MODULE

3
OF
HIGHWAY AND
RAILROAD
ENGINEERING
Prepared By:

EDDIE M. FABILA
Instructor
INTRODUCTION
Module 3 will discuss the following topics: Highway Survey and
Location, Geometric Design of Highway Facilities, Highway Drainage and
those topics that are related to Highway Materials and Pavements with clear
specifications considering the quality standard for application.

CHAPTER 14: HIGHWAY SURVEY AND LOCATION

Selecting the location of a proposal highway is an important initial step in its
design. The data required for the decision process are usually obtained from
different types, depending on the factors being considered. These covers
earthwork computations and mass diagram, and also the economic evaluation
of the highway on the location will be taken into account.

 c
4-PHASES OF HIGHWAY LOCATION PROCESS:
1. Office study of existing information
2. Reconnaissance Survey
3. Preliminary Location Survey
4. Final Location Survey

 HIGHWAY SURVEY METHODS

Highway Survey usually involve measuring and computing horizontal and
vertical angles, vertical heights (elevations) and horizontal distances. On this
method, surveying techniques can be grouped into 3-general categories:
1. Ground Surveys
2. Remote Sensing
3. Computer Graphic

 GROUND SURVEY
Ground Survey are the basic technique for highways. The Total Station is used
for measuring angles in both vertical and horizontal planes, distances and
changes in elevation through the use of trigonometric levels; the level is used
for measuring changes in elevation only. The essential parts of a level are the
telescope, level bar, a spindle and a leveling head.

 REMOTE SENSING
Remote Sensing is the measurements of distances and elevations by using
devices located above the earth, such as airplanes or orbiting satellites using
Global Positioning Satellite System (GPS). The most commonly used remote
sensing method is Photogrammetry, which utilizes aerial photography.
Photogrammetry is the science of obtaining accurate and reliable information
through measurements and interpretation of photographs.

 COMPUTER GRAPHIC
Computer Graphic, when used for highway location, is usually the
combination of photogrammetry and computer techniques. With the use of
mapping software, line, styles and features tables, objects and photographic
features can be recorded digitally and stored in a computer file

4- MAIN AREAS IN SOFTWARE DESIGN WORK:

1. Preparatory Work (Project Setup)
2. Photo Orientations and Aero triangulation
3. Data Transfer
4. Plotting and Storage

CHAPTER 15: GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY

FACILITIES
Geometric Design deals the dimensioning of the elements of highways, such as
vertical and horizontal curves, cross-sections, truck climbing lanes, bicycle
paths, and parking facilities. The basis of determining the physical dimensions
of these elements.

 FACTORS INFLUENCING HIGHWAY DESIGN

Highway design is based on specified design standards and controls which
depend on the following roadway system factors:
1. Functional Classification
2. Design hourly traffic volume and vehicle mix
 3. Design Speed
4. Design Vehicle
5. Cross section of the highway, such as lanes, shoulders and
medians.
6. Presence of heavy vehicles on steep grades
7. Topography of the area that the highway traverses
8. Level of Services
9. Available Funds
10. Safety
11. Social and Environmental Factors

 HIGHWAY DESIGN STANDARDS

Selection of the appropriate set of geometric design standards is the first step
in the design of any highway. The characteristics of the highway should
therefore be considered in selecting the geometric design standards. The
following design standard should be considered:
1. DESIGN HOURLY VOLUME (DHV)
The design hourly volume is the projected hourly volume that is used
for design.
2. DESIGN SPEED
Design Speed is defined as a selected speed to determine the various
geometric features of the roadway.
3. DESIGN VECHICLE
A design vehicle is selected to represent all vehicles on the highway. Its
weight, dimensions and operating characteristics are used to establish
the design standards of the highway.
4. CROSS- SECTION ELEMENTSA
The principal elements of a highway cross-section consist of the travel
lanes, shoulders and medians.

 DESIGN OF THE ALIGNMENT

The alignment of a highway is composed of vertical and horizontal elements.
The vertical alignment includes straight (tangent) highway grades and the
parabolic curves that connect these grades. The horizontal alignment includes
the straight (tangent) sections of the roadway and the circular curves that
connect theirs change in direction. The design of the alignment depends
primarily on the design speed selected for the highway.
  VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
The Vertical Alignment of a highway consists of straight sections known as
grade, (or tangents) connected by vertical curves. Vertical curves are used to
provide a gradual change from one tangent grade to another.

Where: G1, G2  Grades of tangents (%)

A  Algebraic differences
L  Length of Vertical Curve
PVC  Point of Vertical Intersection
PVT  Point of Vertical Tangent

 HORIZONTAL ALIGNMENT
The Horizontal Alignment consists of straight sections of the road (known as
tangents) connected by curves. The curves are usually segmenting of circles,
which have radii that will provided for a smooth flow of traffic.

