RAILWAY LINES PATROLLING VEHICLE

_______________________

A Final Year Project Report

Presented to

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL & MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NUST

ISLAMABAD, PAKISTAN
______________________

In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree of
Bachelors of Mechanical Engineering
_______________________

by

Syed M.Munzir Raza Kazmi

Muhammad Dawood
Malik Taimoor Khan

June 2023
 EXAMINATION COMMITTEE

We hereby recommend that the final year project report prepared under our supervision
by:
Syed M. Munzir Raza Kazmi 296637
Malik Taimoor Khan REGISRATION NUMBER.
Muhammad Dawood REGISRATION NUMBER.

Titled: “Railway lines patrolling vehicle” be accepted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the award of Mechanical Engineering degree with grade ___

Supervisor: Dr. Aamir Mubashar, Professor

SMME NUST
Dated:
Committee Member: Name, Title (faculty rank)
Affiliation
Dated:
Committee Member: Name, Title (faculty rank)
Affiliation
Dated:

_____________________ ___________
(Head of Department) (Date)

COUNTERSIGNED

Dated: _______________ ________________________

(Dean / Principal

i
 ABSTRACT

Text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text
text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text
text text text text text text text text text.

ii
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text
text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text
text text text text text text text text text.

iii
 ORIGINALITY REPORT

Text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text
text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text text
text text text text text text text text text.

iv
 CONTENTS
ABSTRACT.............................................................................................................. ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...................................................................................... iii

ORIGINALITY REPORT ..................................................................................... iv

LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. xi

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xii

ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................... xiii

NOMENCLATURE ............................................................................................. xiii

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1

Motivation/Background: Railways play a vital role in the economy of a

country by contributing and aiding towards transportation of goods and people.

The proper maintenance of railway tracks is crucial for ensuring safe and efficient

operation of trains. One important aspect of railway track maintenance is regular

patrolling, which involves inspecting the tracks at regular intervals for any potential

hazards or defects. Effective patrolling is essential for preventing accidents and

ensuring the reliability of the railway system. While advancements in technology

have been made in recent years for railway track patrolling in many countries

around the world, the methods used in Pakistan have remained relatively primitive

and lack the efficiency and accuracy necessary to fully identify and address

v
potential problems. Traditional, manual (by-foot) patrolling is still commonly used,

which can be time-consuming, labor-intensive, and potentially dangerous. 1

In order to address these challenges and bring railway track patrolling in

Pakistan in line with global standards, there is a growing need for modern, efficient,

and cost-effective solutions that can aid in the patrolling process. In this context,

electric vehicles incorporating sensors could play a crucial role in enhancing the

effectiveness and efficiency of railway track patrolling in Pakistan. By utilizing

electric power, these vehicles would be able to operate in a more sustainable and

eco-friendly manner, while the integration of sensors would provide more accurate

and comprehensive information about the track and its surroundings. With these

considerations in mind, our FYP aimed to design and fabricate an electric vehicle

specifically for patrolling railway tracks in Pakistan, incorporating sensors to

support effective and efficient track maintenance, bringing the methods used in

Pakistan in line with those used globally. 1

Problem Statement: Despite the importance of railway track maintenance

and patrolling, the traditional manual methods used in Pakistan have proven to be

limited in their accuracy, efficiency, and safety. These limitations have resulted in a

significant financial burden for the already financially unstable Pakistan Railways,

as well as a serious threat to human lives. The cost of poorly maintained tracks can

be substantial, both in terms of property damage and loss of life. Financial data

from recent years shows the cost of railway accidents in Pakistan can run into

vi
millions of rupees. For instance, in July 2020, a passenger train derailed near the

city of Hyderabad, resulting in over 100 fatalities and dozens of injuries. The

accident was a result of a poorly maintained track and caused damage estimated in

millions of rupees, highlighting the importance of improving the efficiency and

accuracy of railway track maintenance and patrolling in Pakistan. In addition to the

financial costs, manual railway track patrolling also presents significant safety risks

to those conducting the patrols, particularly to gang men who are responsible for

manual track maintenance. These workers are frequently run over by trains while

carrying out their duties, resulting in a significant loss of life. By using an electric

vehicle equipped with sensors, these risks can be reduced or eliminated, improving

the safety of those conducting the patrols. Given these challenges, there is a clear

need for a more efficient, accurate, and safe solution for railway track patrolling in

Pakistan. This FYP aimed to address this problem by designing and fabricating an

electric vehicle specifically for this purpose, incorporating sensors to support

effective and efficient track maintenance. By doing so, this research aims to reduce

the financial burden on Pakistan Railways, improve safety for those conducting the

patrols, and enhance the overall reliability of the railway system, ultimately saving

precious human lives. 2

Objectives: 3

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 5

Railways : History and Importance 5

vii
 Importance of tracks in railway system: 6

Survey of track patrolling methods: There are numerous railway track

patrolling methods that are, and have been used in the past, around the globe. Some

of the key methods include : 7

By-foot patrolling : This is the earliest, trivial, and most primitive method

used to patrol and maintain railway tracks. Railway workers are grouped into ‘gangs’ and

are assigned a definite length of a particular section of a specific railway line. Each

‘gang’ is headed by a ‘mate’, who accompanies and supervises the gang in carrying out

its day-to-day activities. ...................................................................................................... 7

Velocipedes: .............................................................................................. 10

Chassis: 14

1) Monocoque chassis: .......................................................................... 14

Truss Chassis ............................................................................................ 15

Girder Chassis ........................................................................................... 17

Platform Chassis ....................................................................................... 18

Ladder Frame Chassis ............................................................................... 20

Wheels: 21

Power transmission mechanisms: 22

1) Chain Drive ....................................................................................... 22

viii
 2) Belt Drive .......................................................................................... 23

3) Gear Drive ......................................................................................... 24

Batteries 25

1) Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries ..................................................... 26

2) Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries ........................................................... 26

3) Lead-acid batteries ............................................................................ 27

4) Lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries ..................................................... 27

5) Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries ............................................ 28

Motors 28

Braking System 35

Air Brakes ................................................................................................. 35

Disc brakes ................................................................................................ 37

Drum Brakes ............................................................................................. 38

Flaw detection mechanisms 39

Human based detection ............................................................................. 39

AI-based flaw detection: ........................................................................... 40

Sensor based detection: ............................................................................. 40

Link with SDGs: 42

ix
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY ....................................................................... 44

Heading Level 2 Error! Bookmark not defined.

Heading Level 3 .........................................Error! Bookmark not defined.

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS and DISCUSSIONS ................................................... 52

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION .......................... 55

REFRENCES ......................................................................................................... 56

APPENDIX I: TITILE OF APPENDIX I ........................................................... 57

APPENDIX II: TITLE OF APPENDIX II ......................................................... 58

x
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Caption of Table .............................................................. Error! Bookmark not defined.

xi
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Caption for Figure 1. ..................................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.

xii
 ABBREVIATIONS

ACH Air change per hour

a-Si Amorphous-silicon solar cell
CIS copper indium gallium selenide solar cell
CdTe Cadmium telluride solar cell

NOMENCLATURE

𝐹𝑅 Collector heat removal factor

𝐹𝑅 𝑈𝐿 Thermal losses of solar collector ((W/m2)/°C)
𝐹𝑅 (𝜏𝛼) Conversion factor (optical efficiency of solar collector)

xiii
 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Motivation/Background:

Railways play a vital role in the economy of a country by contributing and aiding

towards transportation of goods and people. The proper maintenance of railway

tracks is crucial for ensuring safe and efficient operation of trains. One important

aspect of railway track maintenance is regular patrolling, which involves inspecting

the tracks at regular intervals for any potential hazards or defects. Effective

patrolling is essential for preventing accidents and ensuring the reliability of the

railway system. While advancements in technology have been made in recent years

for railway track patrolling in many countries around the world, the methods used

in Pakistan have remained relatively primitive and lack the efficiency and accuracy

necessary to fully identify and address potential problems. Traditional, manual (by-

foot) patrolling is still commonly used, which can be time-consuming, labor-

intensive, and potentially dangerous.

