HIGHWAY AND RAILROAD ENGINEERING REPORT

TOPIC: Structural Design of Railways and Pavements

OUTLINE:

I. INTRODUCTION
II. STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ITS PROCESS
III. INTRODUCTION TO PAVEMENT DESIGN
A. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
B. PROPERTIES OF SOILS
C. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY
D. SOIL SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION
IV. STRUCTURAL DESIGN
I. INTRODUCTION
Railways Structure- Railway structures encompass a wide array of construction intended to
support the track itself or house railway operations.
Bridge Deck-
portion of a railway bridge that supplies a means of carrying the track rails.

2 general types of Bridge Deck:

•Open Bridge Deck
- the rails are anchored directly to timber bridge ties supported directly on the floor system of
the superstructure.

• Ballasted Bridge
- the rails are anchored directly National to timber track ties supported in the ballast section.

II. STRUCTURAL DESIGN AND ITS PROCESS

Structural design is the methodical investigation of the stability, strength, and rigidity of
structures. The basic objective in structural analysis and design is to produce a structure
capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended life.

STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS

A structural design project may be divided into three phases, i.e., planning, design, and
construction.

Planning:
This phase involves consideration of the various requirements and factors affecting the general
layout and dimensions of the structure and results in the choice of one or perhaps several
alternative types of structure, which offer the best general solution.

Design:
This phase involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions defined in the planning
phase and results in the determination of the most suitable proportions, dimensions, and details
of the structural elements and connections for constructing each alternative structural
arrangement being considered.

Construction:
This phase involves mobilization of personnel; procurement of materials and equipment,
including their transportation to the site, and actual on-site erection.

The geometric design of a railway track

includes all those parameters which determine or affect the geometry of the track. These
parameters are as follows.

1. Gradients in the track, including grade compensation, rising gradient, and falling gradient.
2. Curvature of the track, including horizontal and vertical curves, transition curves, sharpness
of the curve in terms of radius or degree of the curve, can’t or superelevation on curves, etc.
3. Alignment of the track, including straight as well as curved alignment.

NECESSITY FOR GEOMETRIC DESIGN

The need for proper geometric design of a track arises because of the following considerations
∙To ensure the smooth and safe running of trains
∙To achieve maximum speeds
∙To carry heavy axle loads
∙To avoid accidents and derailments due to a defective permanent way
∙To ensure that the track requires least maintenance.
∙For good aesthetics

GRADIENTS
are provided to negotiate the rise or fall in the level of the railway track.
∙ A rising gradient is one in which the track rises in the direction of the movement of traffic and a
down or falling gradient is one in which the track loses elevation in the direction of the
movement of traffic.
∙ A gradient is normally represented by the distance travelled for a rise or fall of one unit.
∙ Sometimes the gradient is indicated as per cent rise or fall. For example, if there is a rise of 1
m in 400 m, the gradient is 1 in 400 or 0.25%.

Gradients are provided to meet the following objectives.

(a) To reach various stations at different elevations
(b) To follow the natural contours of the ground to the extent possible
(c) To reduce the cost of earthwork.

The following types of gradients are used on the railways.

(a) Ruling gradient - is the steepest gradient that exists in a section.
(b) Pusher or helper gradient - When the gradient of the ensuing section is so steep as to
necessitate the use of an extra engine for pushing the train, it is known as a pusher or helper
gradient.
(c) Momentum gradient - is steeper than the ruling gradient and can be overcome by a train
because of the momentum it gathers while running on the section.
(d) Gradients in station yards - are quite flat due to the following reasons.

∙To prevent standing vehicles from rolling and moving away from the yard due to the combined
effect of gravity and strong winds.
∙To reduce the additional resistive forces required to start a locomotive to the extent possible.

GRADE COMPENSATION ON CURVES

Curves provide extra resistance to the movement of trains. As a result, gradients are
compensated to the following extent on curves.

(a) On BG tracks, 0.04% per degree of the curve or 70/R, whichever is minimum
(b) On MG tracks, 0.03% per degree of curve or 52.5/R, whichever is minimum
(c) On NG tracks, 0.02% per degree of curve or 35/R, whichever is minimum where R is the
radius of the curve in meters. The gradient of a curved portion of the section should be flatter
than the ruling gradient because of the extra resistance offered by the curve.
Example: Find the steepest gradient on a 2° curve for a BG line with a ruling gradient of 1 in
200.

