particles have their own colloidal properties and affects
the soil structure and chemistry in slightly different ways (Tan, 2010).
Because of the clay particles and humus particles being small, its surface area
increases as its size decreases (as to most other materials). This increase in surface
area drives the clay particle’s and humus particle’s adsorption properties and is
responsible for the cation exchange happening in the soil and plants. This increase in
surface area also makes the clay particle and humus particle carry an electronegative
charge, due to isomorphous substitution and the dissociation of hydroxyl groups.
Isomorphous substitution is the replacement of an ion in the silicate structure of clay
by another ion that has the same size, this type of process is not affected by soil pH
level thus dubbed as a permanent structural charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan, 2010).
While the other cause of the electronegative charge of soil particles is the dissociation
of OH groups on the crystal edges or exposed planes in clay and humic substances
when the pH level is high, this process is affected by the pH thus dubbed as variable
charge (Sposito, 1989) (Tan, 2010).
Alkaline medium: –Al–OH + OH– ↔ –Al–O– + H2O
Acid medium: –Al–OH + H+ ↔ –Al–OH2+
Soil particles can also carry positive charges when an H+ ion is added to the
hydroxyl group of the minerals and compounds in the soil particles; this process is
dependent on the pH level and the valence electron of the metal in the soil particle.
This property allows the anion exchanges in some tropical soils (Tan, 2010).
168
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
ION EXCHANGE IN SOIL
Ion exchange in soils

Adopted from: Fundamentals of soil science (Foth, 1991).
Ion exchange in soil is very important for every terrestrial and non-terrestrial
organism, since it is how most of the producers of the ecosystem get the nutrients they
need to live, reproduce, and keep the ecosystem fed. According to Foth (1991), “ion
exchange involves cations and anions adsorbed from the solution onto negatively or
positively charged surfaces.” Basically, ion exchange is a process of taking and
replacing ions from an adsorbent material. There are two types of ion exchange: cation
exchange and anion exchange. But, because of the tendency of the soil to be more
negatively charged the cationic exchange is observed more in the soil compared to
anion exchange (Tan, 2010).
Cation Exchange. Cation exchange is the exchange of cations from the surface
of a soil colloid to another material. It may take place between (Balasubramanian,
2017): (1) the cations in the surface of soil colloids and the cations in the soil solution,
(2) the cations in the surface of a soil colloid and cations released by plants, and (3)
cations in the surface of two clay crystals, or two clay colloids, or two organic colloids,
or an organic and clay colloid. When cations are added to the soil (e.g. K +, NH+, Ca+)
the adsorption of cations will take place depending on several different factors: the
surface potential, valence, and hydrodynamic radius (Tan,2010).
169
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Surface potential refers to the electric potential difference of the inner and outer
surface of a colloid. Cations have different valence electrons, some are monovalent
or having only one valence electron, and some are divalent or having two valence
electrons, etc. But, as the surface potential of the soil colloid increases it would adsorb
more cations with higher valence electron; for example, in conditions of high surface
potential in a colloid it divalent cations are preferred to be adsorbed more than
monovalent ones. Adsorption of cations is also determined by the hydrodynamic
radius, or the radius of the hydration sphere that is surrounding a cation; every cation
is surrounded with a blanket of water called the “hydration sphere”, and as this blanket
of water thickens the cation is less likely to be adsorbed by a colloid.
Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC). CEC is “the capacity of soil to adsorb and
exchange cations” (Tan, 2010). It is defined as directly proportional to the surface area
and the surface charge of the clay. Organic matter also contributes to the CEC, but it
depends on the level of decomposition that the organic matter has undergo. CEC is
very important in the process of plant growth and scientists determine the CEC of the
soil so that farmers will know how frequently they should apply fertilizers in the soil.
When the soil has low CEC this means that it could only hold little nutrients at a time
and the soil should be fertilized frequently but in small amounts of fertilizers; soils with
high CEC on the other hand only needs to be fertilized less often but in higher dosages
of fertilizer, because soils with high CEC can adsorb more nutrients than soils with low
CEC (scienceofagriculture.org, 2018).
SOIL pH
Soil pH is an important property of soil involved in the growth of plants, mainly

because it affects the nutrient content and the CEC of the soil. Soil pH can also be
called the master determinant (Tan, 2010), because most of the properties of the soil
is dependent on the pH, namely: rate of decomposition, plant growth, concentration of
micronutrients, weathering of primary minerals, and the formation of clay minerals.
These properties of soil are all somewhat dependent on the pH of the soil, this shows
the importance of determining the soil’s pH level. For example, the solubility of iron
compounds decreases if the soil pH increases, thus an alkaline soil tends to be
deficient in iron (Foth, 1991). The common range of soil pH is 4-10, higher or lower
than that pH would be described as very strongly acidic or alkaline soil, as described
in the diagram below (Foth 1991) (Tan, 2010).
170
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Soil pH ranges and soil reaction classes.

Adapted from: Brady, N. C., The Nature and Properties of Soils, 8th ed.,
Figure 17–3, 463, MacMillan, New York, 1974. Reprinted and electronically
produced by permission of Pearson Education, Inc., Upper Saddle River, NJ.
Source of alkalinity. According to Foth (1991), there are two main contributors
for the alkalinity of the soil and these are the carbonate hydrolysis and mineral
weathering. Most soils in the world are rich in calcium carbonate, these soils are called
calcareous, this abundance in CaCO3 is due to the parent material’s abundance in
CaCO3. The hydrolysis of calcium produces OH- ions, as described below, resulting to
alkalinity in the soil solution.
CaCO3 + H2O → Ca2+ + HCO3- + OH-
Calcium carbonate is only slightly soluble; thus, this reaction can only produce
a pH level as high as 8.3 when there is an equilibrium with the atmospheric carbon
dioxide. Mineral weathering can also contribute to the soil’s alkalinity, specifically the
weathering of primary minerals. This weathering of primary minerals uses H + and
produces OH-, reducing the soil’s probability of becoming acidic while increasing its
alkalinity.
Sources for acidity. There are three main processes that contribute to the soil’s
acidity: respiration of plants and soil organisms, mineralization of organic matter,
natural precipitation (Foth, 1991). The respiration of plants and other soil organism
releases carbon dioxide in the soil which reacts with water forming carbonic acid
(H2CO3), this weak acid contributes H+ to the soil solution. The mineralization of
organic matter also contributes to the acidity of the soil, because organic matter
mineralization produces organic acids and the mineralized nitrogen and sulfur form
the organic matter will oxidize to nitric and sulfuric acids increasing the soil’s acidity.
The normal process of precipitation also slowly contributes to the soils acidity over the
171
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
course of time, because when precipitation occurs the atmospheric carbon dioxide will
react with the precipitate forming carbonic acid and gives the natural precipitation a
slightly acidic pH level (Foth, 1991).
Strawn, D. G., Bohn, H. L., & O'Connor, G. A. (2015). Soil chemistry. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131920386/70E23C15C130477CPQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapters 1-8 pp 1-236
Sauer, T. J., Eash, N. S., Odoi, E., & O'Dell, D. (2015). Soil science simplified.
Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131746793/BA0C3F3AA9F24EB0PQ/1
?accountid=31259. Chapters 1-9 pp 20-188
Sposito, G. (2008). The chemistry of soils. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131898067/530194F259DF4CCFPQ/3
?accountid=31259. Chapter 1-12 pp 3-315
Let’s Check
1. What are the different layers of soil/soil horizons?

2. What are the compositions of soil?
3. What are the macronutrients and micronutrients present in soil?
Let’s Analyze
1. Differentiate permeability from porosity.

2. Your plants are showing signs of iron deficiency. You check the soil pH and it
is 8.0. What would most likely be the best way to eliminate the iron deficiency
and why?
3. How can knowledge of the climate of an area help you make an initial
assessment of soil fertility?
In a Nutshell
1. You know that the air around you is full of nitrogen, yet your garden regularly
shows signs that it could use a little of it. How can you harness some of the
172
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
nitrogen for your garden?

2. Is adding a large quantity of nitrogen-rich amendments to your garden before
you plant necessarily a good thing to do? Why or why not?
3. What is the most important thing you can do to a mineral soil in order to ensure
an adequate supply of and maximum availability of plant nutrients?
Keywords Index
Bedrock Cation exchange Cation Exchange Clay

Capacity
Drainage Humus Infiltration Loam
Permeability Porosity Sand Saprolite
Silt Subsoil Topsoil Weathering
References
Moody, P.W., and Cong, P.T. (2008). Soil Constraints and Management Package
(SCAMP): guidelines for sustainable management of tropical upload soils,
ACIAR Monograph No. 130, 86pp.
Nortcliff, Stephen (2006). Soil, Definition, Function, and Utilization of Soil.
Balasubramanian, A. (2017). Characteristic of Soil Profile.
Bot, A. and Benites, J. (2005). The Importance of Soil Organic Matter, Information
Division Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Viale delle
terme di Caracalla No. 00 100 Rome, Italy
Balasubramanian, A. (2017). Chemical Properties of Soil. Retrieved from:

http://www. Slideshare.net/bala1957/chemical-properties-of-soils. Date
Retrieved: September 15, 2018.
Bear, F.E. (1964). Chemistry of the Soil. Reinhold Pub. Corp. Ann Arbor, Michigan.
Foth, H.D. (1991). Fundamentals of Soil Science, Canada: Arcata Graphics

Company.
Karthanasis, A.D. (2006). Soil Mineralogy. Land use and land cover, from
Encyclopedia of Life Support Systems (EOLSS), Developed under the
Auspices of the UNESCO, Eolss Publishers, Oxford, UK,
[http://www.eolss.net].
173
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Reckitt Benckiser. Soil Structure. Retrieved from: www.rsc.org/learn-

chemistry/resource/res00000885/soil-
science?cmpid=CMP00002163#!cmpid=CMP00001093. Retrieved date:
September 17, 2018.
Sposito, G. 1989. The Chemistry of Soils. Oxford University Press, New York, NY.
Tan, K. H. (2010). Principles of soil chemistry. CRC press.
Course Schedule

Third Exam Face-to-face
174
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture 4
expected to
a. demonstrate understanding on the basic concepts of energy;

b. summarize the concept of electrochemical energy;
c. explain the concept of nuclear energy;
d. show understanding of the concept of fuels.
Big Picture in Focus: ULO4a. demonstrate understanding on the basic

concepts of energy
Metalanguage
energy to demonstrate ULO4a will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in
Absolute zero the lowest temperature possible. At a temperature of absolute

zero there is no motion and no heat. Absolute zero occurs at a
temperature of 0 degrees Kelvin, or -273.15 degrees Celsius, or at -
460 degrees Fahrenheit.
Chemical the energy stored in the chemical bonds of a substance
potential energy
Closed system a system that can exchange only energy with its surroundings, not
matter.
Conduction the transfer of heat energy through matter from particle to particle;
most effective in solids
Convection the transfer of heat energy in gases or liquids due to density
differences
Elastic potential potential energy stored as a result of deformation of an elastic object,
energy such as the stretching of a spring
Electromagnetic the type of energy which comes from electromagnetic waves
energy
Endothermic any process which requires or absorbs energy from its surroundings,
reaction usually in the form of heat
175
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Exothermic a process or reaction that releases energy from the system to its
reaction surroundings, usually in the form of heat, but also in a form of light,
electricity, or sound.
Energy the quantitative property that must be transferred to an object in order
to perform work on, or to heat, the object. Energy is a conserved
quantity; the law of conservation of energy states that energy can be
converted in form, but not created or destroyed.
Entropy a thermodynamic quantity representing the unavailability of a system's
thermal energy for conversion into mechanical work, often interpreted
as the degree of disorder or randomness in the system.
Fission a process in nuclear physics in which the nucleus of an atom splits into
two or more smaller nuclei as fission products, and usually some by-
product particles.
Fusion a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form
one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles. The
difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested
as either the release or absorption of energy.
Gravitational the potential energy a physical object with mass has in relation to
potential energy another massive object due to gravity.
Heat the quantity of energy stored or transferred by thermal vibrations of
molecules
Isolated system a system that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its
surroundings
Kinetic energy the energy an object possesses due to its motion
Mechanical the sum of kinetic and potential energy in an object that is used to do
energy work. In other words, it is energy in an object due to its motion or
position, or both.
Nuclear energy comes from splitting atoms in a reactor to heat water into steam, turn a
turbine and generate electricity.
Open system A type of system that can exchange both energy and matter with its
surroundings
Potential energy the energy held by an object because of its position relative to other
objects, stresses within itself, its electric charge, or other factors.
Surroundings the rest of the universe that interacts with the system
System the part of the universe being studied
Temperature the average vibrational energy of all molecules within the system; the
degree or intensity of heat present in a substance or object, especially
as expressed according to a comparative scale and shown by a
thermometer or perceived by touch.
Work a force applied to an object over a certain distance
176
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Essential Knowledge
Energy
Energy is one of the most fundamental and a universal concept of physical

science for everything that happens in the world involves energy (Woodford, 2018).
There were three broad categories of energy that we consume every day. First, the
food we eat to keep our bodies going- this comes from plants and animals in which
our stomach digest to produce a sugary substance glucose where the blood transports
around our bodies to power our muscles. Second, the energy we use in our homes
that comes from the coal, gas, and oil. Lastly, the fuel we put in our vehicle mostly
came from the oil. But all of this energy was originated from a giant fireball called ‘sun’
which provides 99% of energy we use on Earth (Woodford, 2018). Theoretically,
energy is an attribute of matter that can manifest itself in different ways (can be
converted into different forms of energy). It can be measured only indirectly through
its effects on matter that requires, loses, or possesses it (Zumdahl & Decoste, 2014).
Energy is a quantitative property of a system which can be a kinetic, potential

or any other forms. It cannot be seen, weighed, touched or smelled but it can be felt.
Thus, the nature of energy is governed with the laws of thermodynamics. This tells on
how and why does the energy is transferred (Hinrichs, 1991).
Law of Thermodynamics
In physics, thermodynamics deals with the relationship between heat and other
forms of energy. In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to and
from other forms of energy and how it affects matter. Thermal energy is the energy a
substance or system has due to its temperature, i.e., the energy of moving or vibrating
molecules (Lucas, 2015). According to Energy Education, heat is energy transferred
between substances or systems due to a temperature difference between them. As a
form of energy, heat is conserved, i.e., it cannot be created or destroyed. It can,
however, be transferred from one place to another. Heat can also be converted to and
from other forms of energy. Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy
of the particles in a sample of matter, expressed in terms of units or degrees
designated on a standard scale (American Heritage Dictionary).
System and Surroundings
In chemistry, the system is the chemical reaction that consists of molecules.