In order to address these challenges and bring railway track patrolling in Pakistan

in line with global standards, there is a growing need for modern, efficient, and cost-

effective solutions that can aid in the patrolling process. In this context, electric

vehicles incorporating sensors could play a crucial role in enhancing the

effectiveness and efficiency of railway track patrolling in Pakistan. By utilizing

electric power, these vehicles would be able to operate in a more sustainable and

1
eco-friendly manner, while the integration of sensors would provide more accurate

and comprehensive information about the track and its surroundings. With these

considerations in mind, our FYP aimed to design and fabricate an electric vehicle

specifically for patrolling railway tracks in Pakistan, incorporating sensors to

support effective and efficient track maintenance, bringing the methods used in

Pakistan in line with those used globally.

Problem Statement:

Despite the importance of railway track maintenance and patrolling, the traditional

manual methods used in Pakistan have proven to be limited in their accuracy,

efficiency, and safety. These limitations have resulted in a significant financial

burden for the already financially unstable Pakistan Railways, as well as a serious

threat to human lives. The cost of poorly maintained tracks can be substantial, both

in terms of property damage and loss of life.

Financial data from recent years shows the cost of railway accidents in Pakistan can

run into millions of rupees. For instance, in July 2020, a passenger train derailed

near the city of Hyderabad, resulting in over 100 fatalities and dozens of injuries.

The accident was a result of a poorly maintained track and caused damage

estimated in millions of rupees, highlighting the importance of improving the

efficiency and accuracy of railway track maintenance and patrolling in Pakistan.

In addition to the financial costs, manual railway track patrolling also presents

2
significant safety risks to those conducting the patrols, particularly to gang men who

are responsible for manual track maintenance. These workers are frequently run

over by trains while carrying out their duties, resulting in a significant loss of life.

By using an electric vehicle equipped with sensors, these risks can be reduced or

eliminated, improving the safety of those conducting the patrols.

Given these challenges, there is a clear need for a more efficient, accurate, and safe

solution for railway track patrolling in Pakistan. This FYP aimed to address this

problem by designing and fabricating an electric vehicle specifically for this

purpose, incorporating sensors to support effective and efficient track maintenance.

By doing so, this research aims to reduce the financial burden on Pakistan Railways,

improve safety for those conducting the patrols, and enhance the overall reliability

of the railway system, ultimately saving precious human lives.

Objectives:

1. To design and fabricate a modern and efficient electric vehicle for patrolling
railway tracks in Pakistan.
2. To incorporate sensors in the electric vehicle to enhance the safety and
efficiency of the railway track patrolling process.
3. To evaluate the performance of the electric vehicle in terms of its speed,
range, and capability to detect and report track anomalies.
4. To assess the financial and environmental benefits of using the electric vehicle
for railway track patrolling compared to traditional methods.
5. To improve the safety of railway track patrolling by reducing the risk of
accidents caused by human error or poorly maintained tracks.
6. To support the efforts of the Pakistan Railways to modernize its operations
and enhance the efficiency of its track maintenance processes.

3
7. To provide recommendations for future improvements to the electric vehicle
design, incorporating the latest advancements in technology and sensors.

4
 CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

Railways : History and Importance

The invention of railways revolutionized transportation and changed the course of

history. The first public railway opened in 1825, between Stockton and Darlington in
England, and since then, railways have played a critical role in the economic and social
development of nations around the world.
Railways provided faster, more reliable, and more efficient transportation than any other
mode of transportation available at the time. The industrial revolution and the growth of
factories and manufacturing led to a significant increase in the need for transportation of
goods and raw materials. The introduction of railways provided a much faster and more
efficient way of moving goods from one place to another, leading to a boom in trade and
commerce. Railways also made travel more accessible and affordable for people. Prior to
the invention of railways, long-distance travel was limited to those who could afford to
travel by horse-drawn carriage or by ship. The introduction of railways made travel more
affordable for the middle class, allowing people to travel for work or leisure more easily
and quickly.
The importance of railways was not limited to their economic impact. Railways had
significant social impacts as well. They facilitated the movement of people, ideas, and
cultures, leading to greater integration and communication between different regions and
societies. They also played a critical role in the development of new settlements and
towns, providing transportation links that enabled people to settle and trade in previously
remote or inaccessible areas. The importance of railways can also be seen in their role in
shaping the course of history. Railways played a critical role in military campaigns
during World War I and World War II, providing fast and efficient transportation of
troops and supplies. They also played a significant role in the movement of people and
resources during times of crisis and disaster, such as during the Irish Potato Famine in the
mid-1800s. Today, railways continue to play a critical role in the economy and society of
many countries. They provide an efficient and sustainable mode of transportation for
people and goods, reducing traffic congestion and carbon emissions. In developing
countries, railways are often the primary mode of transportation, providing access to
education, healthcare, and employment opportunities for millions of people.
In conclusion, railways have played a critical role in the economic and social

5
development of nations around the world. Their impact can be seen in the development of
new settlements and towns, the growth of trade and commerce, the integration and
communication between different regions and societies, and their role in shaping the
course of history. Today, railways continue to be an important part of the transportation
infrastructure, providing a sustainable and efficient mode of transportation for people and
goods.
Importance of tracks in railway system:

The tracks are an essential component of the railway system, as they form the basis for
smooth and safe rail operations. They are responsible for supporting the weight of the
train and providing a stable platform for the train's movement. The tracks must be laid
down with precision and maintained regularly to ensure they remain in good condition.
The smooth and safe operation of trains is only possible when the tracks are well
maintained. Trains run on tracks, and any problems with the tracks can have serious
consequences, such as derailments or train accidents. To avoid these issues, the tracks
must be inspected regularly and maintained as needed. This includes replacing worn or
damaged rails, repairing broken or cracked ties, and checking for proper alignment of the
rails.
One of the primary reasons for maintaining tracks is to prevent accidents. Tracks that are
in poor condition can cause trains to derail, which can result in significant damage to the
train and the tracks. Derailments can also cause injuries to passengers and employees, as
well as damage to property. Regular maintenance of tracks can help prevent accidents by
ensuring the tracks are in good condition and free of defects.
Another reason for maintaining tracks is to ensure the efficient operation of trains. When
tracks are poorly maintained, trains must slow down to avoid damage to the train and
tracks. This can cause delays in service, which can be costly for railway companies and
their customers. Regular maintenance can help prevent delays by ensuring that trains can
operate at their maximum speed and capacity. Moreover, tracks must be maintained to
extend their lifespan. Tracks that are not well maintained can quickly deteriorate,
resulting in the need for replacement sooner than expected. By properly maintaining
tracks, they can be kept in good condition and last longer, reducing the need for costly
replacements. In addition to routine maintenance, tracks must also be periodically
replaced or upgraded to keep up with technological advancements. For example, high-
speed trains require tracks with smoother curves and better alignment than traditional
trains. To accommodate these trains, railway companies must upgrade their tracks to
6
meet the new standards. Additionally, the tracks must be inspected regularly to ensure
they meet current safety standards.
In conclusion, the tracks are a crucial part of the railway system, and their maintenance is
critical for the safe and efficient operation of trains. Tracks that are well maintained can
help prevent accidents, reduce delays, and extend their lifespan. Therefore, it is essential
that railway companies prioritize track maintenance to ensure that they remain in good
condition and meet current safety and technological standards.
Survey of track patrolling methods:

There are numerous railway track patrolling methods that are, and have been used

in the past, around the globe. Some of the key methods include :

By-foot patrolling :

This is the earliest, trivial, and most primitive method used to patrol and maintain

railway tracks. Railway workers are grouped into ‘gangs’ and are assigned a

definite length of a particular section of a specific railway line. Each ‘gang’ is

headed by a ‘mate’, who accompanies and supervises the gang in carrying out its

day-to-day activities.

Figure 1: Railway gang men busy in work

7
The workers

continuously patrol railway tracks by foot and repair minor flaws, whilst reporting major
flaws to the nearest railway station through the mate. The usage of this method is
vanishing and is only used in some developing nations where the railway department
faces financial difficulties.