SIMPLE CURVE

Where:
R  minimum radius (m)
u  design speed (km/h)
e  superelevation (m/m)
fs  coefficient of side friction
T  tangent length

 intersection angle
M  middle ordinate
PC point of the curve
PT  point of tangency
PI  point of intersection
E  external distance
 u2
R=
127 ( e +fs )

NOTE: Research on Compound Curve and Reverse Curve

 PARKING FACILITIES
The Geometric Design of Parking Facilities involves the dimensioning and
arranging of parking bays to provide safe and easy access without restricting
the flow of traffic on the adjacent traveling lanes.

 DESIGN OF ON-STREET PARKING FACILITIES

On- Street Parking Facilities maybe designed with parking bays parallel or
inclined to curb. Parking bays that are inclined at angles to the curb interfere
with the movement of the traffic, with the result that crash rates tends to be
higher on sections of roads with angle parking than with parallel parking.

 DESIGN OF OFF-STREET PARKING FACILITIES-

SURFACE CAR PARKS
The primary aim in designing Off- Street Parking Facilities is to claim as many
spaces as possible within the area provided. The most important
consideration is the layout should be such that parking a vehicle involves only
one district maneuver, without the necessity to reverse.

CHAPTER 16: HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

Drainage facilities on any highway or street should adequately provide for the
flow of water away from the surface of the pavement to properly designed
channels. The importance of enough drainage is recognized in the amount of
highway construction dollars allocated to drainage facilities.

The highway engineer is concerned primarily with 2-sources of water:

1. SURFACE WATER  is the which occurs as rain or snow and
referred to as Surface Drainage.
2. GROUND WATER  is that which flows in an underground stream
and referred to as Subsurface Drainage.

 SURFACE DRAINAGE
Surface Drainage encompasses all means by which surface water is removed
from the pavement and right of way of the highway or street. A properly
designed highway surface drainage system should effectively intercept all
surface and watershed runoff and direct this water into adequately designed
channels and gutters for eventual discharge into the natural waterways.

 HIGHWAY DRAINAGE STRUCTURES

Drainage Structures are constructed to carry traffic over natural waterways
that flow below the right of way of the highway. These structures also provide
for the flow of water below the highway, along the natural channel without
significant alteration or disturbance to its normal course.

The two general categories of drainage structures are:

1. MAJOR STRUCTURES  are those with clear spans greater than 6
meters.
2. MINOR STURCTURES  are those with clear span of 6 meter or less.

 SEDIMENTS AND EROSION CONTROL

Continuous flow of surface water over shoulders, side slopes and unlined
channels of ten results in soil eroding from adjacent areas of the pavement.
Erosion can lead to conditions that are detrimental to the pavement
structures and other adjacent facilities.
METHODS USED TOP PREVENT EROSION
a. Intercepting Drains
b. Curbs and Gutters
c. Turf Cover
d. Slope and Channel Linings

 HYDROLOGIC CONSIDERATIONS
Hydrology is the science that deals with the characteristics and distribution of
water in the atmosphere, on the earth surface and in the ground. It is
customary in hydrology to refer all forms of precipitation as rainfall with
precipitation usually measured in terms of the equivalent depth of water that
is accumulated on the ground surface.
3- PROPERTIES OF RAINFALL
1. Intensity
2. Duration
3. Frequency
  UNIT HYDROGRAPHS
A Hydrographs  is a plot that shows the relationship between stream flow
(ordinate scale) and time (abscissa scale).
A Unit Hydrograph  is the hydrograph obtained for a runoff due to water of
1-inch depth uniformly distributed over the whole drainage area for a given
storm with a specified duration.

 HYDRAULIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

STRUCTURES
The ultimate objectives in determining the hydraulic requirements for any
highway drainage structure is to provide a suitable structure size that will
economically and efficiently dispose of the expected runoff.

 DESIGN OF OPEN CHANNELS/ DESIGN

PRINCIPLES
The hydraulic design of a drainage ditch for a given storm entails the
determination of the minimum cross-sectional area of the ditch that will
accommodate the flow due to that storm and prevent water from overflowing
the sides of the ditch. The most commonly used formula is the Manning
Formula:
2 1
1
V = R 3 S2
n
Where:
V  average discharge velocity (m/s)
R  mean hydraulic radius of flow in the channel (m)
a  channel cross-sectional area (m2)
P  wetted perimeter (m)
S  longitudinal slope in channel (m/m)
n  manning’s roughness coefficient

hence, the flow in the channel is then given as:

2 1
1
Q=va= a R 3 S 2
n
Where:
Q= is the discharge (m3/s)
 CHAPTER 17-19: MATERIALS AND PAVEMENTS
Highway pavements are constructed of either asphalt or concrete and
ultimately rest on native soil. The engineer must be familiar with the
properties and characteristics of materials and also, be familiar with methods
and theories for the design of heavy-duty asphaltic and concrete pavements,
as well as various treatment strategies for low- volume roads.

 SOIL ENIGINEERING FOR HIGHWAY DESIGN

 FACTORS TO CONSIDER:
1. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
The basic characteristics of a soil may be described in terms of its origin,
formation, grain size and shape. Soil can be defined from the Civil Engineering
point of view-as the loose mass of mineral and organic materials that cover
the solid crust of granitic and basaltic rocks of the earth.