Everything that is not a part of the system constitutes its surroundings. The system
and surroundings are separated by a boundary (Brown, 2000).
177
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 1. An abstract of system and surroundings
According to Brown (2000), there are three types of systems in thermodynamics

namely: open, closed, and isolated.
Open system
Can exchange both energy and matter with its surroundings. The stovetop
example would be an open system, because heat and water vapor can be lost to the
air.
Figure 2. Both energy and matter exchange
Closed System
A system that can exchange only energy with its surroundings, not matter. If we
put a very tightly fitting lid on the pot from the previous example, it would approximate
a closed system.
178
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 3. Only the energy can exchange with its surroundings.
Isolated System
Is one that cannot exchange either matter or energy with its surroundings. A
perfect isolated system is hard to come by, but an insulated drink cooler with a lid is
conceptually similar to a true isolated system. The items inside can exchange energy
with each other, which is why the drinks get cold and the ice melts a little, but they
exchange very little energy (heat) with the outside environment.
Figure 4. There is no exchange of energy and matter occurs in this example.
1st law of Thermodynamics
A law of thermodynamics states that energy is neither be created nor destroyed,

but can only be transferred or changed from one form to another known as
“conservation of energy”. This means that any change in the internal energy (ΔE) of a
system is given by the sum of the heat (q) that flows across its boundaries and the
work (w) done on the system by the surroundings: ΔE=q+w (Boundless Learning,
2018).
179
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 5. Energy is transfered from the ball to the pins. No energy is lost.
2nd Law of Thermodynamics
A law of thermodynamics wherein the entropy of any isolated system always

increases. Isolated systems spontaneously evolve towards thermal equilibrium—the
state of maximum entropy of the system. More simply put: the entropy of the universe
(the ultimate isolated system) only increases and never decreases (Boundless
Learning, 2018).
Figure 6. This shows that the higher entropy the higher its random and less ordered.
3rd Law of Thermodynamics
It states that the entropy of a system approaches a constant value as the

temperature approaches absolute zero. The entropy of a system at absolute zero is
typically zero, and in all cases is determined only by the number of different ground
states it has. Specifically, the entropy of a pure crystalline substance (perfect order) at
absolute zero temperature is zero. This statement holds true if the perfect crystal has
only one state with minimum energy (Boundless Learning, 2018).
180
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 7. The temperature of a system approaches absolute zero, its entropy

approaches a constant.
Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
It states that if two bodies are each in thermal equilibrium with some third body,
then they are also in equilibrium with each other. Thermal equilibrium means that when
two bodies are brought into contact with each other and separated by a barrier that is
permeable to heat, there will be no transfer of heat from one to the other (Lucas, 2015).
Figure 8. Shows the equilibrium with each other.
Spontaneous Processes and Nonspontaneous Processes
Spontaneity does not imply that the reaction proceeds with great speed. For
example, the decay of diamonds into graphite is a spontaneous process that occurs
very slowly, taking millions of years. The rate of a reaction is independent of its
spontaneity, and instead depends on the chemical kinetics of the reaction. Every
reactant in a spontaneous process has a tendency to form the corresponding product.
This tendency is related to stability. On the other hand, an endergonic reaction (also
called a nonspontaneous reaction or an unfavorable reaction) is a chemical reaction
in which the standard change in free energy is positive, and energy is absorbed. The
total amount of energy is a loss (it takes more energy to start the reaction than what
is gotten out of it) so the total energy is a negative net result. Endergonic reactions
can also be pushed by coupling them to another reaction, which is strongly exergonic,
through a shared intermediate (Boundless Learning, 2018).
181
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Exothermic and Endothermic Reactions
Exothermic reactions are reactions or processes that release energy, usually in

the form of heat or light. In an exothermic reaction, energy is released because the
total energy of the products is less than the total energy of the reactants. On the the
other hand, endothermic reactions are reactions that require external energy, usually
in the form of heat, for the reaction to proceed. Since endothermic reactions draw in
heat from their surroundings, they tend to cause their environments to cool down
(Boundless Learning, 2018).
Work, Heat, and Temperature
Work is a force applied to an object over a certain distance. This aids with the
energy in order the object to move. On the other hand, heat is the quantity of energy
stored or transferred by thermal vibrations of molecules. At absolute zero, a system
has no heat energy. Temperature is the average vibrational energy of all molecules
within the system. These three are present in the energy (Woodford, 2018).
Energy Conversion
The energy conversion is a process of changing energy from one form to

another. This can be done anytime and everywhere (Hinrichs, 1991).
Energy Efficiency
It is the amount of useful energy extracted from a system divided by the total
energy put into a system. It may also be thought of as the efficiency with which we are
capable of utilizing a resource. If we don't use the energy released from the chemical
bonds in a resource, the energy goes into waste heat, sound, thermal vibrations, or
light. The more energy conversion steps there are in a process, the more energy you
lose as waste heat (Hinrichs, 1991).
Measuring energy
According to Walker 1996, energy cannot be seen, weighed, touched or

smelled but it can be felt. Hence, measuring the energy is to determine its efficiency
process has been done. Since energy is a quantitative, the heating value of “fuel” has
been use to measure on how much a certain resource converts into heat (motion of
molecules). There are measuring units in energy: Joules (J), the common measuring
units where 1 joule is equal to one newton meter (N*m). Another one, is the British
Thermal Unit or the BTU where one BTU is the amount of energy required to raise one
pound of water 1o C. Thus, the calorie where the unit of measure of the energy required
to raise the temperature of 1 gram of water by 1o C (Hinrichs, 1991).
182
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Types of Energy
Potential Energy
Energy stored in a motionless object, giving it the potential to cause change

(Zumdahl & Decoste, 2014). It is written in the formula of:
PE= m x g x h
According to Damelin (2007), there are types of potential energy:
1. Elastic Potential Energy – Energy stored by things that stretch or compress

(springs, elastic, rubberbands)
2. Chemical Potential Energy - energy stored in chemical bonds between

atoms (Snickers bar, food, even gasoline)
3. Gravitational Potential Energy – energy stored by things that are above Earth
(book sitting on shelf, person standing on a cliff, rollercoaster perched at the
top of a hill)
Kinetic Energy
It is associated with the motion of an object (Zumdahl & Decoste, 2014). It is
written in the formula of:
KE = ½ m x v2
Forms of Energy
Heat Energy
It is the result of the movement of tiny particles called atoms, molecules

or ions in solids, liquids and gases. Heat energy can be transferred from one object to
another. The transfer or flow due to the difference in temperature between the two
objects is called heat (Science Learning Hub, 2018).
For example, an ice cube has heat energy and so does a glass of lemonade. If
you put the ice in the lemonade, the lemonade (which is warmer) will transfer some of
its heat energy to the ice. In other words, it will heat up the ice. Eventually, the ice will
183
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
melt and the lemonade and water from the ice will be the same temperature. This is
known as reaching a state of thermal equilibrium.
Moving particles
Matter is all around you. It is everything in the universe – anything that has
both mass and volume and takes up space is matter. Matter exists in different physical
forms – solids, liquids and gases.
All matter is made of tiny particles called atoms, molecules and ions. These tiny
particles are always in motion – either bumping into each other or vibrating back and
forth. It is the motion of particles that creates a form of energy called heat (or thermal)
energy that is present in all matter.
Chemical Energy
It is the potential energy stored in the arrangement of atoms within molecules.

Breaking chemical bonds requires energy, while forming new chemical bonds
releases energy. The more energy that's released when a bond forms, the more stable
that bond is. These bonds are stable because the same amount of energy must be put
into these bonds to break them again (this is an example of conservation of energy).
When bonds between atoms are broken or formed, this is called a chemical reaction
(Energy Education, 2018).
Electromagnetic Energy
It is said to be the type of energy which comes from electromagnetic waves.

These radiation travels with the speed of light and can be composed of radio waves,
TV waves, radar waves, heat, light, X-rays, visible waves, etc. The Sun, the earth and
the ionosphere are main sources of electromagnetic energy in nature (Science Struck,
2018). This means that the energy source required to transmit information (in the form
of waves) from one place (material) to another. This information can be in the form of
light, heat, or in any other form.
Nuclear Energy
It is the energy in the nucleus of an atom. Atoms are the smallest particles that
can break a material. At the core of each atom there are two types of particles
(neutrons and protons) that are held together. Nuclear energy is the energy that
holds neutrons and protons (National Nuclear Regulator, 2017).
Nuclear energy can be used to produce electricity. This energy can be

obtained in two ways: nuclear fusion and nuclear fission. In nuclear fusion, energy
is released when atoms are combined or fused together to form a larger atom. The
sun produces energy like this. In nuclear fission, atoms are split into smaller atoms,
184
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
releasing energy. Actually, nuclear power plants can only use nuclear fission to
produce electricity.
When one of these two physical reactions (nuclear fission or nuclear

fusion) success, atoms experiment a slight loss of mass. This mass lost generates
a big amount of heat energy, explained by Albert Einstein with his famous
equation E = mc2.
Although the production of electricity is the most common utility there are
many other uses of nuclear energy in other sectors, such as medical, environmental
or wartime (atomic bomb).
Mechanical Energy
It is the energy possessed by an object due to its motion or its position. Well,
that seems simple enough, but what is energy? Energy is the ability to do work,
where work is the movement of an object when a force is applied to it. For example, a
person doing push-ups is doing work by applying force to the floor. Since the floor
doesn't typically move, the person will move away from the floor. That same person
could apply a force to a book and move it over his or her head. In each case, work is
done when the applied force causes an object to move (Study.com, 2018).
Mechanical energy includes: potential energy, also known as energy of

position. The potential energy Epot of a mass m, for example, is equal to Epot = m g h,
where g is the acceleration due to gravity and h is the height. Potential energy can be
found in elastic deformation, in which the original shape of a material is recovered after
an external force is removed (U.S. Department of Energy,2018).
There is also kinetic energy, also known as energy of motion, Ekin = ½ m v2,
which arises from the motion of a mass m with a velocity v. Similar to kinetic energy
of translation (the energy of moving from place to place) the rotational energy of a
body with angular velocity ω and a moment of inertia I with respect to the rotational
axis is described by Erot = ½ I ω2.
Jones, C. S., & Mayfield, S. P. (2016). Our energy future : Introduction to renewable
energy and biofuels. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131770566/61424AD0AA7547F0PQ/2
?accountid=31259 Chapters 1-3 pp 1-40
185
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Sumper, A., Gomis-Bellmunt, O., & Díaz-González, F. (2016). Energy storage in

power systems. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131309248/CE3DAE4388FC4483PQ/1
?accountid=31259 Chapter 1-2 pp 1-60
Let’s Check
Solve the following problems:
1. A box has a mass of 6.2 kg. The box is lifted from the garage floor and placed
on a shelf. If the box gains 176 J of Potential Energy, how high is the shelf?
2. A man climbs on to a wall that is 5.2 m high and gains 3168J of potential energy.
What is the mass of the man?
3. A 907 g ball is pulled up a slope as shown in the diagram. Calculate the potential
energy it gains.
4. A car with a mass of 805 kg is moving with a speed of 26 m/s. Calculate the
kinetic energy of the car.
5. A cyclist and bike have a total mass of 111 kg and a speed of 12 m/s.
Calculate the kinetic energy.
6. A tennis ball is traveling at 53 m/s and has a kinetic energy of 72 J. Calculate
the mass of the tennis ball.
Let’s Analyze
1. Light has no mass so it also has no energy according to Einstein, but how can
sunlight warm the earth without energy?
186
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
2. Since gravity is unlimited, can we use it as an infinite energy source?

3. Why is mass conserved in chemical reactions?
4. If the Law of Conservation of Energy states that energy is neither be created
nor destroyed, but can only be transferred or changed from one form to
another, why do scientists worry about running out of energy in the future?
In a Nutshell
1. How can the negative impact on climate change be reduced by using

renewable sources of energy?
2. Are alternative energy sources like solar, wind, tidal, and geothermal more
practical than fossil fuels?
3. How does alternative energy as the primary source of energy affect society’s
sustainability?
Keywords Index
Absolute zero Chemical potential Closed system Conduction

energy
Convection Elastic potential Electromagnetic Endothermic
energy energy reaction
Exothermic Energy Entropy Fission
reaction
Fusion Gravitational Heat Isolated system
potential energy
Kinetic energy Mechanical energy Nuclear energy Open system
Potential energy Surroundings System Temperature
Work
References
American Heritage Dictionary. (n/a). Temperature. Retrieved from

https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=temperature.
Boundless Learning (2018). Exothermic and endothermic processes. Introduction to

Chemistry. Retrieved from
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/chapter/exothermic-and-
endothermic-processes.
187
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Boundless Learning (2018). Thermodynamics. Introduction to Chemistry. Retrieved

from https://courses.lumenlearning.com/introchem/?s=thermodynamics.
Brown, T. et. al., (2000). Chemistry: the central science 8th Edition. Pearson
Education Asia, Singapore.
BYJUS. (2018). Energy Conversion. Retrieved from

https://byjus.com/physics/energy-conversion.
ChemTeam. (2011). Energy, work, heat, temperature. Thermochemistry. Retrieved

from https://www.chemteam.info/Thermochem/Energy-Work-Heat-Temp.html.
Damelin, D. (2007). Types of potential energy. Chemistry 2. Retrieved from

http://chemsite.lsrhs.net/chemKinetics/PotentialEnergy.html
Energy Education (n/a). Heat. Retrieved from

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Heat.
Energy Education. (2018, June 25). Chemical energy. Retrieved from

https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/Chemical_energy
Hinrichs, R. (1991). Energy: scientific principles. Retrieved from

http://matse1.matse.illinois.edu/energy/prin.html.
Lucas, J. (2015, May 7). What is thermodynamics? Live Science. Retrieved from
https://www.livescience.com/50776-thermodynamics.html.
Lucas, J. (2015, May 7).What is the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics? Live Science.
Retrieved from https://www.livescience.com/50833-zeroth-law-
thermodynamics.html.
National Nuclear Regulator. (2017, August 31). What is nuclear energy. Retrieved
from https://nuclear-energy.net/what-is-nuclear-energy
Science Learning Hub. (2009, November 20). Heat energy. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/750-heat-energy.
Science Struck. (2018, January 29). What is electromagnetic energy and why is it
important. Retrieved from https://sciencestruck.com/what-is-electromagnetic-
energy
Senese, F. (2010). What are some examples of exothermic and endothermic

processes. General Chemistry Online. Retrieved from
http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/thermo/faq/exothermic-
endothermic-examples.shtml.
Study.com. (2018). Entropy in chemistry: definition & law. AP Chemistry.
188
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Retrieved from https://study.com/academy/lesson/entropy-in-chemistry-

definition-lesson.html.
Study.com. (2018). What is mechanical energy. Retrieved from

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-are-the-types-of-energy.html
U.S. Department of Energy. (2018). Mechanical energy. Energy Fundamentals.