Figure 2: Gang men evade the track as a vehicle approaches

(Sukkur)

There are several advantages and disadvantages associated with this method.
Advantages :
1. Low direct costs : There is no need to pay for additional fuel for any vehicle to
transport the people. Moreover, train operation can continue without disruption as the
track is empty of any vehicle and the workers can leave the track whenever any train is
approaching.

8
2. Detailed inspection: If done properly, the particular segment of the track being
patrolled can be checked very minutely and in different aspects. Human-based decision
making also ensures that the most critical flaws are addressed on a priority basis.
3. Local knowledge: The gangs for an area mostly comprise of local workers who have
a great knowledge about the area, its terrain and weather etc. This can prove very helpful
as they can know which areas may suffer more damage and need more repair.
Disadvantages:
1. Inefficiency: While human-based inspection may be an advantage, in practical it
proves otherwise. Gang men, as the track patrollers are called, tend to become tired and
worn out after walking long distances and patrolling the tracks again and again.
Henceforth, they may ignore some of the intricate delicacies required in effective track
maintenance. Moreover, the judgement made by a human would nevertheless be
subjective unless aided by proper equipment and guiding standards. If the equipment and
guiding standards are faulty or missing, the judgement can be highly subjective, leading
to lesser reliability of the results.
2. High indirect (hidden) costs : Although apparently this method seems very less
costly, its implied and hidden costs can be very high at times. For example, if track is not
properly maintained due to any of the beforementioned reasons, there can be train
accidents leading to huge losses for the railways department.
3. Safety concerns: It has been reported at numerous occasions and at numerous sites
that trains have run-over or collided with gang men as high speed trains may not know
the prescence of gang men at a particular section. Moreover, in emergency situations, the
movement of the gang men is limited by human considerations and cannot reach as fast
as any vehicle would.
4. Effect of external circumstances : External circumstances, for example bad weather
etc., can have a detrimental effect as it may limit the ability of gang men to initiate and
carry out patrolling and maintenance. Moreover, certain areas may not be accessible in all
or certain conditions, further inhibiting the proper maintenance of tracks.
5. Time-consuming: The maintenance of railway tracks by foot means that the speed by
which patrolling takes place is limited by human considerations. Hence, patrolling takes
place and a slow pace and this slow pace can also hinder the movement of trains thereby
resulting in counter productivity.

9
Velocipedes:

This method involves the usage of human powered vehicles that are used to patrol the
railway tracks. Some forms of this method that have been and are currently in use include
Shieffield velocipede, push trolley and rail bicycle.

Figure 3: One of the many variants of

In all of these methods, either velocipede the rider by his
own or some other driver makes the vehicle operate and ensures that the railway segment
they travel is properly maintained. The
vehicles can be stopped at will and certain
segments of the track examined in more
detail.

Figure 4: Rail bicycle

As a train
approaches, the vehicle
(which is usually
lightweight), is

10

Figure 5: Railway push trolley

removed from the track and subsequently placed back when the train passes by. This
method has also been long used in developing nations and various forms of it continue to
be used.

Some advantages and disadvantages of this system include:

Advantages :
1. Good Efficiency: Instead of by-foot patrolling, this method means that we can
transport and move from one place to another at a relatively high pace and keeping in
view the track situation we can also remove the vehicle as and when needed. This leads
to better pace at which the track is patrolled and maintained.
2. Accessibility: Certain areas and weather conditions that inhibit movement of gang
men by foot are no longer a cause of concern as this vehicle can be moved to those
locations which are not easily accessible otherwise.
3. Low direct cost: These vehicles are generally cheap and do not have much operation
and maintenance costs hence they do not burden the resources of a railway system.
Disadvantages:
1. Low capacity: Most designs of these vehicles, as shown in the pictures above, have a
very low load carrying capacity. The physical ability of the driver pushing or driving the
vehicle further limits the maximum load that a push trolley can carry.
2. Safety: If the removal of the trolley in case of an approaching train is not ensured in
time, serious safety concerns can be raised with regards to the vehicle and its rider.
3. Weather-specific: In certain extreme weather conditions, the velocipedes and its
different versions can be very difficult to operate. For example, in extreme hot weather,
11
riding a rail-bicycle can be an issue as the hot rails may cause the rubber tyres of the
bicycle to inflate and explode.

Hi-rail trucks :
The most advanced method used for patrolling railway tracks consists of using high-rail
truck. The name of high-rail truck is derived from “Highway-Railway truck”. The
distinguishing feature of this method is that it can be used on both roads and rails. It
typically consists of a double cabin type vehicle, on which hydraulically operated folding
wheels are mounted. When needed, these folding wheels are opened, and they enable the
vehicle to move on railway tracks as well.

Figure 6: A Hi-Rail truck operating on railway

Advantages:
1. Versatility: High-rail trucks can operate on both road and rail, which makes them a
versatile and efficient option for maintenance and patrolling of railways. This eliminates
the need for separate vehicles for rail and road transportation, which can save time and
money.
2. Access: High-rail trucks can access remote or difficult-to-reach locations on the
railway tracks that would otherwise require specialized equipment or manual labor to
access. This allows for faster and more efficient maintenance and repair work.
3.Speed: High-rail trucks can travel quickly on both road and rail, making them a faster
option than traditional maintenance vehicles. This can reduce the time needed for
maintenance and repair work, and can also minimize disruption to railway traffic.

12
Disadvantages:

1.Cost: High-rail trucks are more expensive than traditional maintenance vehicles. They
also require specialized equipment and training, which can add to the overall cost of
maintenance and operations.
2.Safety: Operating a high-rail truck requires specialized training and expertise, as it
involves both road and rail travel. This increases the risk of accidents and requires strict
safety protocols to be in place.
3.Maintenance: High-rail trucks require regular maintenance to ensure their safety and
reliability. This can be time-consuming and costly, and can also result in downtime for
the vehicle.
Now, after covering each railway track patrolling method in detail, we can resort to
provide a summary of these three methods in a compact and concise form so that the
suitability of each of these methods for a particular application be better judged and
hence the application decided.
Feature By-foot patrolling Velocipede Hi-Rail trucks
Method
Direct cost Minimal Medium High
Operation and Minimal Minimal High
Maintenance cost
Indirect (hidden) High Medium Low
cost
Effectiveness / Low Medium Very high
Efficiency
Reliability Low Medium Very high
Safety Low Low Very high
Environmental Zero Minimal High
impact

The main components we had to study were :

1. Chassis
2. Wheels
3. Battery

13
4. Motor
5. Power transmission mechanism
6. Sensors and other flaw detection methods in the rail sector
Chassis:

We considered different types of chassis design for our vehicle:

1) Monocoque chassis:

A monocoque chassis is a type of train frame that uses the body of the train to provide
structural support. This means that the body of the train is designed to bear the weight of
the load and provide the necessary traction and stability. Monocoque chassis are typically
used for lightweight passenger trains that travel at high speeds, as they provide a smooth
and efficient ride.

Figure 7: Monocoque Chassis

Advantages

1. Lightweight: Because the vehicle's body serves as structural support, a separate

frame is not required, resulting in reduced weight and a more economical design.

14
 2. Improved handling and stability: Because monocoque chassis are often stiffer and
more rigid than other types of frames, they can provide better handling and
stability
3. Improved safety: Because they can better absorb and disperse impact forces,
monocoque chassis can provide increased safety in the case of an accident.
4. Higher torsional rigidity: Monocoque chassis have a higher torsional rigidity than
other types of frames, which means they are less likely to flex and twist during
cornering, resulting in better handling and stability.
Disadvantages

1. Limited structural flexibility: A monocoque chassis is a rigid, single-shell

structure that does not allow for much flexibility or deformation. This can make it
more susceptible to damage or failure in the event of impacts or stresses that
exceed its design parameters.
2. Difficult to repair: If a monocoque chassis is damaged or requires repairs, it can
be challenging to access and repair the internal structure. This can make repairs
more time-consuming and expensive.
3. Limited customization options: Because a monocoque chassis is a single,
integrated structure, it can be difficult to modify or customize for different
applications. This can limit the versatility of the chassis for different use cases.
4. Limited weight capacity: Monocoque chassis designs are typically optimized for
weight reduction, which can limit their overall weight capacity. This can make
them less suitable for applications that require heavy loads or high weight
capacity.
5. Limited shock absorption: Because monocoque chassis designs are typically
optimized for weight reduction, they may have limited shock absorption
capabilities. This can make them less suitable for applications that require a
smooth ride or a high degree of shock absorption.
Truss Chassis

A truss chassis is a type of train frame that uses a series of interconnected beams to
provide structural support. Truss chassis are typically used for heavier trains, such as
freight trains, that require additional support to carry their cargo. Truss chassis are also
used in locomotives, where they provide support for the engine and transmission.