Solution
(i) Ruling gradient = 1 in 200 = 0.5%
(ii) Compensation for a 2° curve = 0.04 × 2 = 0.08%
(iii) Compensated gradient = 0.5 – 0.08 = 0.42% = 1 in 238
The steepest gradient on the curved track is 1 in 238.

III. INTRODUCTION TO PAVEMENT DESIGNS

A highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of processed materials

above the natural soil sub-grade, whose primary function is to distribute the applied vehicle
loads to the sub-grade.

REQUIREMENTS OF A PAVEMENT
An ideal pavement should meet the following requirements:
• Sufficient thickness to distribute the wheel load stresses to a safe value on the sub-grade soil
• Structurally strong to withstand all types of stresses imposed upon it
• Adequate coefficient of friction to prevent skidding of vehicles
• Smooth surface to provide comfort to road users even at high speed
• Produce least noise from moving vehicles,
• Dust proof surface so that traffic safety is not impaired by reducing visibility
• Impervious surface, so that sub-grade soil is well protected
•Long design life with low maintenance cost.

SOIL ENGINEERING FOR HIGHWAY DESIGN

The basic characteristics of a soil may be described in terms of its origin, formation, grain size,
and shape.

A. SOIL CHARACTERISTICS
1.Origin and Formation of Soils
2. Surface Texture
∙fine-textured soils-soils consisting mainly of silts and clays with very small particle sizes.
∙coarse-textured soils-soils consisting mainly of sands and gravel with much larger particles.
B. PROPERTIES OF SOILS - influence their behavior when subjected to external loads

1. Phase Relations
-Soil is considered 3 phase system consist of air, water, and solids.

A. Porosity
-the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume of the soil.

𝑉𝑣
𝑛=
𝑉

B. Void Ratio-
the ratio of the volume of voids to the volume of solids.

𝑉𝑣
𝑒=
𝑉𝑠

C. Moisture Content-
quantity of water in a soil mass.

D. Degree of Saturation-
percentage of void space occupied by water.

E. Dry Density
-density of the soil with the water removed.

F. Submerged Density-
density of the soil when submerged in water and is the difference between the saturated density
and the density of water.
2. Atterberg Limits
-The water content levels at which the soil changes from one state to the other are the Atterberg
limits.

a. Shrinkage Limit (SL)- When a saturated soil is slowly dried, the volume shrinks, but the soil
continues to contain moisture.

b. Plastic Limit (PL)- the moisture content at which the soil crumbles when it is rolled down to a
diameter of one-eighth of an inch.

c. Liquid Limit (LL) - the moisture content at which the soil will flow and close a groove of one-
half inch within it after the standard LL equipment has been dropped 25 times.

C. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS FOR HIGHWAY USE

Soil classification is a method by which soils are systematically categorized according to their
probable engineering characteristics.

1. AASHTO Soil Classification System- based on the Public Roads

Classification System that was developed from the results of extensive research conducted by
the Bureau of Public Roads, now known as the Federal Highway Administration.

2. Unified Soil Classification System (USCS)-The original USCS system was developed during
World War II for use in airfield construction.

D. SOIL SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION-

Soil surveys for highway construction entail the investigation of the soil characteristics on the
highway route and the identification of suitable soils for use as subbase and fill materials.

1. Geophysical Methods of Soil Exploration - Soil profiles can also be obtained from one of two
geophysical methods of soil exploration known as the resistivity and seismic methods.

a. Resistivity Method- is based on the difference in electrical conductivity or resistivity of

different types of soils.

b. Seismic Method-
is used to identify the location of rock profiles or dense strata underlying softer materials.

IV. STRUCTURAL DESIGN

The objective of the design using the AASHTO method is to determine a flexible pavement
Structural Number (SN) adequate to carry the projected design ESAL.

The 1993 AASHTO guide gives the expression for SN as: SN = a1D1 + a2D2m2 + a3D3m3