Retrieved from http://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/ef/links.htm
Woodford, C. (2018, April 8). Energy. Retrieved from

https://www.explainthatstuff.com/energy.html
Zumdhal & Decoste. (2014). The nature of energy. Thermochemistry. Retrieved from
https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Che
mistry_(Zumdahl_and_Decoste)/06%3A_Thermochemistry/9.1%3A_The_Nat
ure_of_Energy.
189
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO4b. summarize the concept of

electrochemical energy
Metalanguage
electrochemical energy to demonstrate ULOb will be reviewed. Please refer to these
concepts.
Anode the positively charged electrode by which the electrons leave a device.
Battery a device consisting of one or more electrochemical cells with external
connections for powering electrical devices such as flashlights, mobile
phones, and electric cars.
Cathode the electrode of an electrochemical cell at which reduction occurs
Corrosion a natural process that converts a refined metal into a more chemically-
stable form such as oxide, hydroxide, or sulfide. It is the gradual
destruction of materials by chemical and/or electrochemical reaction
with their environment.
Electrochemistry the study of chemical processes that cause electrons to move
Electrode a solid electric conductor that carries electric current into non-metallic
solids, or liquids, or gases, or plasmas, or vacuums. Electrodes are
typically good electric conductors, but they need not be metals.
Electrolysis a process by which electric current is passed through a substance to
effect a chemical change.
Electrolyte a substance that produces an electrically conducting solution when
dissolved in a polar solvent, such as water. The
dissolved electrolyte separates into cations and anions, which
disperse uniformly through the solvent.
Fuel cell a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy
Oxidation loss of electrons
Redox a type of chemical reaction in which the oxidation states of atoms are
changed. Redox reactions are characterized by the actual or formal
transfer of electrons between chemical species, most often with one
species undergoing oxidation while another species undergoes
reduction.
Reduction gain of electrons
190
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Salt bridge a tube containing an electrolyte (typically in the form of a gel),

providing electrical contact between two solutions.
Voltaic cell an electrochemical cell that uses a chemical reaction to produce
electrical energy
Essential Knowledge
Electrochemistry
According to Shorb (2017), electrochemistry is the study of chemical processes

that cause electrons to move. This movement of electrons is called electricity,
which can be generated by movements of electrons from one element to another in a
reaction known as an oxidation-reduction ("redox") reaction.
Electrochemistry and its principles constitute the fundamental base for the
evolution of numerous entities of the physical world and are also essential for all
activities of living beings. As a matter of course, electrochemical technology based
on electrochemistry also plays an important role in many modern manufacturing
processes and products especially in the fields of micro technology which revolutionize
almost all aspects of everyday life. Electrochemistry shows wide acceptability in
achieving required shape of products and implementation in micro manufacturing
processes, which has been established as a multibillion dollar market with applications
in information, entertainment, medical, automotive, telecom, and many other
technologies (Bhattacharyya, 2015).
Electrochemistry concerns chemical phenomena associated with charge

separation, usually in liquid media, such as solutions. The separation of charge is often
associated with charge transfer, which can occur homogeneously in solution between
different chemical species, or heterogeneously on electrode surfaces. It can thus be
seen immediately that its applications are extremely wide and will be indicated later.
In order to ensure electro neutrality, two or more charge transfer half-reactions take
place simultaneously, in opposite directions: oxidation (loss of electrons or increase in
oxidation state) and reduction (gain of electrons or decrease in oxidation state) (Brett,
2014).
Oxidation- Reduction Reaction
Oxidation-reduction reaction, also called redox reaction, any chemical

reaction in which the oxidation number of a participating chemical species changes.
The term covers a large and diverse body of processes. Many oxidation-
reduction reactions are as common and familiar as fire, the rusting and dissolution
of metals, the browning of fruit, and respiration and photosynthesis—
basic life functions. Most oxidation-reduction (redox) processes involve the transfer
of oxygen atoms, hydrogen atoms, or electrons, with all three processes sharing two
important characteristics: (1) they are coupled—i.e., in any oxidation reaction
a reciprocal reduction occurs, and (2) they involve a characteristic net chemical
change—i.e., an atom or electron goes from one unit of matter to another (Gregersen,
2009).
191
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Oxidation involves an increase in oxidation number, while reduction involves a

decrease in oxidation number. Usually, the change in oxidation number is associated
with a gain or loss of electrons, but there are some redox reactions (e.g., covalent
bonding) that do not involve electron transfer. Depending on the chemical reaction,
oxidation and reduction may involve any of the following for a given atom, ion, or
molecule: Oxidation - involves the loss of electrons or hydrogen OR gain of oxygen
OR increase in oxidation state. Reduction - involves the gain of electrons or hydrogen
OR loss of oxygen OR decrease in oxidation state (Helmenstine, 2018)
Balancing Redox Reactions
To balance redox reactions, assign oxidation numbers to

the reactants and products to determine how many moles of each species are needed
to conserve mass and charge. First, separate the equation into two half-reactions, the
oxidation portion and the reduction portion. This is called the half-reaction method of
balancing redox reactions or the ion-electron method. Each half-reaction is balanced
separately and then the equations are added together to give a balanced overall
reaction. We want the net charge and number of ions to be equal on both sides of the
final balanced equation (Helmenstine, 2017).
Voltaic cell
A voltaic cell is a cell where chemical reactions between

dissimilar conductors connected through an electrolyte and a salt bridge produce
electric energy. A galvanic cell can also be powered by spontaneous oxidation-
reduction reactions. Essentially, a galvanic cell channels the electrical energy
produced by the electron transfer in a redox reaction. The electrical energy or current
may be sent to a circuit, such as in a television or light bulb (Helmenstine, 2018).
In redox reactions, electrons are transferred from one species to another. If the
reaction is spontaneous, energy is released, which can then be used to do useful work.
To harness this energy, the reaction must be split into two separate half reactions: the
oxidation and reduction reactions. The reactions are put into two different containers
and a wire is used to drive the electrons from one side to the other. In doing so,
a Voltaic/ Galvanic Cell is created (Singh & Gho, 2018).
STANDARD REDUCTION POTENTIAL
Standard cell potential (E°cell) is defined as the potential of a cell measured

under standard conditions—that is, with all species in their standard states (1 M for
solutions, concentrated solutions of salts (about 1 M) generally do not exhibit ideal
behavior, and the actual standard state corresponds to an activity of 1 rather than a
concentration of 1 M. Corrections for nonideal behavior are important for precise
quantitative work but not for the more qualitative approach that we are taking here. 1
atm for gases, pure solids or pure liquids for other substances) and at a fixed
temperature, usually 25°C (Tanis, 1990).
192
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
As stated above, the standard reduction potential is the likelihood that a species
will be reduced. It is written in the form of a reduction half reaction. An example can
be seen below where "A" is a generic element and C is the charge.
AC++Ce−→A(1)(1)AC++Ce−→A
Reduction Half-Reaction Standard Reduction Potential (V)
F2(g)+2e- → 2F-(aq) +2.87
S2O82-(aq)+2e- → 2SO42-(aq) +2.01
O2(g)+4H+(aq)+4e- → 2H2O(l) +1.23
Br2(l)+2e- → 2Br-(aq) +1.09
Ag+(aq)+e- → Ag(s) +0.80
Fe3+(aq)+e- → Fe2+(aq) +0.77
I2(l)+2e- → 2I+(aq) +0.54
Cu2+(aq)+2e- → Cu(s) +0.34
Sn4+(aq)+2e- → Sn2+(aq) +0.15
S(s)+2H+(aq)+2e- → H2S(g) +0.14
193
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
2H+(aq)+2e- → H2(g) 0.00
Sn2+(aq)+2e- → Sn(g) -0.14
V3+(aq)+e- → V2+(aq) -0.26
Fe2+(aq)+2e- → Fe(s) -0.44
Cr3+(aq)+3e- → Cr(s) -0.74
Zn2+(aq)+2e- → Zn(s) -0.76
Mn2+(aq)+2e- → Mn(s) -1.18
Na+(aq)+e- → Na(s) -2.71
Li+(aq)+e- → Li(s) -3.04
Cell Potentials under Standard Conditions
Standard cell potential is the potential of a cell measured under standard

conditions or just simply the difference between the reduction potentials (Petrucci,
Harwood, Herring, & Madura, 2007). When solving for the standard cell potential, the
species oxidized and the species reduced must be identified. This can be identified
using the table above. Standard Cell Potential can be identified using the equation
below:
E°cell=E°cathode−E°anode
Wherein:
E°cell= Standard Cell Potential
194
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
E°cathode= standard potential value of the element being reduced
E°anode= standard potential value of the element being oxidized.
Illustrated in the diagram above is the Cell Potential between Cu and Zn.
Oxidation-Reduction Reaction (Redox Reaction)
A type of chemical change where electron transfer occurs is classified as an

oxidation-reduction or simply called as redox process. The ability of the electrons to
be transferred from one species to another is dependent on the species’ reduction or
oxidation potential.
Oxidation involves the loss of electrons by substance being oxidized. The

substance that oxidizes it is called oxidizing agent and causes itself to be reduced
during the process. On the other hand, Reduction involves the gain of electron by
substance being reduced. The substance that reduces it is called reducing agent in
turn causes itself to be oxidized.
Strong oxidizing agents are typically compounds with elements in high oxidation
states or with high electronegativity, which gain electrons in the redox reaction.
Reducing agents are typically electropositive elements such as hydrogen, lithium,
sodium, iron, and aluminum, which lose electrons in redox reactions (Anderson,2017).
195
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Emf, Free Energy, and the Equilibrium Constant
Electromotive force (Emf) is a characteristic of any energy source capable of

driving electric charge around a circuit. In other words, it is the energy thereby gained
per unit electric charge.
Formula:
Emf= V ＋ Ir
Free energy is the energy required by a system in order to work. There are two
types of Free energy: the Helmholtz free energy and Gibbs free energy. Helmholtz
free energy is the maximum amount of work a system can do at constant volume and
temperature. We can use it when the pressure is changing during the work of the
system. On the other hand, Gibbs Free energy the maximum amount of work a system
can do at constant pressure and temperature (Smith, 2018).
Moreover, Equilibrium constant (K) is the ratio of concentration of the products

to the concentration of the reactants. It is used to expresses the relationship between
products and reactants of a reaction at equilibrium in a reversible chemical reaction at
a given temperature.
Cell Potentials under Non-Standard Conditions
Redox reaction in the real world rarely occur under standard conditions. Thus,
to still determine the direction of the electron in any conditions, we can use the Nernst
Equation.
196
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
In 1889, Walter Nernst (1864-1941), a German scientist develop a

mathematical relationship that enable us to calculate cell potentials and the direction
of a spontaneous reaction at, other than standard-state condition.
General form of Nernst Equation:
Concentration Cell
The Concentration cell is a type of galvanic cell that is comprised of two half-
cells with the same electrodes but differing in concentrations. A concentration cell acts
to dilute the more concentrated solution and concentrate the more dilute solution
creating a voltage as the cell reaches an equilibrium. This is achieved by transferring
the electrons from the cell with the lower concentration to the cell with higher
concentration (Petrucci, 2007).
There are two main types of Concentration cell: Electrolyte Concentration Cell
and the Electrode Concentration cell. Electrolyte Concentration cell comprises of two
same electrodes that are dipped in an electrolyte which possesses different
concentration level. While the Electrode concentration cell consists of two cells where
identical electrodes are dipped in the same solution with different levels of
concentrations.
BATTERIES, FUEL CELLS, CORROSION AND ELECTROLYSIS
One of the oldest and most important applications of electrochemistry is to the

storage and conversion of energy. Devices that carry out these conversions are
called batteries. Batteries are so ubiquitous nowadays as they are almost invisible to
us. Alessandro Volta an Italian physicist invented the first true battery out of stacked
197
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
discs of copper (Cu) and zinc (Zn) separated by cloth soak in salty water in 1800
(Stephen Lower,2018).
Batteries are very essential device as they store chemical energy that is
converted into electricity. Throughout time battery technology brought undeniably
innovations to mankind as they were developed with enough capacity to store the
power generated with domestic solar or wind systems which tend to supply and power
our home at more convenient way. So now, this report will help us to appreciate and
understand the important usage of this batteries and how thus it works.
BATTERY
A battery is an electrochemical cell or series of cells that produces an electric

current. It contains all the reactants needed to produce electricity (OpenStax, 2016).
There are two basic types of battery namely as; (1) primary(disposable) batteries;(2)
secondary(rechargeable) batteries. Primary (disposable) batteries are single-use
batteries because they cannot be recharged. Common primary battery is the dry cell,
alkaline and button battery. The dry cell is a zinc-carbon battery. The zinc can serve
as both a container and the negative electrode. The positive electrode is a rod made
of carbon that is surrounded by a paste of manganese oxide, zinc chloride, ammonium
chloride, carbon powder, and a small amount of water. Alkaline batteries were
developed in the 1950s partly to address some of the performance issues with zinc–
carbon dry cells. They are manufactured to be exact replacements for zinc-carbon dry
cells. As their name suggests, these types of batteries use alkaline electrolytes, often
potassium hydroxide. It can deliver about three to five times the energy of a zinc-
carbon dry cell of similar size. Button batteries are small disc-shaped batteries
containing lithium, zinc, mercury, silver, or manganese. The major advantages of the
mercury and silver cells are their reliability and their high output-to-mass ratio. These
factors make them ideal for applications where small size is crucial, as in cameras and
hearing aids (OpenStax,2016) (Brown et al, 2018).
The diagram shows a cross section of a flashlight battery, a zinc-carbon dry cell.
198
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Alkaline batteries were designed as direct replacements for zinc-carbon (dry cell)
batteries.
Button batteries.
Secondary (rechargeable) batteries is a type of electrical battery which can be