15
 Figure 8: A Truss Chassis

Advantages
1. Strength: Truss chassis are distinguished by its excellent strength-to-weight ratio.
The truss's triangular form makes it extremely sturdy and capable of withstanding
enormous loads and stresses.
2. Lightweight: Truss chassis are lighter than other forms of chassis, such as ladder
frames or monocoque structures. This can help to enhance overall performance and
fuel efficiency.
3. Customizable: Truss chassis can be built in a number of shapes and sizes to
accommodate various vehicles and uses. As a result, they are a popular alternative
for custom-built automobiles.
4. Force Absorption: Another advantage of truss chassis in railway vehicles is their
ability to absorb and distribute the forces generated by acceleration, braking, and
other factors that can affect the stability and performance of the vehicle. This makes
truss chassis particularly well-suited for use in high-speed trains, where stability and
control are critical.
Disadvantages

1. Higher weight: Truss chassis designs typically use more material than other types
of chassis designs, which can make them heavier overall. This can make it more
difficult to push the trolley, especially over long distances or up inclines.
2. Less aerodynamic: Truss chassis designs are typically boxy or angular in shape,
which can create more air resistance and drag compared to more streamlined

16
 chassis designs. This can make the trolley more difficult to push and reduce its
maximum speed.
3. Potentially more expensive: Because truss chassis designs use more material and
may require more complex manufacturing processes, they can be more expensive
to produce than other types of chassis designs.
4. Difficult to assemble: Depending on the specific truss chassis design, it may be
more complex or difficult to assemble and disassemble the trolley. This can make
it more challenging to transport and store the trolley when not in use.
5. Limited space for cargo or passengers: Because truss chassis designs typically
have more internal bracing and structure, there may be less available space for
cargo or passengers. This can limit the versatility of the trolley for different use
cases.
Girder Chassis

A girder chassis is a type of train frame that uses a series of horizontal and vertical beams
to provide structural support. The girder chassis consists of a series of long, rectangular
beams, or girders, that are bolted or welded together to form a rigid framework. Girder
chassis are commonly used for high-speed trains, as they provide a strong and stable
platform for the train to travel on.

Figure 7: Girder Chassis

17
Advantages:

1. Shock Absorption: This chassis handles well the unique conditions and strains of
rail transit.
2. High Endurance: These chassis are often constructed of high-strength steel or
aluminum alloys, which give the strength and endurance required to endure the
pressures of rail travel.
3. High Weight Capability: This chassis is constructed to handle not only the
vehicle's and its cargo's weight, but also the forces caused by acceleration,
deceleration, and braking.
Disadvantages:

1. Limited customization options: Because girder chassis designs have a relatively

fixed structure and geometry, they may be less flexible and customizable
compared to other chassis designs. This can limit the versatility of the trolley for
different use cases.
2. Heavy weight: Girder chassis designs typically use more material than other types
of chassis designs, which can make them heavier overall. This can make it more
difficult to push the trolley, especially over long distances or up inclines.
3. More complex design: Girder chassis designs can be more complex and require
more precise engineering compared to other chassis designs. This can make them
more difficult and expensive to manufacture and repair.
4. Limited shock absorption: Girder chassis designs may have limited shock
absorption capabilities compared to other chassis designs. This can make the
trolley less suitable for applications that require a smooth ride or a high degree of
shock absorption.
5. Potentially more expensive: Because girder chassis designs use more material and
may require more complex manufacturing processes, they can be more expensive
to produce than other types of chassis designs.

Platform Chassis

It consists of a flat, solid platform made of steel or aluminum that extends the full length
of the vehicle and serves as the base for the body of the vehicle. A platform type chassis

18
for railway vehicles is one in which the vehicle's undercarriage is built on a platform that
extends the entire length of the vehicle. This platform serves as the vehicle's foundation
and supports the train or tram's body.

Figure 8: Platform Chassis

Advantages

Cost Effective: Platform chassis are often less expensive to build than other types of
vehicle frames or structures since they are simpler in design and use less material.
Versatility: A platform chassis’ flat, stable platform enables for easy customization and
modification, making it appropriate for a wide range of applications.
Durability: The sturdy platform gives the vehicle a strong and stable basis, which is vital
for heavy-duty commercial operation. Also, weight distribution reduces stress on
individual components and improves overall durability.
Easy maintenance: A platform chassis’ flat platform makes it simple to access and
maintain the vehicle's components.
Disadvantages

1. Reduced maneuverability: A platform chassis’ flat platform can make the vehicle
less maneuverable in small places or congested urban environments.
2. Difficulty in repair: Repairs to the platform can be difficult and may necessitate
specialized equipment or experience, resulting in increased repair costs.
3. Lower stability: In some circumstances, platform chassis may be less stable than
other types of vehicle frames or superstructure, notably in high winds or when
transporting significant loads.
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Ladder Frame Chassis

A ladder frame chassis is a type of vehicle frame that is commonly used in automobiles,
trucks, and other heavy-duty vehicles. The ladder frame design consists of two long
parallel beams, known as side rails or ladder rails, that run the length of the vehicle and
are connected by a series of cross members.

Figure 9: Ladder Frame Chassis

Advantages

1. Strength and durability: The design is extremely torsion, bending, and

deformation resistant, making it perfect for heavy-duty applications such as
commercial trucks, construction vehicles, and off-road vehicles.
2. Versatility: The ladder chassis is extremely adaptable since it can be adjusted to
match many body types and configurations.
3. Easy maintenance: Because of its simple and straightforward design, ladder
chassis are simple to maintain and repair.
Disadvantages

1. Weight: Ladder chassis are hefty and can significantly increase the weight of a
vehicle, affecting its overall performance, fuel efficiency, and handling.

20
 2. Ride Quality: The ladder chassis design does not deliver the smoothest riding
experience. Because of the stiff build and absence of suspension, the ride can be
uncomfortable, especially over uneven terrain.
3. Stability: The ladder chassis design can have an effect on a vehicle's stability,
especially during high-speed cornering or sudden changes in direction. The
vehicle's stiff design can lead it to sway.
4. Safety: While ladder chassis designs are strong and durable, they can be less safe
in the event of an accident. The rigid construction can cause the vehicle to absorb
the impact, leading to more severe injuries for passengers.