2. SURFACE TEXTURE
The texture of a soil can be described in terms of its appearance, which
depends mainly on the shapes and sizes of the soil particles and their
distribution in the soil mass. Soils consisting of silts and clays with very small
particle sizes are known as Fine- texture Soils, whereas soils consisting mainly
of sands and gravel with much larger particles are known as Coarse- Texture
Soils.

 CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

Soil’s classification is a method by which soils are systematically categorized
according to their probable engineering characteristics. Classifying the soil
should be considered as a means of obtaining a general idea of how the soil
will behave if used as a subgrade or subbase material.

 AASHTO SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO)classification system is based on the Public Roads Classification
System that was developed from the results of extensive research. The
empirical formula to determine the group index (GI) of the soils are:
GI =( F−35 ) ( 0.2+ 0.005 ( ¿−40 ) ) ( F−15 )( PI −10 )
Where:
GI  is group index
F  percent of soil particles passing 0.075 (#200 sieve)
LL  Liquid Limit
PI  Plasticity Index
Soils Classified as: A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5 and A-3 can be used as subbase
materials.

 SOIL SURVEYS / EXPLORATION FOR HIGHWAY

CONSTRUCTION
 GEOPHYSICAL METHODS OF SOIL EXPLORATION
Soil profiles can also be obtained from one of two geophysical methods of soil
exploration know as:
1. RESISTIVITY METHOD  is based on the difference in electrical
conductivity or resistivity of different types of soil.
2. SEISMIC METHOD  is used to identify the location of rock profiles,
by moving the electrode along the center line of the proposed
highway without charging the spacing.

 SOIL COMPACTION
When soil is to be used as embankment or subbase material I highway
construction it is essential that the materials be placed in uniform layers and
compacted to a high density.

The strength of the compacted soil is directly related to the maximum dry
density achieved through compaction. The relationship between dry density
and moisture content practically all soils take the form of compacted soils. The
dry density increases with increase in moisture content to a maximum value
when an optimum moisture content is reached.

NOTE: Research on the different equipment’s for soil compaction.

 BITUMINOUS MATERIALS
Bituminous Materials are used widely all over the world in highway
construction. All bituminous materials consist primarily of bitumen and have
strong adhesive properties with colors ranging from dark brown to black.
They vary in consistency from liquid to solid.

The liquid form is obtained from the semisolid or solid forms by heating,
dissolving in solvents or breaking the material into minute particles and
dispersing them in water with an emulsifier to form as asphalt emulsion.
SOURCES OF ASPHALT:
1. Natural Deposits of Asphalt  occur either native asphalt or rock
asphalt.
2. Petroleum Asphalt  is the asphalt materials obtained from the
distillation of petroleum.

REFINING PROCESS:
1. Fractional Distillation Process  remove the different volatile
materials in the crude oil at successively higher temperature.
2. Destructive Distillation Process  is known as Cracking Process
are used when larger amounts of the light fractions of materials
(such as motor fuels) are required.

 DESCRIPTION AND USES OF BITUMINOUS BINDERS

Bituminous Binders can be classified into 3-genal groups namely:
1. Asphalt Cement
2. Asphalt Cutbacks
3. Emulsified Asphalt

 PROPERTIES OD ASPHALT MATERIALS

The properties of asphalt materials pertinent to pavement construction can be
classified in 4-categories:
1. Consistency
2. Aging and Temperature Sustainability
3. Rate of Curing
4. Resistance to Water Action

NOTE: Research on the different Testing devices and equipment’s on

Asphalt Durability. And also, search for Asphalt Mixtures.

 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENTS

Highway Pavement are divided into 2-Main Categories: Rigid and Flexible
Pavements. The wearing of surface of a rigid pavement usually is constructed
to Portland Cement Concrete such that it acts like a beam over any
irregularities in the underlying supporting materials. The wearing surface of
flexible pavements, on the other hand, usually is constructed of bituminous
materials such that they remain in contact with the underlying material even
when minor irregularities occur.

 STRUCTURAL COMPONENTS OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT:

1. Subgrade
2. Subbase Course
3. Base Course
4. Surface Course

 DESIGN OF RIGID PAVEMENTS

Rigid Highway Pavements are normally constructed of Portland Cement
Concrete and may or not have a base course between the subgrade and the
concrete surface. When a base course is used in rigid pavement construction,
it is usually referred to as a subbase course.

Thickness of highway concrete pavements normally ranges 15-33cm. different

types of rigid pavements are described as heavy traffic loads highway/ road.
MATERIALS USED IN RIGID PAVEMENTS:
1. Portland Cement
2. Coarse Aggregates
3. Fine Aggregates
4. Water
5. Reinforcing Steel
6. Temperature Steel
7. Dowel Bars
8. Tie Bars

TYPES OF RIGID HIGHWAY PAVEMENTS:

a. Jointed Plain Concrete Pavement (JPCP)
b. Simply Reinforced Concrete Pavement
c. Continuously Reinforced Concrete Pavement (CRCP)

STRESSES IN RIGID PAVEMENTS:

1. Stresses Induced by Bending
2. Stresses Due to Traffic Wheel Loads
3. Stresses Due to Temperature Effects