charged, discharged into a load, and recharged many times, as opposed to a
disposable or primary battery, which is supplied fully charged and discarded after use.
These are the types of batteries found in devices such as smartphones, electronic
tablets, and automobiles. The most common rechargeable batteries are lead acid,
Nickel-cadmium, Nickel-metal-hydride and Lithium-ion. Lead-acid battery is the oldest
rechargeable battery system, it is the type of secondary battery used in your
automobile. It is inexpensive and capable of producing the high current required by
automobile starter motors. Nickel-cadmium battery is consisting of a nickel-plated
cathode, cadmium-plated anode, and a potassium hydroxide electrode. Used in
where long service life, high discharge current and extreme temperatures are required.
199
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Main applications are power tools, medical devices, aviation and UPS. Nickel-metal-
hydride serves as a replacement for Nickel-cadmium as it has only mild toxic metals
and provides higher specific energy. Nickel-metal hydride is used for medical
instruments, hybrid cars and industrial applications. Ni-MH battery packs are finding
immediate use in portable electronic applications such as laptop, notebook, and sub-
notebook computers, cellular communication devices, and consumer electronic
devices such as camcorders. Lithium-ion battery are among the most popular
rechargeable batteries and are used in many portable electronic devices. Lithium-ion
batteries are common in home electronics. They are one of the most popular types of
rechargeable batteries for portable electronics, with a high energy density,
tiny memory effect and low self-discharge. LIBs are also growing in popularity for
military, battery electric vehicle and aerospace applications (OpenStax, 2016).
FUEL CELLS
A fuel cell is a device that converts chemical energy into electrical energy. Fuel
cells are similar to batteries but require a continuous source of fuel, often hydrogen.
They will continue to produce electricity as long as fuel is available (OpenStax, 2016).
Hydrogen fuel cells is a process of using hydrogen as fuel and it will react with
oxygen to form electricity, water, and heat as the products. It’s been used to supply
power for satellites, space capsules, automobiles, boats, and submarines (Brown et
al,2018) (OpenStax, 2016).
CORROSION
The gradually degradation of metals due to an electrochemical process.

Formation of rust on iron, tarnish on silver, and the blue-green patina that develops on
copper are all examples of corrosion (OpenStax, 2016). Corrosion occurs when most
or all of the atoms on the same metal surface are oxidized, damaging the entire
surface. Mostly of metals are easily oxidized: they tend to lose electrons to oxygen
and other substances in the air or in water. (https://www.electrochem.org/corrosion-
science).
CORROSION OF IRON
The corrosion of iron is better known as rusting. It is an oxidation-reduction

process that destroys iron objects left out in open, moist air. The whole subject of
corrosion of iron is therefore an electrochemical one, and the rate of the corrosion is
simply a function of electromotive force and resistance of circuit (Bill Nimmo and
Gareth Hinds, 2003)
Oxidation half-reaction: Fe(s)→Fe2+(aq)+2e- Equation 1

Reduction half-reaction: O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- → 4OH-(aq) Equation 2
2Fe(s)+ O2(g)+2H2O(l)→2Fe2+(aq)+4OH-(aq) Equation3
200
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Fe2+(aq)+2OH-(aq)→Fe(OH)2(s) Equation4
4Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(g) + xH2O(I)→ 2Fe2O3•(x+4)H2O(s) Rust Equation 5
PREVENTING CORROSSION OF IRON
We commonly use iron and other steel products in different ways to improve
our daily basis of living easier and efficiently. So, preventing the rusting of this
materials is given prioritize nowadays. A lot of ways to prevent iron from rusting but
the most common and best way are galvanization, painting, electroplating.
Galvanization is a process in which the Iron sheets are coated with a layer of Zinc
which prevents rusting. Zinc is more reactive than iron so when we used it as a shield
this element will oxidized faster rather than the iron. Painting the Iron surface will
create a barrier between the Iron and the atmosphere, which will protect the Iron from
rusting. Iron sheets can be electroplated with a metal which is more reactive than Iron,
so that instead of the Iron getting oxidized, the other metal gets oxidized this process
called as electroplating (OpenStax, 2016).
ELECTROLYSIS
According to Surabhi Sinha (2014), Electrolysis is a process by which electric

current is passed through a substance to effect a chemical change. The process is
carried out in an electrolytic cell, an apparatus consisting of positive and
negative electrodes held apart and dipped into a solution containing positively and
negatively charged ions. According to Adam Felman (2017), an electrolyte is a
substance that conducts electricity when dissolved in water. According to Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt (2010), electrodes any terminal that conducts an electric current into
or away from various conducting substances in a circuit, as the anode or cathode in
a battery or the carbons in an arc lamp, or that emits, collects, or controls the flow of
electrons in an electron tube, as the cathode, plate, or grid. Anode is considered
negative and Cathode positive for Electrochemical Cells (Voltaic or Galvanic Cell)
which Redox Reaction happens spontaneously. While the opposite occurs for the
Electrolytic Cell, Anode is considered positive and cathode is considered negative,
because an external power supply is added and force the redox reaction to occur
backward, making such a not spontaneous redox reaction to happen Zerobyte
Johnsons (2017).
ELECTROLYTIC CELL
An electrolytic cell converts electrical energy into chemical energy. Here, the
anode is positive and cathode is the negative electrode. The reaction at the anode is
oxidation and that at the cathode is reduction. The concept of reversing the direction
of the spontaneous reaction in a galvanic cell through the input of electricity is at the
heart of the idea of electrolysis.
201
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The Electrolysis of Molten Sodium Chloride
In molten sodium chloride, the ions are free to migrate to the electrodes of an
electrolytic cell. A simplified diagram of the cell commercially used to produce sodium
metal and chlorine gas. Sodium is a strong reducing agent and chlorine is used to
purify water, and is used in antiseptics and in paper production (OpenStax, 2016)
202
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Passing an electric current through molten sodium chloride decomposes the material
into sodium metal and chlorine gas. Care must be taken to keep the products
separated to prevent the spontaneous formation of sodium chloride.
The Electrolysis of Water
According to Martin Chaplin (2018), electrolysis of water is the decomposition

to give hydrogen and oxygen gases due to the passage of an electric current.
According to OpenStax (2016), it is possible to split water into hydrogen and oxygen
gas by electrolysis. Acids are typically added to increase the concentration of
hydrogen ion in solution.
203
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Water decomposes into oxygen and hydrogen gas during electrolysis. Sulfuric acid
was added to increase the concentration of hydrogen ions and the total number of
ions in solution, but does not take part in the reaction. The volume of hydrogen gas
collected is twice the volume of oxygen gas collected, due to the stoichiometry of the
reaction.
The Electrolysis of Aqueous Sodium Chloride
The electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride is the more common example of

electrolysis because more than one species can be oxidized and reduced. When the
experiment is run, it turns out chlorine, not oxygen, is produced at the anode. The
unexpected process is so common in electrochemistry that it has been given the name
overpotential. The overpotential is the difference between the theoretical cell voltage
and the actual voltage that is necessary to cause electrolysis (OpenStax, 2016).
QUANTITATIVE ASPECTS OF ELECTROLYSIS
The amount of current that is allowed to flow in an electrolytic cell is related to

the number of moles of electrons. The number of moles of electrons can be related to
the reactants and products using stoichiometry (OpenStax, 2016). According to Moore
et al. (2017), a simple relationship between the amount of substance produced or
consumed at an electrode during electrolysis and the quantity of electrical
charge Q which passes through the cell discovered by Michael Faraday in the year
1833.
204
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
The Faraday constant
The Faraday constant is the single most important information in electrolysis

calculations. The charge that each electron carries is 1.60 x 10 ^ -19 coulombs. That
means the 1 mole of electrons must carry6.02 x 10^23 x 1.60 x 10^-19 coulombs=
96320 coulombs.It is usually taken as 9.65 x 10^4 C mol-1(coulombs per mole) or
96500 coulombs per mole.
Coulombs
The coulomb is a measure of the quantity of electricity. If a current of 1 amp

flows for 1 second, then 1 coulomb of electricity has passed.
Number of coulombs = current in amps x time in seconds
Tarascon, J., & Simon, P. (2015). Electrochemical energy storage. Retrieved fro
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2132018649/D8185272A75A44EFPQ/1
Bartlett, P. N., Alkire, R. C., & Lipkowski, J. (Eds.). (2015). Electrochemical
engineering across scales : From molecules to processes. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131322736/42A62F7DC1DC4BCFPQ/
1?accountid=31259 Chapter 1 The Role of Electrochemical Engineering in
Our Energy Future pp 1-6
Godula-Jopek, A. (2015). Hydrogen production : By electrolysis. Retrieved fro
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131903260/3A2EDBCE496046F0PQ/1
Monconduit, L., Croguennec, L., Dedryvère, R., & Dedryvère, R. (2015). Electrodes
for li-ion batteries : Materials, mechanisms and performance. Retrieved fro
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2131323576/B3D966F62C804B96PQ/1
Brousse, T., Simon, P., & Favier, É. (2017). Supercapacitors based on carbon or
pseudocapacitive materials. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com/docview/2134677130/AB6D466D35684FBDPQ/1
Let’s Check
1. In an electrolytic cell the electrode at which the electrons enter the solution is
called the ______ ; the chemical change that occurs at this electrode is called
_______.
205
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
2. In an electrolytic cell, electrical energy is converted into ________ energy.

3. Where does oxidation and reduction occur in this galvanic cell?
4. An electrochemical cell may be defined as a device which is used to convert
chemical energy into ________.
5. _______ function by the same principle: two materials that oxidize and reduce
each other are corrected by s medium through which ions travel to balance an
external flow of electrons.
6. In electrochemical cells, electrons are lost at the _______ and gained by the
_________.
Let’s Analyze
1. How does an electrolytic cell differ from a galvanic cell?

2. What kind of chemical reactions spontaneously takes place in electrochemical
cells?
3. What kind of chemical reactions spontaneously takes place in electrochemical
cells?
4. What is the function of a salt bridge in an electrochemical cell? What would
happen if the salt bridge were removed?
5. How does doubling the size of an electrochemical cell (while keeping the
concentration of all species the same) affect the current produced and the cell
voltage?
In a Nutshell
1. The deteriorating iron framework inside the Statue of Liberty was replaced
with stainless steel as part of a major restoration project. The work was
finished in 1986, exactly one hundred years after the statue was first
completed. To avoid any electrochemical contact between the metals, the new
stainless steel frame and the external copper plates covering the statue were
separated using Teflon spacers. The original statue was constructed using
asbestos pads as insulating spacers. Apparently, the pads were still able to
act as a conductor (in conjunction with moisture and gases from the
206
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
atmosphere). Why was the iron framework on the interior of the statue most in
need of repair and not the copper plating exposed to the atmosphere on the
exterior of the statue?
2. Why can a solid copper penny be dissolved in nitric acid, but not in
hydrochloric acid? Modern pennies are made from zinc metal plated with
copper. What happens to a modern penny when it is placed inside a bath of
hydrochloric acid after the penny is scratched, exposing some of the zinc?
Keywords Index
Anode Battery Cathode Corrosion

Electrochemistry Electrode Electrolysis Electrolyte
Fuel cell Oxidation Redox Reduction
Salt bridge Voltaic cell
References
Bhattacharyya, (2015). www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electrochemistry
Brett, (2014). www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/electrochemistry
Helmenstine, (2017). How to Balance Redox Reactions

Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/balance-redox-reactions-607569
Helmenstine, (2018) Oxidation Reduction Reactions - Redox Reactions

https://www.thoughtco.com/oxidation-reduction-reactions-604037
Helmenstine, (2018). Galvanic Cell Definition (Voltaic Cell). Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/galvanic-cell-definition-604080
Gregersen, (2009). https://www.britannica.com/science/oxidation-reduction-

reaction/Historical-origins-of-the-redox-concept
Shorb,(2017) Retrieved from

https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplement
al_
Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Basics_of_Electrochemistry
Singh & Gho, (2018). Voltaic Cells. Retrieved from

https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Analytical_Chemistry/Supplement
al_Modules_(Analytical_Chemistry)/Electrochemistry/Voltaic_Cells
207
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Petrucci, Harwood, Herring, and Madura. (2007) General Chemistry: Principles and
Modern Applications. 9th ed. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson
Education.
Zhumdal, (2007) Chemistry. 7th ed. Boston, New Jersey: Massachusetts Houghton
Miffle
Anderson, S.T. (2017). Thermodynamics: Comparing Strengths of Oxidants and

Reductants. Retrieved from www.chemisfun//dealingthermodynamics.com
Smith, A. D. (2018). Chemical Thermodynamics: Free Energy and the Equilibrium

Constant, Retrieved from www.chemlibretexts.com
Petrucci, Ralph H. (2007) General Chemistry: Principles and Modern Applications