Wheels:

We also surveyed different types of wheels to be installed in our vehicle. There were
some very intricate differences in the design of the wheels we studied. The main factors
were :
Taper angle:

The taper angle refers to the angle between the outer diameter of the wheel and the rail
contact surface. A higher taper angle means that the wheel has a more conical shape, with
a smaller diameter at the point of contact with the rail. The effect of taper angle on
railway wheel design is primarily related to the wheel-rail interaction and the wear
characteristics of the wheels. A higher taper angle can help reduce wear on both the
wheels and the rails, as it distributes the load more evenly across the surface of the wheel
and reduces the amount of sliding friction between the wheel and rail.
However, a higher taper angle can also have some drawbacks. It can reduce the stability
of the wheel at high speeds, as the conical shape can cause the wheel to shift and wobble
on the rails. It can also increase the rolling resistance of the wheel, which can lead to
reduced energy efficiency and increased wear.
Flange depth:

Flange depth is an important consideration in the design of wheels for railway vehicles.
The flange is the raised edge on the inside of the wheel that helps keep the wheel on the
rail and prevent derailment. The depth of the flange is determined by the requirements of

21
the particular application and can vary depending on a number of factors, such as the
weight and type of the railcar, the track conditions, and the desired level of safety and
stability.
A deeper flange can provide better stability and reduce the risk of derailment, particularly
in situations where the track is uneven or there are tight curves. However, deeper flanges
can also increase the rolling resistance of the wheel and increase wear on both the wheel
and the rail. Shallower flanges are sometimes used in applications where stability is less
of a concern, such as in passenger cars or on straight track with good track conditions.
Shallow flanges can help reduce rolling resistance and improve energy efficiency, but can
increase the risk of derailment in certain situations.
Tread width:

Tread width is another important consideration in the design of railway wheels, as it

determines the contact area between the wheel and the rail. The tread width is the width
of the wheel that comes into contact with the rail.The tread width is typically determined
based on the gauge of the track, which is the distance between the rails. The tread width
must be slightly narrower than the distance between the rails in order to allow the wheels
to pass over switches and other track features without interference.In addition to being
determined by the track gauge, the tread width can also be influenced by other factors
such as the weight and type of railcar, the desired level of stability and safety, and the
track conditions.
A wider tread width can provide better stability and reduce the risk of derailment,
particularly in situations where the track is uneven or there are tight curves. However, a
wider tread can also increase the rolling resistance of the wheel and increase wear on
both the wheel and the rail.
A narrower tread width can help reduce rolling resistance and improve energy efficiency,
but can increase the risk of derailment in certain situations, particularly if the track is in
poor condition or there are tight curves.
Power transmission mechanisms:

1) Chain Drive

A chain drive system is a type of power transmission in which power is transmitted

between two or more spinning shafts through a roller chain. Chain drives are long-lasting,

22
able to transmit high power, and have a long service life. They're often found in heavy
machinery, motorcycles, and bicycles. Chain drives, on the other hand, require routine
maintenance, lubrication, and adjustment to minimize wear and straining, which can
diminish efficiency.

Figure 10: Chain Drive

2) Belt Drive

A belt drive system transmits power between two or more spinning shafts using a flexible
belt. Belt drives are more quiet than chain drives and require less maintenance because
they do not need to be lubricated or adjusted. They are widely employed in a wide range
of applications, such as industrial machinery, HVAC systems, and automotive engines.
Belt drives, on the other hand, have lower power transfer capacities than chain drives and
might slip or wear with time, limiting efficiency.

23
Figure 11: Belt Drive
 3) Gear Drive

A gear drive system transmits power between two or more rotating shafts using gears.
Gear drives are long-lasting, efficient, and capable of transmitting a large amount of
power. They're frequently found in industrial machinery, autos, and other mechanical
devices. Gear drives, on the other hand, are noisy, require lubrication, and can be
expensive to make.

Figure 12: Gear Drive

A comparison between these drive mechanisms is given:

24
Parameter Chain Drive Belt drive Gear drive
Drive type

Main components Chains and Pulleys and belts Gears

sprockets
Slippage No slip May slip No slip
Failure impact No serious No damage to Serious damage to
damage to machine machine
machine
Life cycle Moderate Short Long
Space requirement Moderate Large Small
Lubrication requirement Some No Proper lubrication
lubrication is needed
required
Center distance Moderate Large Small
requirement
Velocity ratio Moderate Low High
requirement
Installation cost Moderate Low High
Batteries

Batteries come in various shapes and sizes and whether they are rechargeable or for only
one time usage. Because of their ease and environmental benefits, rechargeable batteries
are a popular alternative for powering numerous sorts of gadgets and equipment.
Rechargeable batteries, as opposed to disposable batteries, may be reused numerous
times, decreasing waste and saving money in the long run.
An ideal battery must satisfy specific characteristics, such as being highly efficient, long-
lasting, safe, and cost-effective. The desirable characteristics are:
• High Energy Density
• Long Lifespan
• Fast Charging
• High Power Output
• Low Self Discharging Rate
• Safe and Reliable
• Environmentally Friendly
• Cost Effective
• Compatibility

25
 1) Nickel-cadmium (NiCd) batteries

NiCd batteries were the first rechargeable batteries that were commercially accessible
and have been in use for many years. They are well-known for their long life and ability
to withstand high discharge rates. They do, however, have a poor energy density, which
means they have a shorter lifespan and weigh more than other types of batteries.

Figure 13: A Nickel-Cadmium Battery

2) Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries

Because of its high energy density and lightweight design, lithium-ion batteries are the
most extensively used rechargeable batteries today. They are utilised in a variety of
applications, such as mobile phones, laptop computers, and electric vehicles. Li-ion
batteries have a longer lifespan and can hold a charge for a longer period of time than
other rechargeable batteries.

Figure 14: A Lithium-ion Battery

26
 3) Lead-acid batteries

Lead-acid batteries are a form of rechargeable battery that is widely used in automobiles
and other vehicles. They are well-known for their capacity to tolerate high currents and
deliver high power levels. They are, however, bulky and have a shorter lifespan than
other rechargeable batteries.

Figure 15: A Lead Acid Battery

4) Lithium polymer (LiPo) batteries

LiPo batteries are Li-ion batteries that use a flexible polymer electrolyte rather than a
liquid electrolyte. They are popular for use in drones, portable speakers, and other
compact devices because to their lightweight and thin construction. In addition, LiPo
batteries offer a higher energy density than other rechargeable batteries, making them an
excellent choice for high-performance electronics.

Figure 16: A Lithium-Polymer Battery

27
 5) Nickel-metal hydride (NiMH) batteries

NiMH batteries are a more modern and energy-efficient alternative to NiCd batteries.
Because of their higher energy density and longer longevity, they are a popular choice for
many applications, including digital cameras, toys, and portable radios. They also have a
smaller memory effect than NiCd batteries, allowing for more frequent recharges without
losing capacity.

Figure 17: A Nickel Metal Hydride Battery

Motors

A direct current motor operates on the electromagnetic concept. It uses a magnetic field
to convert electrical energy into mechanical energy.
Construction

A DC motor's primary components are a stator (stationary part) and a rotor (spinning
part), which are separated by an air gap. The stator is made up of field windings that are
coupled to a DC power supply, while the rotor is made up of an armature with a wire coil
wounded around it. The rotational direction is determined by the current passing through
the armature coil. As the commutator rotates, the current flowing through the armature
coil changes direction, allowing the rotor to continue rotating in the same direction.
The current must be reversed as the rotor revolves to keep it spinning continually. This is
accomplished by the use of a commutator, which is a split metal ring attached to the
armature coil.

28
Types

Brushed DC Motor

A brushed DC motor is the most basic and widely used form of DC motor. It is made up
of a rotor (spinning part) and a stator (stationary element), and it switches the direction of
the current flowing through the motor using brushes and a commutator. The motor spins
because the brushes make physical contact with the commutator.

Figure 18: A Brushed DC Motor

Advantages

1) Simple Design: Brushed DC motors are generally inexpensive due to their simple
design and ease of construction.
2) High Starting Torque: Brushed DC motors provide high starting torque, which
makes them suitable for applications that require high initial acceleration, such as
power tools.
3) Easy to Reverse Direction: By switching the polarity of the input voltage, the
direction of a brushed DC motor can be readily reversed.

29
Disadvantages

1) Limited Lifespan: Because of the wear and tear on the brushes and commutator,
brushed DC motors have a limited lifespan.
2) Low Efficiency: Brushed DC motors are less efficient than brushless motors
because they generate more heat and have higher mechanical losses owing to
brush friction.
3) High Maintenance: Brushed DC motors require frequent maintenance to ensure
optimal performance and lifespan due to the wear and tear of the brushes and
commutator.
Brushless DC Motor

In terms of basic components, a brushless DC motor is identical to a brushed DC motor,

but it uses electronic commutation instead of brushes and a commutator. It is more
efficient and reliable than a brushed motor, but it is also more expensive.

Figure 19: A Brushless DC Motor

30
Advantages

1) High Efficiency: Because brushes produce friction and electrical resistance,

BLDC motors are more efficient than brushed DC motors. As a result, heat
production is reduced while power output is increased.
2) Longer Life Span: Because they do not have brushes that wear out over time,
BLDC motors have a longer lifespan than brushed DC motors. As a result,
maintenance and replacement costs are reduced.
3) Better Speed Control: BLDC motors can provide better speed control and
precision because they use electronic commutation instead of mechanical
commutation.
Disadvantages

1) Complex Design: Because BLDC motors have a more sophisticated design than
brushed DC motors, they can be more expensive to produce.
2) Higher initial Cost: Because of its more advanced technology and electronic
control needs, the initial cost of a BLDC motor is more than that of a brushed DC
motor.
3) Requires Electronic Control: BLDC motors require electronic control circuits to
function, which can increase the system's cost and complexity.
Series DC Motor

The armature (spinning part) and field windings (stationary part) of a series DC motor are
connected in series. This means that the same current runs through the armature as well
as the field windings. Because of their strong starting torque, series DC motors are often
employed in traction applications such as electric vehicles and forklifts.
Advantages

1) High Starting Torque: Series DC motors have a high starting torque, making them
suited for applications requiring a high initial acceleration.
2) Simple and Robust Design: Series DC motors feature a simple and sturdy
construction, making them simple to build and maintain.
3) Cost Effective: Because of their basic and low-cost design, series DC motors are
affordable.
31
Disadvantages

1) Poor Speed Control: Series DC motors have poor speed regulation and can reach
dangerously high speeds while not in use.
2) Low Efficiency: Because of the huge number of turns in the armature winding,
series DC motors are less efficient than other types of DC motors because they
generate more heat and have more mechanical losses.
3) High Starting Current: Series DC motors consume high beginning currents, which
can create voltage drops in the electrical system.
Shunt DC Motor

The armature and field windings of a shunt DC motor are linked in parallel. This means
that the currents received by the armature and field windings are different. Since they
provide effective speed regulation, shunt DC motors are extensively utilized in industrial
applications such as machine tools and conveyors.
Advantages

1) Good Speed Regulation: Shunt DC motors offer excellent speed regulation and
can keep a reasonably constant speed under fluctuating loads, making them ideal
for machine tools and pumps.
2) Low Maintenance: Shunt DC motors are simpler to build and require less
maintenance than series DC motors.
Disadvantages

1) Low Starting Torque: Shunt DC motors have lower starting torque and may
necessitate the use of extra starting aids such as a starter.
2) Sensitive to Voltage Fluctuations: To maintain a steady speed, shunt DC motors
are sensitive to voltage changes and require a consistent power supply.
3) Higher Cost: Since they require additional control circuits to maintain a steady
speed, shunt DC motors are more expensive than series DC motors.

32
Motor Configuration

The motors can be further classified depending on the position of mounting. The two
major types, however, are:
1) Axle Mounted Motor
2) Hub Motor
Axle Mounted Motor

Axle-mounted direct current (DC) motors are electric motors that are mounted directly on
an axle, generally of a vehicle or machinery, to deliver rotational power to the wheels or
other components. They eliminate the need for additional mechanical components such as
gears, belts, and pulleys, which reduces the overall cost and complexity of the system.

Figure 20: Axle Mounted DC Motor

Advantages

1) Efficient Power Transfer: Power is supplied directly to the axle via axle-mounted
DC motors, eliminating energy losses that would occur if power was passed
through a complex transmission system.

33
 2) High Torque Output: Axle-mounted direct current motors may produce
considerable torque at low speeds, making them excellent for heavy-duty
applications requiring large power.
3) Compact Design: Axle-mounted DC motors' compact size allows them to be fitted
into tiny locations where typical motor designs would not fit.
Disadvantages

1) Limited Speed Range: Axle-mounted direct current motors are designed to

produce high torque at low speeds, limiting their speed range. They are not ideal
for high-speed applications where speed is essential.
2) Limited Cooling: If axle-mounted DC motors are operated for an extended period
of time, they may overheat and function poorly due to restricted cooling
alternatives.
Hub Motors

Hub DC motors, also known as wheel hub motors, are electric motors that are built into a
wheel's hub. This setup allows the motor to drive the wheel directly, eliminating the need
for a separate transmission system. Electric vehicles and e-bikes frequently use hub DC
motors.

Figure 21: A Hub DC Motor

34
Advantages

1) High Efficiency: Hub direct current motors are extremely efficient since they
deliver power directly to the wheel without the use of a transmission system.
2) Reduced Maintenance: Hub DC motors contain fewer moving components than
standard motor topologies, reducing maintenance and increasing reliability.
3) Improved Handling: Hub DC motors evenly distribute the motor's weight across
the wheel, enhancing handling and stability.
Disadvantages

1) Limited Power: Hub DC motors are often smaller and less powerful than
traditional motor topologies, therefore their use in heavy-duty applications may be
limited.
2) Limited Mounting Options: Hub DC motors can only be put in the wheel hub,
which may not be ideal for some applications that require other mounting options.
3) Increased Unsprung Weight: The motor's weight is added to the unsprung weight
of the wheel, which can have a negative impact on ride quality and handling.
Braking System

Automobiles and railway vehicles employ braking for safety reasons. The fundamental
function of brakes in railway cars is to controllably slow and stop the train. This is
required to avoid crashes and derailments, which can damage the train and infrastructure
as well as injure or kill passengers and staff. The most common type of braking used in
railway vehicles is given along with other potential braking mechanisms:
Air Brakes

On railway vehicles, air brakes are the most widely utilized type of brake. Brakes are
applied with compressed air and the system is made up of various components, including
a compressor, air storage tanks, brake cylinders, and control valves.
Working

35
When the train operator applies the brakes, the compressor pumps air into the air storage
tanks, increasing the air pressure in the brake system. The increased air pressure causes
the brake cylinders to push the brake shoes against the wheels, creating a frictional force
that slows down or stops the train.

Figure 22: Air Brake Mechanism

Advantages

1) Reliable: Air brakes are extremely reliable and have a lower wear and tear rate
than other types of brakes.
2) Uniform Braking: Air brakes can be deployed equally over the entire train,
stopping or slowing all vehicles at the same time.
3) Requires Less Maintenance: Air brakes require less maintenance than other forms
of brakes, which lowers maintenance costs and extends the time between
maintenance intervals.
Disadvantages

1) Slow response time: In certain conditions, such as when the train is running at
high speeds, air brakes might be slow to respond.
2) Expensive: Air brake systems can be expensive to install and maintain.
36
 3) Requires Specialized Components: Air brakes require specialized components,
which can be difficult to source and replace in case of failure.
Disc brakes

Disc brakes are utilised in high-speed trains and other applications that require a lot of
braking power. Disc brakes work by clamping down on the rotor with a calliper,
providing a frictional force that slows the train. Disc brakes are more efficient and less
prone to wear and strain than other types of brakes.

Figure 23: Disc Brakes

Advantages

1) High Performance: When compared to other types of brakes, such as drum brakes,
disc brakes provide higher stopping power and performance.
2) Consistent Braking: Disc brakes provide reliable braking even at high speeds and
temperatures.
3) Self-Cleaning: Disc brakes are self-cleaning by design, preventing the
accumulation of dirt or dust that might degrade braking performance.

37
Disadvantages

1) Heat dissipation: During operation, disc brakes generate a lot of heat, which can
cause thermal damage to other components of the vehicle or railway equipment.
2) Cost: Installing and maintaining disc brakes might be more expensive than other
types of brakes.
3) Complexity: Disc brakes are more intricate than other forms of brakes,
necessitating more components and a more difficult installation method.
Drum Brakes

Drum brakes are a sort of braking system that can be found in a variety of vehicles,
including automobiles, motorcycles, and even railway uses. Drum brakes are made up of
a cylindrical drum that rotates together with the wheel and a set of brake shoes that push
against the interior of the drum to slow or stop the vehicle.