9th Ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education Inc.
Zumdahl, Steven S. (2007). Chemistry, 9th Ed. New York: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Tanis, David O. (1990). "Galvanic cells and the standard reduction potential table
(F&R)." J. Chem. Educ. Pp. 67, 602.
Alarco, J., and Talbot, P (2015). The history and development of batteries. Retrieved
from: https://phys.org/news/2015-04-history-batteries.html. Date Retrieved:
September 23, 2018.
Brown, LeMay, Murphy, et al. (2018). Chemistry: The Central Science. Retrieved
from:
https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/General_Chemistry/Map%3A_Che
mistry__The_Central_Science_(Brown_et_al.)/20%3A_Electrochemistry/20.7
%3A_Batteries_and_Fuel_Cells. Date retrieved: September 23, 2018.
Harcourt, H.M. (2010). Webster’s New World College Dictionary, 4th Edition.
Copyright.
Retrieved from: https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/electrode-
. Date retrieved: September 23, 2018.
OpenStax (2016). Chemistry. Retrieved from: https://opentextbc.ca/chemistry/. Date

retrieved: September 23,2018.
Nair, S (2017). A Wikipedian writing Chemistry based articles on Wikipedia. Retrieved

from: Updated Oct 23, 2017 https://www.quora.com/What-are-some-ways-to-
prevent-rusting-of-iron. Date retrieved: September 23,2018.
Nimmo, N., and Hinds, G. (2003). Beginners Guide to Corrosion. Retrieved from:
http://www.npl.co.uk/upload/pdf/beginners_guide_to_corrosion.pdf.Date
retrieved: September 23,2018.
208
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO4c. explain the concept of nuclear energy
Metalanguage
nuclear energy to demonstrate ULO4c will be reviewed. Please refer to these
concepts.
Background radiation you are exposed to from natural sources

radiation
Binding energy the minimum energy required to disassemble a system of particles into
separate parts.
Carbon dating a method for determining the age of an object containing organic
material by using the properties of radiocarbon, a radioactive isotope
of carbon.
Critical mass minimum amount of fissionable isotope needed to sustain the chain
reaction
Dosimeter a device that measures dose uptake of external ionizing radiation. It is
worn by the person being monitored when used as a
personal dosimeter, and is a record of the radiation dose received.
Electron a subatomic particle, symbol e − or β − , whose electric charge is
negative one elementary charge.
Electroscope an early scientific instrument used to detect the presence of electric
charge on a body. It detects charge by the movement of a test object
due to the Coulomb electrostatic force on it.
Fission a nuclear reaction or a radioactive decay process in which the nucleus
of an atom splits into two or more smaller, lighter nuclei.
Fusion a reaction in which two or more atomic nuclei are combined to form
one or more different atomic nuclei and subatomic particles. The
difference in mass between the reactants and products is manifested
as either the release or absorption of energy.
Geiger counter an instrument used for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation.
Also known as a Geiger–Muller counter (or Geiger–Müller counter), it is
widely used in applications such as radiation dosimetry, radiological
protection, experimental physics, and the nuclear industry.
Half-life the time required to convert one half of a reactant to product or a
radioactive sample to decay.
Isotope are variants of a particular chemical element which differ in neutron
number, and consequently in nucleon number. All isotopes of a given
209
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
element have the same number of protons but different numbers of

neutrons in each atom.
Mass defect 1. the difference between the mass of an isotope and its mass number.
Neutron a subatomic particle of about the same mass as a proton but without
an electric charge, present in all atomic nuclei except those of ordinary
hydrogen.
Nucleon either a proton or a neutron, considered in its role as a component of
an atomic nucleus
Nuclide nucleus of an isotope
Positron or antielectron is the antiparticle or the antimatter counterpart of the
electron. The positron has an electric charge of +1 e, a spin of 1/2 (the
same as the electron), and has the same mass as an electron. When
a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs.
Proton a subatomic particle, symbol p or p⁺ , with a positive electric charge of
+1e elementary charge and a mass slightly less than that of a neutron
Radioactivity the emission of ionizing radiation or particles caused by the
spontaneous disintegration of atomic nuclei.
Scintillation an instrument for detecting and measuring ionizing radiation by using
counter the excitation effect of incident radiation on a scintillating material, and
detecting the resultant light pulses.
Transmutation the conversion of one chemical element or an isotope into another
chemical element.
Essential Knowledge
Nuclear chemistry
Nuclear chemistry is the study of the chemical and physical properties of

elements as influenced by changes in the structure of the atomic nucleus and is
associated with nuclear reactions and isotopes (Helmenstine, A.M., 2018). Moreover,
according to Loveland, Morrissey, & Seaborg (2006), nuclear chemistry is a branch of
chemistry that studies the chemical and physical properties of the heaviest elements,
recognition of radioactive decay is an important part of work. Nuclear chemistry has
ties to all branches of chemistry. The continuation of nuclear chemistry focuses on the
elements involved in synthesis of new elements and transuranium elements. It also
focuses on the relationship and calculation of binding energy and mass defect.
Nuclear reaction is a change in the identity or characteristics of an atomic

nucleus that results when it is bombarded with an energetic particle, as in fission,
fusion, or radioactive decay while Isotopes are each of two or more forms of the same
element that contain equal numbers of protons but different numbers of neutrons in
their nuclei, and hence differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties; in
particular, a radioactive form of an element. (Nuclear reaction and Isotope, n.d.)
210
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
In a nuclear reaction Fission means an atom splits into two parts, either
through natural decay or when instigated within a lab, it releases energy and Fusion
occurs when two light atoms bond together, or fuse, to make a heavier one. The total
mass of the new atom is less than that of the two that formed it; the "missing" mass is
given off as energy, as described by Albert Einstein's famous "E=mc2" equation (Redd
N.T., 2012).
In addition, according to Helmenstine, A.M., 2018, Transmutation means "to

change from one form into another" or to transmute is to change from one form or
substance into another; to transform or convert.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the spontaneous emission of radiation in the form of particles

or high energy photons resulting from a nuclear reaction or decomposition of a nucleus
to form a different nucleus. With this decomposition is the introduction of half-life
which means the time required to convert one half of a reactant to product or a
radioactive sample to decay. The term is commonly applied to radioactive decay,
where the reactant is the parent isotope and the product is a daughter isotope
(Helmenstine, A.M., 2018).
Radioactive Elements
An element is subject to spontaneous degeneration of its nucleus accompanied

by the emission of alpha-particles, beta-particles, or gamma rays. All elements with
atomic number greater than 83 are radioactive (Radioactive Element, n.d.).
This is a list or table of elements that are radioactive and contains the elements
that have no stable isotopes. Each element is followed by the most stable known
isotope and its half-life. This list is sorted by increasing atomic number (Helmenstine,
T., 2017).
Element Most Stable Isotope Half-life

of Most Stable Istope
Technetium Tc-91 4.21 x 106 years
Promethium Pm-145 17.4 years
Polonium Po-209 102 years
Astatine At-210 8.1 hours
Radon Rn-222 3.82 days
Francium Fr-223 22 minutes
Radium Ra-226 1600 years
Actinium Ac-227 21.77 years
Thorium Th-229 7.54 x 104 years
Protactinium Pa-231 3.28 x 104 years
Uranium U-236 2.34 x 107 years
211
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Neptunium Np-237 2.14 x 106 years

Plutonium Pu-244 8.00 x 107 years
Americium Am-243 7370 years
Curium Cm-247 1.56 x 107 years
Berkelium Bk-247 1380 years
Californium Cf-251 898 years
Einsteinium Es-252 471.7 days
Fermium Fm-257 100.5 days
Mendelevium Md-258 51.5 days
Nobelium No-259 58 minutes
Lawrencium Lr-262 4 hours
Rutherfordium Rf-265 13 hours
Dubnium Db-268 32 hours
Seaborgium Sg-271 2.4 minutes
Bohrium Bh-267 17 seconds
Hassium Hs-269 9.7 seconds
Meitnerium Mt-276 0.72 seconds
Darmstadtium Ds-281 11.1 seconds
Roentgenium Rg-281 26 seconds
Copernicium Cn-285 29 seconds
Nihonium Nh-284 0.48 seconds
Flerovium Fl-289 2.65 seconds
Moscovium Mc-289 87 milliseconds
Livermorium Lv-293 61 milliseconds
Tennessine Unknown
Oganesson Og-294 1.8 milliseconds
Reference: International Atomic Energy Agency ENSDF database (Oct 2010)
Radioactive Decay
Occurs when an unstable atom loses energy by emitting ionizing radiation and
when a nucleus has a higher energy level than a potentially more stable version
(Nuclear-Power., 2018). Typically this difference in energy released is what is called
ionizing radiation which means radiation with enough energy so that during an
interaction with an atom, it can remove tightly bound electrons from the orbit of an
atom, causing the atom to become charged or ionized (WHO, 2018).
Types of Radioactive Decay Emissions
There are three types of radioactive decay each named for exactly what is
released from the nucleus as it decays. First is Alpha Decay which is the spontaneous
radioactive decay where an alpha particle is produced. An alpha particle is essentially
a helium nucleus of two protons and two neutrons. Although alpha decay presents a
significant radiation risk if the radioactive source is inhaled or ingested, alpha particles
212
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
are too large to penetrate very far through the skin or other solids and require minimal
radiation shielding and have relatively low energy. A sheet of paper, for example,
blocks alpha particles. General equation: “α particle=helium-4 nucleus=42 He”
(Helmenstine, A.M., 2018).
Second is Beta Decay which refers to the spontaneous radioactive decay

where a beta particle is produced. Essentially there are two types of beta decay where
the beta particle is either an electron or a positron. An electron is a negatively charged
particle of an atom while a positron or anti-electron is the antimatter counterpart to an
electron. A positron has the same mass as an electron and a spin of 1/2, but it has an
electrical charge of +1. When a positron collides with an electron, annihilation occurs
which results in the production of two or more gamma ray photons. General equation:
“β particle=electron=0 -1e”(Helmenstine, A.M., 2017).
Beta Decay / Negatron Emission
Nuclides can be radioactive and undergo nuclear decay for many reasons. Beta
decay can occur in nuclei that are rich in neutrons that are the nuclide contains more
neutrons than stable isotopes of the same element. These "proton deficient" nuclides
can sometimes be identified simply by noticing that their mass number A (the sum of
neutrons and protons in the nucleus) is significantly more than twice that of the atomic
number Z (number of protons in nucleus). In order to regain some stability, such a
nucleus can decay by converting one of its extra neutrons into a proton, emitting an
electron and an antineutrino (ν). The high energy electron emitted in this reaction is
called a beta particle and is represented by (o-1e-) in nuclear equations. Lighter atoms
(Z < 60) are the most likely to undergo beta decay. The decay of a neutron to a proton,
a beta particle, and an antineutrino (v) is 10n0 → 10p++0-1e-+v (Nuclear Decay
Pathways, 2018).
Beta Decay / Positron Emission
Nuclides that are imbalanced in their ratio of protons to neutrons undergo decay
to correct the imbalance. Nuclei that are rich in protons relative to their number of
neutrons can decay by conversion of a proton to a neutron, emitting a positron (01e+)
and a neutrino (νe). Positrons are the antiparticles of electrons; therefore a positron
has the same mass as an electron but with the opposite (positive) charge. In positron
emission, the atomic number Z decreases by 1 while the mass number A remains the
same (Nuclear Decay Pathways, 2018).
Lastly is the Gamma decay is one type of radioactive decay that a nucleus can
undergo. The difference of this type of decay process from alpha or beta decay is that
no particles are ejected from the nucleus when it undergoes this type of decay.
Instead, a high energy form of electromagnetic radiation gamma ray photon is
released. Gamma rays are simply photons that have extremely high energies which
are highly ionizing. As well, gamma radiation is unique in the sense that undergoing
gamma decay does not change the structure or composition of the atom. Instead, it
213
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
only changes the energy of the atom since the gamma ray carries no charge nor does
it have an associated mass. General equation: “γ=high frequency electromagnetic
energy=0 0γ” (US EPA, 2015).
This form of radiation if often released when electrons transition from an

unstable Excited State; is an energy level of an electron that is higher and less stable
than other levels; to state of nucleus that has reached stability which is the Ground
Sate; lowest, most stable energy level of an electron. General equation: A * → A+γ
(EDP Sciences, n.d.)
But there is one more type of radioactive decay and that is Spontaneous
Fission; is a form of radioactive decay where an atom's nucleus splits into two smaller
nuclei and generally one or more neutrons without any outside help. Spontaneous
fission generally occurs in atoms with atomic numbers above 90 (Helmenstine, A.M.,
2016).
Source: EDP Sciences, n.d.
Nuclear stability
Is a concept that helps to identify the stability of an isotope. The two main
factors that determine nuclear stability are the neutron/proton ratio and the total
number of nucleons in the nucleus. The principal factor for determining whether a
nucleus is stable is the neutron to proton ratio. Elements with (Z<20) are lighter and
these elements' nuclei and have a ratio of 1:1 and prefer to have the same amount of
protons and neutrons (Nuclear Magic Numbers, 2018). A nucleon is the collective
term for protons and neutrons. Nucleons are the particles found in the nucleus of
atoms (Bethel A. et. al., 2018).
214
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Synthesis of New Elements
From terrestrial rocks and mineral, scientist have been looking for traces of
unknown substances; in the process chemical elements were discovered. But they
stopped looking for unknown substances and instead they began synthesizing new
elements in laboratories. (“Ungson”, 2016).
List of all synthesized elements:
Element Symbol At. No.