Figure 24: Drum Brakes

Working

When you press the brake pedal, hydraulic pressure is applied to the brake shoes, which
causes them to press on the interior of the drum. Friction between the brake shoes and the

38
drum slows the rotation of the wheel, lowering the vehicle's speed. The frictional heat is
dissipated through the drum, which also serves to cool the brake shoes.
Advantages

1) Cost Effective: Drum brakes are less expensive to produce and install than other
forms of brakes, such as disc brakes.
2) Less prone to Heating: Since they have a wider surface area for heat dissipation,
drum brakes are less prone to overheating than disc brakes.
3) Self Energizing: Drum brakes are designed to provide more braking force when
the brake shoes press harder against the drum, resulting in self-energizing
braking.
Disadvantages

1) Lower Performance: When compared to other types of brakes, such as disc

brakes, drum brakes give less stopping power and performance.
2) Longer Stopping Distance: Drum brakes have a longer stopping distance than disc
brakes because they need more time to dissipate heat and slow the car down.
3) Prone to Fading: Drum brakes can experience brake fade, which happens when
friction heat causes the brake shoes to lose their efficacy.
Flaw detection mechanisms

Railway track flaw detection is done by numerous methods. Some of them include:

Human based detection

This is the most common method used to inspect if there are flaws in a railway line at a
particular location. The staff designated to discharge its duties in patrolling railway lines
uses different tools and also visually checks whether there is a defect in the railway lines
or not.

39

Figure 25: A railway worker measures the distance between rails near
Sukkur
The main flaws that can be detected by this method include:
1) Misalignment of rails
2) Loose nuts/bolts in the track
3) Faulty/cracked sleepers
4) Cracked rails
5) Scratched/worn-out rails
However, the efficiency of this method remains the question as it includes a large degree
of subjectivity by relying on human judgement. Also it remains a largely superficial
method with minimal information about within the rail structure.
AI-based flaw detection:

Advanced AI tools such as computer vision and machine learning may also be employed

for detecting flaws in railway tracks. This method can include usage of unmanned

vehicles which are intelligent enough to remove themselves from the track whenever a

train approaches. This is one of the most advanced methods, and despite returning best

results, it is very costly.

Sensor based detection:

A sensor based system can also be used to detect railway track flaws. This method
includes incorporating a microcontroller such as Arduino or Raspberry Pi, along with
some sensors which can return valuable information and the microcontroller can process
the information and return the processed output to the user. This method, although not as
40
advanced as the AI-based one, still returns reliable enough results for the maintenance to
take place effectively.
A number of sensors can be used in this regard to return valuable track information.
Sharp Infrared Distance Sensor

It is a small and precise sensor that can be used to determine the distance or proximity of
an object. The sensor functions by producing an infrared beam and detecting the amount
of light reflected. The distance to the object is then calculated using the reflected light.
The sensor has a 20cm to 150cm range and can be utilized to detect if the track has any
cracks at a specific location. Whenever there is a crack or discontinuity in the railway
track, the distance calculated by the sensor would change, thereby prompting an alert.

Figure 26: Sharp Infrared Diatance Sensor

GP2Y0A02YK0F

Piezoelectric vibration sensor:

Whenever there is a discontinuity in the track, increased vibrations can be felt in a vehicle
riding that track. Henceforth, vibration sensor can be used to sense that increased
vibration and report the anamoly.

41
Feature Human-based AI-based Sensor-based
Method
Cost Medium High Low
Reliability Low High Medium
Fault detection High High High
capability
Accuracy Medium-High High Medium
Types of faults All Limited Limited
detected
Fault classification Yes Yes No

Link with SDGs:

The development of an electric railway patrolling vehicle can also contribute to the
United Nations' Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The SDGs are a set of 17 goals
established by the United Nations to address global challenges such as poverty, hunger,
and climate change. The development of an electric railway patrolling vehicle can
contribute to several of these goals.
First, the use of electric vehicles can contribute to the SDG 7 goal of affordable and clean
energy. The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions associated with the use of electric
vehicles can help mitigate climate change and improve air quality.

42
Second, the development of an electric railway patrolling vehicle can contribute to SDG
9, which aims to build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable
industrialization, and foster innovation. The use of innovative technologies such as
electric vehicles can improve the efficiency and reliability of infrastructure and contribute
to sustainable industrialization.
Finally, the development of an electric railway patrolling vehicle can contribute to SDG
11, which aims to make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient, and
sustainable. Efficient and reliable transportation systems are essential for achieving this
goal, and the development of an electric railway patrolling vehicle can contribute to this
effort.
In conclusion, the development of an electric railway patrolling vehicle has the potential
to improve the efficiency and reliability of railway systems while also contributing to the
UN Sustainable Development Goals. It is an innovative solution that can help railway
companies to identify maintenance issues and prevent accidents, reduce the cost of
maintenance, and promote sustainable transportation.

43
 CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

Fabrication of a railway vehicle requires that a structured but flexible design framework
is followed. Therefore, keeping in mind our deleivearbales and time constraint, we
devised a methodology to accomplish our project. The methodology focused on the
flexibility aspect and allowed us to modify our design based on market survey and in case
we get infavourable or alarming results from FEM analysis.
Design considerations:

The most important aspect in any engineering project is to specify the considerations
based on which the vehicle is developed. These considerations guide the engineer to
choose amongst a variety of available options the most suitable one . We also considered
a number of design factors and ensured that our vehicle meets all the needs and
benchmarks set.
1) Cost:

Cost was the first and foremost consideration in selecting and choosing any particular
design for our railway vehicle. Based on the local circumstances and observing the
financial hardships of the railway department, we had no choice but to go for components
that are most cost-effective. However, safety and other important considerations like
performance and reliability were not compromised in lieu of this.
2) Safety:

One of the primary factors in any design, the importance of safety in any vehicle cannot
be overemphasized. Similarly, in our project, the factor of safety is kept to a very high
level and hence it is ensured that the vehicle can perform its duties safely and soundly.
Multiple iterations of FEM analysis and physical testing have been done to ensure that
the vehicle safety is not compromised at any stage.
3) Reliability:

In addition to safety, reliability has also been kept as a primary design consideration to
ensure that the railway vehicle performs its operations in all sorts of conditions. From the

44
power transmission mechanism to the sensors, we have strived to ensure that each
component deleievrs upto-the-mark performance in all conditions.
4) Range:

Range is an important consideration in any electric vehicle. For our case, we strived to
ensure that the range meets the whole length of segment (30 km) allotted to a gang of
railway workers.
5) Weight and size:

Size of the vehicle should be aptly adjusted to accommodate all the passengers and
loading. Weight of the vehicle is limited by the track section allowable limit. Also
lightweightness helps increase the safety of the vehicle by ensuring that it can be
removed or pulled off the railway track in any emergency situations.=
6) Storage and load carrying capacity:

The vehicle should have ample storage and load carrying capacity to accommodate both
passengers and any tools. Hence, its design has been made spacious and strengthened
enough to accommodate all passenegers and accessories.
Data:

Data collection is an essential aspect of any project. As our project moved along, we also
engaged in numerous data collection activities and gathered the required data as per our
need. Primarily, our data sources were Pakistan Railways official documents, Pakistan
Railways officers, Local knowledge of the tracks and railways, Market survey and
analysis of the design. Secondarily, we also consulted the internet and other resources
such as books to ensure that we have ample amount of data to develop a physically
sustainable model of our vehicle.

Calculations:

Extensive calculations were carried out to ensure that we select the correct equipment for

our vehicle.
45
 Electric Vehicle Calculations

Given data
Vehicle Mass = 150 kg
Payload Mass = 500 kg
Total Mass (M) = 650 kg
Inclination Angle (I) = 2.29 deg
Frontal Area of the vehicle = 1 m2
Windage Resistance factor = Cw = 0.55
Maximum velocity of the vehicle = 60 km/h
Tire radius = R= 0.27 m
Climbing velocity = 20 km/h
Coefficeint of rolling resistance = 0.002
Density of air = 1.25 kg /m3 at 20 deg
g = 9.81 m/s^2
Climbing resistance:
Fc=Mgsin(I)
Fc=255 N
Rolling resistance while climbing:
Fr=Mg(0.002)cos(I)
Fr=12.74 N
Rolling resistance on the ground:
Frg= Mg (0.002)
Frg= 12.75 N
Windage resistance at Max speed :
Fw=1/2pACwV^2

46
Fw=99.34 N
Windage resistance at 20 km/h
Fw=1/2pACwV^2
Fw=11.88 N
Total resistance while climbing
Ft=Fc+Fw+Fr= 279.62 N
Required torque while climbing
T=Ft*R= 75.49 Nm
Total resistance on ground
Ft=Frg+Fw=113 N
Required torque on ground
T=Ft*r=30.51 N
Acceleration when starting
A=Ft-Frg/m=0.13 m/s^2
Time to reach 100 m
T=sqrt 2s/a= 31.6 s
Required RPM at Max speed
RPM= V/R.60/2pi=600 rpm
Required RPM when climbing
RPM = 212 RPM
Motor power on ground
P= T*RPM*2pi/60= 1921 W
Motor power when climbing
P= 1675 W
Battery calculations
Voltage V = 60 V

47
Current = Power/V.efficiency
=2000/60*0.95
=35 A
Capacity = 17.5 Ah.
Design Specifications :

Sr.No Parameter Value

1 Mass (kg) 150
2 Load capacity (kg) 500
3 Charging time (h) 5
4 Max Speed (km/h) 60
5 Length (mm) 1524
6 Width (mm) 1651
7 Height (mm) 1397
8 Wheelbase (mm) 984
9 Discharge time (h) 1.5
10 Motor Power rating (W) 2000
11 RPM of motor 5300
12 Battery type Lead-acid
13 Battery capacity (Ah) 20
14 No. of motors used 1
15 Wheel diameter (m) 0.27
16 Range (km) 60

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Selection of the required components:

Chassis:

We decided to use platform chassis to ensure that the vehicle we make is low-cost and
also spacious. Although ideally the chassis should have been manufactured from carbon-
fiber as it would have provided the ideal balance between strength and weight, cost
limitations prohibited us from doing so. Hence, we obtained a wooden platform chassis
from railway scrap. The chassis was further strengthened by using metal plates at certain
critical locations where FEA analysis indicated the maximum stress.
Wheelset:

The following considerations were of paramount importance whilst making a wheelset

for our project :
a. Deeper flange
b. Wider treads
c. Medium taper angle
d. Strong axle
All of these considerations were due to enhanced safety of the railway vehicle. We
obtained the required set of wheels and axles and welded them to forge a wheelset for our
project.
Power transmission mechanism:

Chain and sprocket mechanism was selected for power transmission as it provides the
ideal balance between good efficiency and cost constraints. T8F roller chain has been
used. Sprockets have teeth ratio of 1:4. Special hubs have been pressed and bolted with
the sprockets to ensure extra strength and prevent failure of sprockets in any case.
Motor:

Based on our calculations, we determined that our vehicle required a power output of
1921 watts at maximum. The nearest motor option available was to use a 2000 W BLDC

49
motor. This motor was chosen to ensure that we would have sufficient power to operate
our vehicle reliably and efficiently. Details of motor are as under in this table:
Parameter Value
Model MOTOR MY1020
Motor Type High-Speed BLDC brushless Motor
Output /W 2000W
Rated Speed 4500r/min (max:5400RPM)
Weight about 4KG
Diameter 107mm (AS SIZE PICTURE)
Application Chain 25H/T8F Sprocket/Chain
Batteries

To power the 60-volt motor, two options were available: using a single power source or
creating a battery pack from multiple 12-volt batteries. After considering cost-
effectiveness, the latter option was chosen.
To create the battery pack, a total of five 12-volt 20AH lead acid batteries were
purchased. While dry batteries were also a possibility, the cost was higher compared to
the lead acid batteries. The batteries were then connected in series, resulting in a total
voltage output of 60 volts, which was sufficient to run the motor.

Overall, the decision to create a battery pack from multiple lead acid batteries was a cost-
effective solution for powering the 60-volt motor. The use of lead acid batteries in the
pack allowed for a cheaper alternative to dry batteries, while the series connection of the
batteries ensured a sufficient voltage output to run the motor.
Sensors:

We incorporated the following main sensors in our project:

1) Piezoelectric vibration sensor
2) Sharp distance sensor

50
Following auxiliary/ support were also installed:
1) Datalogger
2) GSM Module
3) GPS Module
4) LCD

51
 CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

The total weight of our designed vehicle was 120 kg. The maximum load it
can bear was limited to 500 kg. However, to ascertain that our design is
physically viable and would be able to sustain this gross load of 620 kg, we
did an FEM analysis of our design using COMSOL software.
The main subjects of our FEM analysis were:
1. Maximum von mises stress experienced by the chassis
2. Displacement of the chassis under the applied maximum load
conditions
3. Modal analysis of the chassis
Wheels

Deflection under peak loading condition

52
Using COMSOL, we found out that the maximum deflection of the axle and the wheels
under maximum loading conditions was in the order of micrometers, hence affirming the
strength and safety of our design.
Chassis

Von Mises stress is an appropriate parameter to study as it gives an adequate idea of the
net load on the entire chassis. Using COMSOL, we did a Von Mises stress analysis of our
chassis and it was found to be 725 kPa at maximum. Ideally the von Mises stress should
not exceed the yield stress of the material, otherwise failure can occur. The yield stress
for wood, the primary material used in the chassis is 15 MPa. Thus we are well below the
allowed stress and the chance of chassis falling apart due to excessive loads is non-
existent.
Modal Study

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Modal study of the chassis is necessary to determine the natural frequency of the chassis.
The frequency of operation of motor will then be compared to se if resonance may occur.
Resonance must be avoided as it can lead to damaging consequences for the vehicle.

As we can see the first natural frequency of the chassis is 5996 Hz which is much greater
than the motor frequency. Henceforth we can conclude that we don’t face any challenge
from the perspective of motor resonating with chassis.

54
 CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

Conclusion:

In conclusion, this project successfully addressed the challenge of limited functionality

and budgetary constraints in developing a railway patrolling vehicle. The working
prototype of the electric vehicle demonstrated the feasibility of integrating commercially
available components to detect faults and improve overall performance. This project also
highlights the importance of innovation and creative problem-solving in developing
practical solutions for real-world problems. Overall, this project represents a significant
step towards improving the safety and efficiency of railway patrolling vehicles and serves
as an example of how innovative thinking can lead to practical and impactful solutions.
Recommendations:

As our project successfully achieved its goals of developing a functional railway

patrolling vehicle within a limited budget, utilizing commercially available components.
However, there are some limitations that were encountered during the project, such as the
vehicle's limited speed and range. These limitations can be addressed by replacing the
current batteries with higher ampere hour batteries to increase the distance it can cover
and the speed at which it can operate.
Moving forward, there are several recommendations that can be implemented to enhance
the functionality and reliability of the vehicle. For instance, a full covered body can be
added to make the vehicle suitable for use in tough weather conditions. Additionally, disc
brakes can be used to improve the braking system, ensuring the safety of the vehicle and
its occupants.
Another potential improvement could be the addition of solar panels to charge the
batteries, making the vehicle more environmentally friendly and reducing the need for
frequent battery charging. Moreover, adding cameras for back vision can enhance the
safety and maneuverability of the vehicle.
Finally, integrating cameras for AI fault detection can further improve the vehicle's
functionality by allowing for real-time fault detection and preventative maintenance.
These recommendations have the potential to significantly enhance the performance and
reliability of the railway patrolling vehicle, making it a valuable asset for the railway
industry.

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REFRENCES

Example of a web link referencing:

[1] 2030 water resource group. (2009). Charting our water future. Retrieved from:

http://www.2030waterresourcesgroup.com /water_full/.

Example of a research paper referencing:

[2] Sharshir, S. W., Yang, N., Peng, G., & Kabeel, A. E. (2016). Factors affecting solar

stills productivity and improvement techniques: A detailed review. Applied Thermal

Engineering, 100, 267-284.

Example of a book referencing:

[3] Duffie, J. A., & Beckman, W. A. (2013). Solar engineering of thermal processes. John

Wiley & Sons.

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