Technetium Tc 43
Promethium Pm 61
Astatine At 85
Francium Fr 87
Neptunium Np 93
Plutonium Pu 94
Americium Am 95
Curium Cm 96
Berkelium Bk 97
Californium Cf 98
Einsteinium Es 99
Fermium Fm 100
Mendelevium Md 101
Nobelium No 102
Lawrencium Lr 103
Rutherfordium Rf 104
Dubnium Db 105
Seaborgium Sg 106
Bohrium Bh 107
Hassium Hs 108
Meitnerium Mt 109
215
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Darmstadtium Ds 110
Roentgenium Rg 111
Copernicium Cn 112
Ununtrium Uut 114
Ununpentium Uup 115
Ununseptium Uus 117
Ununoctium Uuo 118
Transuranium Elements
Any chemical element with atomic numbers greater than 92 and lies beyond
uranium in the periodic table are transuranium elements. Twenty-six of these elements
was discovered and named while some are waiting for confirmation of their discovery.
(“Seaborg”, 2016).
List of transuranium elements
216
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Binding Energy and Mass Defect
The difference in mass between an atom and the sum of the masses of the
protons, neutrons, and electrons of the atom is called mass defect. (“Helmenstine”,
2017). The energy required to break down a nucleus into its component protons and
neutrons is called the nuclear binding energy. “This represents the conversion of mass
and energy that occurs during an exothermic nuclear reaction.” (“Burdge”, 2017,
section 20.2). Einstein’s formula, E = mc2, may be applied to calculate the binding
energy of a nucleus. (“Helmenstine”, 2017).
Rate of Radioactive Decay
Another approach to describing reaction rates is based on the time required for the
concentration of a reactant to decrease to one-half its initial value. This period of time
is called the half-life of the reaction, written as t1/2. Thus the half-life of a reaction is
the time required for the reactant concentration to decrease from N 0 to (1/2)N0. If two
reactions have the same order, the faster reaction will have a shorter half-life, and the
slower reaction will have a longer half-life.
The half-life of a first-order reaction under a given set of reaction conditions is a

constant. This is not true for zeroth- and second-order reactions. The half-life of a first-
order reaction is independent of the concentration of the reactants. This becomes
evident when we rearrange the integrated rate law for a first-order reaction to produce
the following equation:
𝑁𝑡 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑡
ln = −𝑘𝑡 = ln
𝑁0 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒0
Substituting (1/2)N0 for Nt and t1/2 for t (to indicate a half-life), the equation becomes
1
𝑁0
ln 2 = −𝑘𝑡1/2
𝑁0
0.693
𝑡1/2 =
𝑘
Example 1: If you have a 1.35 mg sample of Pu–236, calculate the mass that will
remain after 5.00 years. Half-life of Pu-236 is 2.86 yrs.
Given: mass Pu-236=1.35 mg; t=5 yrs; t1/2=2.86 yrs
217
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Required: mass remaining=?
Solution:
0.693
𝑡1/2 =
𝑘
0.693
𝑘=
𝑡1/2
0.693
𝑘=
2.86 𝑦𝑟𝑠
𝑘 = 0.2423/𝑦𝑟
𝑁𝑡
ln = −𝑘𝑡
𝑁0
𝑁𝑡 = 𝑁0 𝑒 −𝑘𝑡
0.2423
−( )(5 𝑦𝑟𝑠)
𝑁𝑡 = (1.35 𝑚𝑔)𝑒 𝑦𝑟
𝑵𝒕 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝒈
Radiometric Dating
Radiometric dating, radioactive dating or radioisotope dating is a
technique which is used to date materials such as rocks or carbon, in which trace
radioactive impurities were selectively incorporated when they were formed. The
method compares the abundance of a naturally occurring radioactive isotope within
the material to the abundance of its decay products, which form at a known constant
rate of decay. The use of radiometric dating was first published in 1907 by Bertram
Boltwood and is now the principal source of information about the absolute age of
rocks and other geological features, including the age of fossilized life forms or the age
of the Earth itself, and can also be used to date a wide range of natural and man-made
materials.
Together with stratigraphic principles, radiometric dating methods are used
in geochronology to establish the geologic time scale.[3] Among the best-known
techniques are radiocarbon dating, potassium–argon dating and uranium–lead
dating. By allowing the establishment of geological timescales, it provides a significant
source of information about the ages of fossils and the deduced rates
218
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
of evolutionary change. Radiometric dating is also used to

date archaeological materials, including ancient artifacts.
Different methods of radiometric dating vary in the timescale over which they are
accurate and the materials to which they can be applied.
Radiocarbon Dating
Carbon-14 dating, also called radiocarbon dating, method of age
determination that depends upon the decay to nitrogen of radiocarbon (carbon-
14). Carbon-14 is continually formed in nature by the interaction of neutrons with
nitrogen-14 in the Earth’s atmosphere; the neutrons required for this reaction are
produced by cosmic rays interacting with the atmosphere.
Radiocarbon present in molecules of atmospheric carbon dioxide enters the
biological carbon cycle: it is absorbed from the air by green plants and then passed on
to animals through the food chain. Radiocarbon decays slowly in a living organism,
and the amount lost is continually replenished as long as the organism takes in air or
food. Once the organism dies, however, it ceases to absorb carbon-14, so that the
amount of the radiocarbon in its tissues steadily decreases. Carbon-14 has a half-life
of 5,730 ± 40 years—i.e., half the amount of the radioisotope present at any given time
will undergo spontaneous disintegration during the succeeding 5,730 years. Because
carbon-14 decays at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an organism
died can be made by measuring the amount of its residual radiocarbon.
The carbon-14 method was developed by the American physicist Willard F.
Libby about 1946. It has proved to be a versatile technique of dating fossils and
archaeological specimens from 500 to 50,000 years old. The method is widely used
by Pleistocene geologists, anthropologists, archaeologists, and investigators in related
fields.
Example 2: An ancient skull gives 4.50 dis/min∙g C. If a living organism gives 15.3
dis/min∙g C, how old is the skull?
Given: ratet=4.50 dis/min∙g C; rate0=15.3 dis/min∙g C
Required: Age of skull, t=?
Solution:
0.693
𝑡1/2 =
𝑘
0.693
𝑘=
𝑡1/2
219
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
0.693
𝑘=
5730 𝑦𝑟𝑠
𝑘 = 1.209𝑥10−4 /𝑦𝑟
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑡
ln = −𝑘𝑡
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒0
𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
ln 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑡
0
𝑡=−
𝑘
4.50 dis/min ∙ g C
ln
15.3 dis/min ∙ g C
𝑡=−
1.209𝑥10−4 /𝑦𝑟
𝒕 = 𝟏. 𝟎𝒙𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝒚𝒓𝒔
IAEA (2017). Industrial applications of nuclear energy. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com/docview/2148821720/1E8596B4783749D6PQ/1?
accountid=31259 Chapters 1-4 pp 1-35
Let’s Check
1. How can you harness energy from a nuclear power plant?

2. Differentiate fission from fusion.
3. What is the difference between nuclear reaction and chemical reaction?
Let’s Analyze
1. If gallium – 68 has a half-life of 68.3 minutes, how much of a 160.0 mg sample

is left after 1 half life? 2 half lives? 3 half lives?
220
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
2. Iron-59 is used in medicine to diagnose blood circulation disorders. The half-

life of iron-59 is 44.5 days. How much of a 2.000 mg sample will remain after
133.5 days?
3. The anticancer drug cis-platin hydrolyzes in water with a rate constant of 1.5 ×
10−3 min−1 at pH 7.0 and 25°C. Calculate the half-life for the hydrolysis reaction
under these conditions. If a freshly prepared solution of cis-platin has a
concentration of 0.053 M, what will be the concentration of cis-platin after 5 half-
lives? after 10 half-lives?
4. Ethyl chloride decomposes to ethylene and HCl in a first-order reaction that has
a rate constant of 1.6 × 10−6 s−1 at 650°C. What is the half-life for the reaction
under these conditions? If a flask that originally contains 0.077 M ethyl chloride
is heated at 650°C, what is the concentration of ethyl chloride after 4 half-lives?
5. In 1990, the remains of an apparently prehistoric man were found in a melting
glacier in the Italian Alps. Analysis of the 14C content of samples of wood from
his tools gave a decay rate of 8.0 dpm/g carbon. How long ago did the man
die?
6. It is believed that humans first arrived in the Western Hemisphere during the
last Ice Age, presumably by traveling over an exposed land bridge between
Siberia and Alaska. Archaeologists have estimated that this occurred about
11,000 yr ago, but some argue that recent discoveries in several sites in North
and South America suggest a much earlier arrival. Analysis of a sample of
charcoal from a fire in one such site gave a 14C decay rate of 0.4 dpm/g of
carbon. What is the approximate age of the sample?
In a Nutshell
1. Bataan Nuclear Power Plant is a nuclear power plant, completed but never
fueled, on Bataan Peninsula. It was the Philippines' only attempt at building a
nuclear power plant. It was mothballed due to safety concerns in the wake of
the 1986 Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant disaster in the former Soviet Ukraine
and issues regarding corruption. In 2019, the Department of National Defense
and Philippine Nuclear Research Institute expressed its support for the revival
221
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
of the nuclear power plant. Despite never having been commissioned, are you
in favor of setting a nuclear plant to operation in the country?
2. Is using nuclear power really the answer to clean, environmentally friendly
energy?
3. What kind of resources does nuclear energy require? With this in mind, is it
worth the effort and the investment to acquire nuclear energy?
4. Are the impacts of the Chernobyl (Ukraine) and Three Mile Island
(Pennsylvania) nuclear accidents still relevant today? If so, how?
5. How likely is it that accidents like those in Chernobyl, Three Mile Island, and
Fukushima will happen again?
6. In case a nuclear disaster happens, what suggestions can you give to protect
ourselves from the invisible bullet?
Keywords Index
Background Binding energy Carbon dating Critical mass

radiation
Dosimeter Electron Electroscope Fission
Fusion Geiger counter Half-life Isotope
Mass defect Neutron Nucleon Nuclide
Positron Proton Radioactivity Scintillation
counter
Transmutation
References
Bethel A., Kailyn S., Karen S., Jason D. (2018). Nucleon. Retrieved September 28,
2018, from EnergyEducation:https://energyeducation.ca/encyclopedia/
EDP Sciences. (n.d.). Retrieved September 27, 2018, from Radiactivity:

http://www.radioactivity.eu.com/site/pages/Nuclear_Desexcitations.htm
European Nuclear Society. (2018). Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

euronuclear:
https://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/bindingenergy.htm
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2016). Spontaneous Fission Definition. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-spontaneous-fission-605681
222
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2017). Positron Definition. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-positron-605913
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2017). Transmutation Definition and Examples. Retrieved

from https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-transmutation-and-examples-
604672
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2018). Branches of Chemistry. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/branches-of-chemistry-603910
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2018). Definition of Alpha Decay. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-alpha-decay-604768
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2018). Definition of Radioactivity. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-radioactivity-606338
Helmenstine, Anne Marie, (2018). Half-Life Definition. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-half-life-604523
Helmenstine, Todd. (2017). List of Radioactive Elements. Retrieved from

https://www.thoughtco.com/list-of-radioactive-elements-608644
Isotope. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2018, from https://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/isotopes
Nic M., Jirat J., Kosata B. (2006). IUPAC Gold Book. Retrieved September 28, 2018,
from Gold Book: http://goldbook.iupac.org
Nuclear Decay Pathways. (2018). Retrieved September 27, 2018, from Chemistry
LibraryTexts:https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Physical_and_Theore
tical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physical_and_The
oretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Radioactivity/Nuclear_Decay_Pathwa
ys
Nuclear Magic Numbers. (2018). Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

ChemistryLibraryTexts:https://chem.libretexts.org/Textbook_Maps/Physical_a
nd_Theoretical_Chemistry_Textbook_Maps/Supplemental_Modules_(Physica
l_and_Theoretical_Chemistry)/Nuclear_Chemistry/Nuclear_Energetics_and_S
tability/Nuclear_Magic_Numbers
Nuclear reaction. (n.d.). Retrieved September 23, 2018, from https://www.merriam-

webster.com/dictionary/nuclear reaction
Nuclear-Power. (2018). Retrieved from https://www.nuclear-power.net/nuclear-

power/reactor-physics/atomic-nuclear-physics/radioactive-decay/
nucleon
223
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Radioactive Element. (n.d.) Mosby's Medical Dictionary, 8th edition. (2009).

Retrieved September 27 2018 from
https://medicaldictionary.thefreedictionary.com/radioactive+element
Redd, N. T. (2012). What is Fission? Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

LiveScience: https://www.livescience.com/23394-fusion.html
Redd, N. T. (2012). What is Fusion? Retrieved September 28, 2018, from

LiveScience: https://www.livescience.com/23394-fusion.html
US EPA. (2015). Retrieved from

http://www.epa.gov/radiation/understand/gamma.html#use
World Health Organization. (2018). Retrieved from WHO:

http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/about/what_is_ir/en/
Burdge, J. (2017). Chemistry (4th Ed.). New York, USA: McGraw-Hill Education.
List of Transuranium Elements. Adapted from euronuclear.org. (NA).

https://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/t/transuranium-element.htm
Helmenstine, A. M. (2017, November 7). Mass Defect Definition in Physics and

Chemistry. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-mass
defect-605328
Loveland, W. D., Morrissey, D. J., & Seaborg, G. T. (2006). Modern Nuclear

Chemistry. United States: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Seaborg, G. T. (2016). Transuranium Element. In Encyclopaædia Britannica.

Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/science/transuranium-element
Ungson, O. B. (2016). Physical Science. Philippines: Trinitas Publishing Inc.
224
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Big Picture in Focus: ULO4d. show understanding of the concept of

fuels
Metalanguage
In this section, the most essential principles and concepts relevant to the study of fuels
to demonstrate ULO4d will be reviewed. Please refer to these definitions in case you
will encounter difficulty in the in understanding educational concepts.
Anthracite the greater rank of coal. Its instable, moistness and ash contents are
very less. It is hard and most matured coal, it burns without smoke.
Ash a useless, non-combustible matter, which reduces the calorific value of
coal
Asphalt a sticky, black, and highly viscous liquid or semi-solid form of
petroleum. It may be found in natural deposits or may be a refined
product, and is classed as a pitch.
Autoignition the lowest temperature at which it spontaneously ignites in normal
temperature atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or
spark
Biofuel solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or derived from biomass. Biofuel
can be produced from any carbon source that can be replenished
rapidly e.g. plants.
Biomass plant or animal material used for energy production, or in various
industrial processes as raw substance for a range of products. It can
be purposely grown energy crops, wood or forest residues, waste from
food crops, horticulture, food processing, animal farming, or human
waste from sewage plants.
Bitumen One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It
is used for road making and making water-proofing roofs. It is the
liquid binder that holds asphalt together.
Bituminous coal further sub-classified on the source of its carbon content into three
categories as sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal and semi-
bituminous coal. It is black, brittle, and burns with yellow smoky flame.
Cetane number the percentage of hexadecane present in a mixture of hexadecane
and 2-methyl naphthalene, which has the same ignition lag as the fuel
under test
Charcoal shaped by slow heating of wood or other flammable substances in
the deficiency of oxygen.
Cloud point refers to the temperature below which wax in diesel or biowax
in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance
225
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Coal a highly carbonaceous substance that has been shaped as an

outcome of modification of vegetable substance (plants, etc.) under
firm favorable circumstances.
Cracking the decomposition of bigger hydrocarbon molecules into simpler, low
boiling hydrocarbons of lower molecular weight
Diesel a high boiling portion obtained between 250 – 320 oC during fractional
purification of petroleum
Fire point the lowest temperature at which the vapor of that fuel will continue to
burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an open flame
Fixed carbon the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is distilled off
Flash point the lowest temperature at which the fuel can be heated so that the
vapor gives off flashes momentarily when an open flame is passed
over it
Fossil fuel hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid petroleum or natural
gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and
animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of
oxygen in the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years.
Fuel a combustible substance that containing carbon as a main constituent,
which on proper burning gives large amount of heat, which can be
used economically for domestic and industrial purpose
Fuel oil the outcome after distilling off all the lighter fractions of petroleum
Gasoline a low boiling portion of petroleum attained between 40 – 120 oC. It is
used mainly as a fuel in interior combustion engines.
Kerosene a high boiling portion obtained between 180 -250 oC during fractional
purification of petroleum
Knocking a kind of explosion due to rapid pressure rise occurring in an Internal
combustion engine
Lignite an intermediate phase in the development of coal formation. Due to
the occurrence of high instable content, it burns with long steamy
flame.
Liquefied natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some mixture
natural gas of ethane C2H6) that has been converted to liquid form for ease and
safety of non-pressurized storage or transport.
Liquefied is applied to certain specific hydrocarbons which can be liquefied
petroleum gas under moderate pressure at normal temperatures but are gaseous
under normal atmospheric conditions. The chief constituents of LPG
are propane, propylene, butane, butylene, and isobutane.
Lubricating oil One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It
is used as a lubricant.
Metallurgical a lustrous, dense, strong, porous and coherent mass left when
coke bituminous coal is heated strongly in absence of air
Natural gas a combustible gas that occurs in porous rock of the earth’s crust and is
often found with accumulations of crude oil or coal
Octane number the percentage of iso-octane present in a mixture of iso-octane and n-
heptane
Paraffin wax One of the products of deep vacuum distillation of residual heavy oil. It
is used in boot polishes and candles.
226
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Peat the first phase in the development of coal. It is a brown fibrous mass.
Petroleum a dark color viscous oil. Chemically, it is a combination of several
hydrocarbons with slight amounts of Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), and
Sulfur (S) compounds.
Pour point the lowest temperature at which it will pour or flow when cooled under
prescribed conditions. It is a very rough indication of the lowest
temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.
Specific gravity defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of oil to the weight
of the same volume of water at a given temperature
Volatile matter the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and
incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal
Viscosity a measure of a fluid’s internal resistance to flow
Wood the hard fibrous material that forms the main substance of the trunk or
branches of a tree or shrub, used for fuel or timber
Essential Knowledge
FUEL
Fuel is a combustible substance that containing carbon as a main constituent,

which on proper burning gives large amount of heat, which can be used economically
for domestic and industrial purpose (Shabudeen, 2014). Fossil fuel is the most
common fuel used. Fossil fuels are leftovers of plants and animals as an outcome of
decomposition. Since the rate of development of fossil fuels is extremely low, this fuel
source is considered nonrenewable. Fuels are classified into Primary (Natural) fuels,
and Secondary (Artificial) fuels. Primary fuels are found in nature. Secondary fuels are
derived from primary fuels. Both the primary and secondary fuels are divided into three
classes, solid, liquid and gaseous fuels.
During the process of combustion, the Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H) of the fuel
syndicate with oxygen of air to form CO2 and HO2 correspondingly.
The combustion reaction can be explained as
C + O2 ---> CO2 + 94 kcals
2H2 + O2 ---> 2H2O + 68.5 kcals
227
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Figure 1. Classification of Fuels. Adopted From: Ryall, L. (n.d). Chemical Fuels

Definition.
SOLID FUELS (Primary Fuel)
Coal is a highly carbonaceous substance that has been shaped as an outcome

of modification of vegetable substance (plants, etc.) under firm favorable
circumstances. Coal is composed of Carbon (C), Hydrogen (H), and Oxygen (O) as
well as non-combustible inanimate substance.
Wood → Peat → Lignite → Sub-bituminous coal → Bituminous

coal → Anthracite
Classification of Coal
1. Peat is the first phase in the development of coal. It is a brown fibrous mass.
Highly fibrous light brown in color. It is used as native fuel and power
generation. It is an uneconomic fuel due to its high amount of (80 - 90%)
humidity and lower calorific value.
2. Lignite is an intermediate phase in the development of coal formation. Due to
the occurrence of high instable content, it burns with long steamy flame. It is
also fibrous, brown colored coal. It is used to produce electricity.
3. Bituminous coal is further sub-classified on the source of its carbon content into
three categories as sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal and semi-bituminous
coal. It is black, brittle, and burns with yellow smoky flame. It is used as a power
generation, coke making, and domestic fuel.
4. Anthracite is the greater rank of coal. Its instable, moistness and ash contents
are very less. It is hard and most matured coal, it burns without smoke. It is
used a domestic fuel in either hand-fired stoves or automatic stoker furnaces.
228
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Analysis of Coal
Proximate Analysis includes the resolve of volatile matter, moisture, fixed

carbon and ash. It is valuable in determining its use for a specific manufacturing usage.
• Moisture - Air dried coal sample is heated in silica crucible at 100 to 105
°C for one hour. Smaller the moisture content, healthier is the worth of
coal as a fuel.
• Volatile Matter - After the examination of humidity content the crucible
with remaining coal sample is covered with a lid, and it is heated at 950
± 20 °C for 7.0 minutes in a muffle heater. Smaller the volatile matter,
healthier is the rank of coal.
• Ash - After the examination of volatile matter the crucible with remaining
coal sample is heated without lid at 700 ± 50 °C for 30 minutes in a muffle
heater.
• Fixed Carbon - It is determined by deducting the amount of overall
moisture, volatile and ash contents from 100. Greater the measurement
of fixed carbon, better is its calorific value and healthier is the worth of
coal.
Ultimate Analysis means finding out the bulk percentage of carbon and
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur of the pure coal free from humidity and
nonliving constituents.
• Carbon & Hydrogen – Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H) in coal directly
contribute towards the calorific value of the coal. Higher the proportion
of Carbon (C) and Hydrogen (H), better is the quality of the coal and
higher is its calorific value.
• Nitrogen - Since it is usually existing in small extents, its occurrence is
not of much importance. A good quality of coal should have very little
nitrogen content.
• Oxygen - As the oxygen content increases its moisture holding capacity
increases and the calorific value of the fuel is required.
• Sulphur - Though sulphur increases the calorific value, its occurrence in
coal is disagreeable because the ignition products of sulphur, i.e., SO2
and SO3 are unsafe and have corrosion effects on equipment.
Miscellaneous or Modified Analysis means finding out the material percentage

of calorific value, fusibility of coal ash, forms of sulfur in coal, mineral carbon dioxide,
and plasticity of coal.
• Calorific Value – The elements of coal whose ignition accounts for the
calorific value of coal are the carbon and hydrogen of the carbon-based
material and both organic and pyritic sulfur.
229
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
• Fusibility of Coal Ash – As labelled in the discussion of ash, the ash of

coal and coke is the noncombustible filtrate that residues once all the
flammable material has been uninvolved by burning.
• Forms of Sulfur in Coal – The quantity of sulfate sulfur is typically very
low in fresh coals, but it may be noticeably higher in weather-beaten
coals.
• Mineral Carbon Dioxide – The fraction of inorganic carbon dioxide in
most Illinois coals is less that 1%, but in a few coals the quantity may be
advanced.
• Plasticity of Coal – Plasticity of coal is its propensity to fuse or unstiffen
and develop more or less fluid when heated. The chemical nature of the
elements that account for coal’s plastic properties is not recognized.
Carbonisation of Coal
1. Caking of Coal – When coal is heated sturdily, the form develops soft and
comprehensible, then it is called caking of coal.
2. Coking of Coal – When the coal is heated and if the mass produced is hard,
porous and strong then it is called coking of coal.
SOLID FUELS (Secondary Fuel)
Metallurgical Coke - When bituminous coal is heated strongly in absence of

air, the volatile matter escapes out and a lustrous, dense, strong, porous and
coherent mass is left, which is called metallurgical coke. The most important industrial
use of coke is in the metallurgical industry, especially in the blast furnace (Shabudeen,
2014). Coke is mostly used to make iron, which, in turn, is used as the core element
of steel.
Manufacture of Metallurgical Coke
1. Beehive Coke Oven Process

2. Otto Hoffman’s by-product method
Charcoal - is shaped by slow heating of wood or other flammable substances in

the deficiency of oxygen. Charcoal is mostly unpolluted carbon, called char, made by
cooking wood in a low oxygen surroundings, a procedure that can take days and burns
off volatile composites such as water, methane, hydrogen, and tar.
LIQUID FUELS (Primary Fuel)
Petroleum – According to Shabudeen (2014), petroleum is the important

primary liquid fuel. It is a dark color viscous oil. Petroleum are found deep in the earth's
crust. Chemically, it is a combination of several hydrocarbons with slight amounts of
230
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Nitrogen (N), Oxygen (O), and Sulfur (S) compounds. There are two types of drilling
out petroleum out of soil, the on-shore and off-shore drilling. On-shore drilling mentions
to drilling bottomless holes below the earth’s exterior while off-shore drilling states to
drilling beneath the seabed. These drilling approaches are used in order to remove
natural resources, typically oil and gas from the earth. While removing oil from
underneath the exterior of the ocean used to be far more problematic than the old-
style on-shore drilling method of making pits on land and drilling holes, off-shore
drilling has become easier through the advanced approaches that have textured such
as creating either fluctuating or secure platforms on the bed of the ocean to support
drilling.
Classification
1. Paraffin based oil - It is used as a corrosion prevention substance when applied

as a lubricant.
2. Asphalt Based oil - Comprises scented and alicyclic hydrocarbons.
3. Mixed base oil - Comprises advanced amount of aromatics and naphthenes.
Refining of Petroleum or Crude Oil
The procedure of eliminating impurities and separating out the oil into different
portions having different boiling points is known as refining of petroleum (Shabudeen,
2014).
Figure 2. Petroleum refining. Retrieved from: https://

www.chemhume.co.uk/ASCHEM/Unit%202/Ch9%20Alkanes/Alkanesc.htm
231
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
LIQUID FUELS (Secondary Fuel)
1. Petrol or Gasoline is a low boiling portion of petroleum attained between 40

– 120 oC. It is used mainly as a fuel in interior combustion engines.
2. Kerosene is comparatively a high boiling portion obtained between 180 -250
oC during fractional purification of petroleum. Kerosene is widely used as a
supply of power in jet engines and is also usually used as a cooking and
igniting fuel.
3. Diesel is also a high boiling portion obtained between 250 – 320 oC during
fractional purification of petroleum. It is used as a diesel engine fuel.
4. Fuel Oil is the outcome after distilling off all the lighter fractions of petroleum.
There are two fractions that are obtained in the distillation of the fuel oil. First
one is the light fuel oil with a boiling point of 350 – 420 oC and heavy neutral
oil with 420-500 oC. It is widely used for heating and generating power in
small industrial applications.
5. Lubricating Oil, paraffin wax and bitumen are the products of deep vacuum
distillation of residual heavy oil. Lubricating oil is used as a lubricant, paraffin
wax is used in boot polishes and candles and bitumen is used for road
making and making water-proofing roofs.
Properties of Liquid Fuels
• Density. This is defined as the ratio of the mass of the fuel to the volume of the
fuel at a reference temperature of 15°C. Density is measured by an instrument
called hydrometer. The knowledge of density is useful for quantity calculations
and assessing ignition quality. The unit of density is kg/m3.
• Specific gravity. This is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of
oil to the weight of the same volume of water at a given temperature. The
density of fuel, relative to water, is called specific gravity. The specific gravity
of water is defined as 1. Since specific gravity is a ratio, it has no units. The
measurement of specific gravity is generally made by a hydrometer.
• Viscosity. The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its internal resistance to flow.

Viscosity depends on temperature and decreases as the temperature
increases. Viscosity is the most important characteristic in the storage and use
of fuel oil. It influences the degree of pre-heat required for handling, storage
and satisfactory atomization. If the oil is too viscous, it may become difficult to
pump, hard to light the burner, and tough to operate.
• Flash point. The flash point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the fuel
can be heated so that the vapor gives off flashes momentarily when an open
flame is passed over it.
• Autoignition temperature. The autoignition temperature or kindling point of a
232
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
substance is the lowest temperature at which it spontaneously ignites in

normal atmosphere without an external source of ignition, such as a flame or
spark. This temperature is required to supply the activation energy needed for
combustion.
• Fire point. The fire point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which the vapor
of that fuel will continue to burn for at least 5 seconds after ignition by an
open flame. At the flash point, a lower temperature, a substance will ignite
briefly, but vapor might not be produced at a rate to sustain the fire.
• Pour point. The pour point of a fuel is the lowest temperature at which it will
pour or flow when cooled under prescribed conditions. It is a very rough
indication of the lowest temperature at which fuel oil is readily pumpable.
• Cloud point. In the petroleum industry, cloud point refers to the temperature
below which wax in diesel or biowax in biodiesels forms a cloudy appearance.
The presence of solidified waxes thickens the oil and clogs fuel filters and
injectors in engines.
The next information were consolidated from the books Fuels and Fuel-
Additives by Hancsók, J., & Srivastava, S. P. (2014), and Fuel/Engine Interactions by
Kalghatgi, G. (2013).
Gaseous Fuels
Fuel gas is any one of a number of fuels that are gaseous under ordinary
conditions. Many fuel gases are composed of hydrocarbons (such
as methane or propane), hydrogen, carbon monoxide, or mixtures thereof. Such
gases are sources of potential heat energy or light energy that can be readily
transmitted and distributed through pipes from the point of origin directly to the place
of consumption. Fuel gas is contrasted with liquid fuels and from solid fuels, though
some fuel gases are liquefied for storage or transport. While their gaseous nature can
be advantageous, avoiding the difficulty of transporting solid fuel and the dangers of
spillage inherent in liquid fuels, it can also be dangerous. It is possible for a fuel gas
to be undetected and collect in certain areas, leading to the risk of a gas explosion.
For this reason, odorizers are added to most fuel gases so that they may be detected
by a distinct smell. The most common type of fuel gas in current use is natural gas.
Natural Gas
Natural gas is a combustible gas that occurs in porous rock of the earth’s crust
and is often found with accumulations of crude oil or coal. Natural gas termed dry has
less than 0.013 dm3/m3 (0.1 gal/1000 ft3) of gasoline. Above this amount, it is termed
wet.
233
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Natural gas consists of hydrocarbons with a very low boiling point. Methane is
the main constituent, with a boiling point of 119 K (-245 oF). Ethane, with a boiling point
of 184 K (-128 oF) may be present in amounts up to 10 percent; propane, with a boiling
point of 231 K (-44 oF), up to 3 percent. Butane, pentane, hexane, heptane, and octane
may also be present.
Commodity natural gas is substantially free of sulfur compounds; the terms

sweet and sour are used to denote the absence or presence of H 2S. Some wells,
however, deliver gas containing levels of hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds
(e.g., thiophenes, mercaptans, and organic sulfides) that must be removed before
transfer to commercial pipelines.
Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is natural gas (predominantly methane, CH4, with some
mixture of ethane C2H6) that has been converted to liquid form for ease and safety of
non-pressurized storage or transport. It takes up about 1/600th the volume of natural
gas in the gaseous state (at standard conditions for temperature and pressure). It
is odorless, colorless, non-toxic and non-corrosive. Hazards include flammability after
vaporization into a gaseous state, freezing and asphyxia. The liquefaction process
involves removal of certain components, such as dust, acid gases, helium, water, and
heavy hydrocarbons, which could cause difficulty downstream. The natural gas is
then condensed into a liquid at close to atmospheric pressure by cooling it to
approximately −162 °C (−260 °F); maximum transport pressure is set at around
25 kPa (4 psi).
Liquefied Petroleum Gas The term liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) is applied to
certain specific hydrocarbons which can be liquefied under moderate pressure at
normal temperatures but are gaseous under normal atmospheric conditions. The chief
constituents of LPG are propane, propylene, butane, butylene, and isobutane. LPG
produced in the separation of heavier hydrocarbons from natural gas is mainly of the
paraffinic (saturated) series. LPG derived from oil refinery gas may contain varying
low amounts of olefinic (unsaturated) hydrocarbons.
LPG is widely used for domestic service, supplied either in tanks or by pipelines.
It is also used to augment natural gas deliveries on peak days and by some industries
as a standby fuel.
Other Gaseous Fuels
Hydrogen. Hydrogen is used extensively in the production of ammonia and chemicals,

in the refining of petroleum, in the hydrogenation of fats and oils, and as an oven
reducing atmosphere. It is also used as a fuel in industrial cutting and welding
operations. There are no resources of uncombined hydrogen as there are of the other
fuels. It is made industrially by the steam reforming of natural gas; as the byproduct of
industrial operations such as the thermal cracking of hydrocarbons; and, to a small
extent, by the electrolysis of water.
234
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Hydrogen is seen as the ultimate nonpolluting form of energy; when

electrochemically combined with oxygen in fuel cells, only water, heat, and electricity
are produced. Means for transforming the world’s fossil energy economy into a
hydrogen economy are being considered as a long-term option. Hydrogen can be
stored in gaseous, liquid, or solid forms; however, currently available technologies are
not suited to meet mass energy market needs. Technologies for economically
producing, storing, and utilizing hydrogen are being researched in the United States,
Europe, and Japan.
Acetylene. Acetylene is used primarily in operations requiring high flame temperature,

such as welding and metal cutting. To transport acetylene, it is dissolved in acetone
under pressure and drawn into small containers filled with porous material.
Miscellaneous Fuels. A variety of gases have very minor market shares. These
include reformed gas, oil gases, producer gas, blue water gas, carbureted water gas,
coal gas, and blast-furnace gas. The heating values of these gases range from 3.4 to
41 MJ/m3 (90 to 1100 Btu/ft3). They are produced by pyrolysis, the water gas reaction,
or as by-products of pig-iron production.
Hydrogen sulfide in manufactured gases may range from approximately 2.30

g/m3 (100 gr/100 ft3) in blue and carbureted water gas to several hundred grains in
coal- and coke-oven gases. Another important sulfur impurity is carbon disulfide, which
may be present in amounts varying from 0.007 to 0.07 percent by volume. Smaller
amounts of carbon oxysulfide, mercaptans, and thiophene may be found. However,
most of the impurities are removed during the purification process and either do not
exist in the finished product or are present in only trace amounts.
Biofuels
Biofuel can be broadly defined as solid, liquid, or gas fuel consisting of, or
derived from biomass. Biomass can also be used directly for heating or power—known
as biomass fuel. Biofuel can be produced from any carbon source that can be
replenished rapidly e.g. plants. Many different plants and plant-derived materials are
used for biofuel manufacture.
Perhaps the earliest fuel employed by humans is wood. Evidence shows

controlled fire was used up to 1.5 million years ago at Swartkrans, South Africa. It is
unknown which hominid species first used fire, as both Australopithecus and an early
species of Homo were present at the sites. As a fuel, wood has remained in use up
until the present day, although it has been superseded for many purposes by other
sources. Wood has an energy density of 10–20 MJ/kg.
Recently biofuels have been developed for use in automotive transport (for
example Bioethanol and Biodiesel), but there is widespread public debate about how
carbon efficient these fuels are.
235
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Fossil Fuels
Fossil fuels are hydrocarbons, primarily coal and petroleum (liquid

petroleum or natural gas), formed from the fossilized remains of ancient plants and
animals by exposure to high heat and pressure in the absence of oxygen in
the Earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. Commonly, the term fossil fuel
also includes hydrocarbon-containing natural resources that are not derived entirely
from biological sources, such as tar sands. These latter sources are properly known
as mineral fuels.
Fossil fuels contain high percentages of carbon and include coal, petroleum,
and natural gas. They range from volatile materials with low carbon:hydrogen ratios
like methane, to liquid petroleum to nonvolatile materials composed of almost pure
carbon, like anthracite coal. Methane can be found in hydrocarbon fields, alone,
associated with oil, or in the form of methane clathrates. Fossil fuels formed from
the fossilized remains of dead plants by exposure to heat and pressure in the Earth's
crust over millions of years. This biogenic theory was first introduced by German
scholar Georg Agricola in 1556 and later by Mikhail Lomonosov in the 18th century.
It was estimated by the Energy Information Administration that in 2007 primary

sources of energy consisted of petroleum 36.0%, coal 27.4%, natural gas 23.0%,
amounting to an 86.4% share for fossil fuels in primary energy consumption in the
world. Non-fossil sources in 2006 included hydroelectric 6.3%, nuclear 8.5%, and
others (geothermal, solar, tidal, wind, wood, waste) amounting to 0.9%. World energy
consumption was growing about 2.3% per year.
Fossil fuels are non-renewable resources because they take millions of years
to form, and reserves are being depleted much faster than new ones are being made.
So we must conserve these fuels and use them judiciously. The production and use
of fossil fuels raise environmental concerns. A global movement toward the generation
of renewable energy is therefore under way to help meet increased energy needs. The
burning of fossil fuels produces around 21.3 billion tonnes (21.3 gigatonnes) of carbon
dioxide (CO2) per year, but it is estimated that natural processes can only absorb about
half of that amount, so there is a net increase of 10.65 billion tonnes of atmospheric
carbon dioxide per year (one tonne of atmospheric carbon is equivalent to 44/12 or
3.7 tonnes of carbon dioxide). Carbon dioxide is one of the greenhouse gases that
enhances radiative forcing and contributes to global warming, causing the average
surface temperature of the Earth to rise in response, which the vast majority of climate
scientists agree will cause major adverse effects. Fuels are a source of energy.
236
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Fekadu, M. W., Reshad, A. S., & Goud, V. V. (2018). Thermal degradation kinetics
study and thermal cracking of waste cooking oil for biofuel production. Journal of
Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, 131(3), 2157-2165.
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s10973-017-6760-z
Alshammari, Y. M. (2019). The energy transition in transport using alternative fuels:

Can new technologies achieve policy targets? OPEC Energy Review, 43(3),
301-326. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/opec.12158
Machac, J., Fries, J., PhD., Majer, M., Kovar, L., & Kolesar, M., PhD. (2019). Use Of
Hydrogen In Transport. Sofia: Surveying Geology & Mining Ecology
Management (SGEM). doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5593/sgem2019/4.1/S17.071
Whiting, K., Carmona, L. G., Carrasco, A., & Sousa, T. (2017). Exergy replacement
cost of fossil fuels: Closing the carbon cycle. Energies, 10(7)
doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3390/en10070979
Antoshkiv, O., Poojitganont, T., Jehring, L., & Berkholz, C. (2017). Main aspects of
kerosene and gaseous fuel ignition in aero-engine. The Aeronautical
Journal, 121(1246), 1779-1794. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/aer.2017.113
Let’s Check
1. What are the products formed when a hydrocarbon burns in a plentiful supply
of oxygen?
2. How is oil formed?
3. How is crude oil extracted from the crust?
4. What is the difference between asphalt and bitumen?
Let’s Analyze
1. Why is propane stored in household tanks but natural gas is not?

2. What could a space ship do if it stopped because it ran out of fuel?
3. When fractions from crude oil are burned in air, new compounds are made.
These compounds can sometimes cause pollution. Describe how burning
fractions from crude oil can cause pollution. Name the compounds produced.
4. Burning fuels can sometimes cause the release of small solid particles
(particulates). It has been suggested that this can lead to global dimming. What
is global dimming?
237
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
In a Nutshell
1. Is hydrogen a feasible replacement for fossil fuel to address future global

demand?
2. Which is more cost-efficient when cooking? Using electric stove or LPG?
Support your answer.
Keywords Index
Anthracite Ash Asphalt Autoignition

temperature
Biofuel Biomass Bitumen Bituminous coal
Cetane number Charcoal Cloud point Coal
Cracking Diesel Fire point Fixed carbon
Flash point Fossil fuel Fuel Fuel oil
Gasoline Kerosene Knocking Lignite
Liquefied natural Liquefied Lubricating oil Metallurgical coke
gas petroleum gas
Natural gas Octane number Paraffin wax Peat
Petroleum Pour point Specific gravity Volatile matter
Viscosity Wood
References
Entrance Consulting Services, Inc. (2003-2018) Onshore Versus Offshore Drilling.

Retrieved October 6, 2018, from
https://www.entranceconsulting.com/2013/10/23/onshore-versus-offshore-
drilling/
Rees, O. (1996) Chemistry, Uses, and Limitations of Coal Analyses. Urbana, Illinois:
Authority of State of Illinois, Ch. 127, IRS, Par. 58.25.
Ryall, L. (n.d). Chemical Fuels Definition. Retrieved September 18, 2018, from
https://slideplayer.com/slide/3978141
Shabudeen, S. (2010, October) Fuels and Combustion CHAPTER – 4 FUELS AND

COMBUSTION 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Requirements of a Good Fuel.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265602602_Fuels_and_Combustion_
CHAPTER_4_FUELS_AND_COMBUSTION_41_Introduction_42_Requiremen
ts_of_a_Good_Fuel
238
Telefax: (082)296-1084
Phone No.: (082)300-5456/300-0647 Local 133
Ungson, O., & Teope, F. (2016). Physical Science 11/12. Quezon City, Philippines:
Trinitas Publishing, Inc.
Hancsók, J., & Srivastava, S. P. (2014). Fuels and fuel-additives. Retrieved from
https://search.proquest.com
Kalghatgi, G. (2013). Fuel/engine interactions. Retrieved from

https://search.proquest.com
Course Schedule

Big Picture D: Let’s Check Activities Blackboard
Big Picture D: Let’s Analyze Activities Blackboard
Big Picture D: In a Nutshell Activities Blackboard
Final Exam Face-to-face
239

Bche 111l Chemistry For Engineers Weeks 1 9 Self Instructional Manual Rev4

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bche 111l Chemistry For Engineers Weeks 1 9 Self Instructional Manual Rev4

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIVERSITY OF MINDANAO

College of Engineering Education

Physically Distanced but Academically Engaged

Self-Instructional Manual (SIM) for Self-Directed Learning (SDL)

Course/Subject: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Name of Author: Engr. Jay Carlo S. Aguilar

THIS SIM/SDL MANUAL IS A DRAFT VERSION ONLY; NOT FOR

Big Picture 1 ...................................................................................................................................... 6

Essential Knowledge ................................................................................................................. 87

Keywords Index ...................................................................................................................... 141

Self-Help ................................................................................................................................. 205

Course Outline: BCHE 111/L – CHEMISTRY FOR ENGINEERS

Course Coordinator: Engr. Jeralyn G. Cabotaje

Course Outline Policy

Areas of Concern Details

If the assessment task is done in real time through the

However, if the late submission of assessment paper has

For group assessment tasks, the course coordinator will

If disapproved by the course coordinator, you can elevate

Grading System All culled from BlackBoard sessions and traditional

All culled from on-campus/onsite sessions (TBA):

Submission of the final grades shall follow the usual

Preferred Referencing Style IEEE

Student Communication You are required to create a umindanao email account

You can also meet the course coordinator in person

For students who have not created their student email,

Contact Details of the Program Engr. Jay Carlo Aguilar

Library Contact LIC

Course Information – see/download course syllabus in the Black Board LMS

a. Perform conversion of units

Big Picture in Focus: ULO1a. perform conversion of units.

Dimension are physical quantities that can be measured (e.g. length,

STANDARDS AND MEASUREMENT

Communication sometimes requires a method of expressing sizes that are

Reading a Measuring Device

Laboratory workers record this value as the mass of the object.

2. Many devices in a laboratory are non-digital.

Rounding is the removal of digits in a number when it is necessary to express

Scientific notation is used as a way to make expressing numbers more

Just as numbers greater than one can be converted to scientific notation,

When expressing numbers in scientific notation, it is preferable to keep the

Express the following numbers in scientific notation.

3. Rules for the Number of Significant Figures

A physical quantity is any number that is used to describe a physical phenomenon

Table 2. 6. Amount of substance, n Mole, mol

Derived quantities are based on combinations of the fundamental quantities.

The Metric System

The metric system, or International System (SI, from (Systemé Internationale), is a

Important equation for conversion: unit2 = unit1 (conversion factor)

The conversion factor must accomplish 2 things:

Prefix Symbol Numerical Value Power of 10 equivalent

Some Common Conversion Factors

Mass and Weight

Mass measures the amount of matter in an object/substance; it is constant

another, because different objects pose different gravitational (attractive) forces on

A liter, L, is usually defined as a cubic decimeter (1 dm3) of water at 4°C.

Density, , indicates the amount of mass per volume of a specific substance.

Table 4. Densities of Some Selected Materials

Liquids and Solids Gases

Temperature is a measure of the hotness or coldness of an object. It is that property

The temperature of an object is measured by one of the four scales,

Thermometer is the most common instrument used for measuring temperature.

Comparison of the Three Temperature Scales