Introduction to Rock Mechanics

Attitudes Of Beds And Outcrops

Beds are the layers of sedimentary rocks that are distinctly different from overlying and underlying
subsequent beds of different sedimentary rocks.

• Layers of beds are called strata.

• They are formed from sedimentary rocks being deposited on the Earth's solid surface over a long
period of time.

Outcrops were formed by the intrusion of molten granite into preexisting country rock at a depth of about
ten miles below the surface. Over millions of years, erosion removed thousands of feet of overlying rock,
exposing the more resistant bodies of granite. Any Geological formation on the surface is called an Outcrop.

An Outcrop is the exposed rock

• So named because the exposed rock "crops out."

A bedding attitude is defined as the strike and dip of a bed.

Strike is the direction of a line produced by the intersection of an imaginary horizontal plane with
an inclined bed. From previous laboratories you should know that based on the Principle of Original
Horizontality sedimentary beds are originally deposited as a series of horizontal layers one on top of
another. Such beds would have an infinite number of strike lines as the intersection of an imaginary
horizontal plane with a horizontal bed is an infinite number of lines oriented from 0⁰ to 360⁰

In contrast, if a bed is inclined relative to the horizontal, then its intersection with an imaginary
horizontal plane produces one and only one line (Figure 2). The direction of this line is the strike of the bed.

Dip is the angle between the imaginary horizontal plane and the inclined bed measured in a plane
oriented at 90o to the strike line . In all of the above illustrations strike and dip is defined for an inclined
layer such as a bed or lamination or rock stratigraphic unit (e.g., a member or formation). However, the
orientation of any planar surface can be expressed by its strike and dip. For example, the orientation of a
fault or foliation surface is commonly given as its strike and dip.

- VERTICAL ROCK HAS A DIP OF 90⁰

- HORIZONTAL ROCK HAS A DIP OF ZERO

 Geologists use a Brunton or Silva compass to measure strike and dip. The various parts of the
standard Brunton compass are shown in Figure 4. When using the compass to determine the attitude of a
plane the edge of the compass is placed against the inclined surface and then the bulls-eye bubble is
centered. In this configuration the compass lies in a horizontal plane and its edge is parallel to the line
produced by the intersection of the imaginary horizontal plane and the inclined surface or layer. The
sighting armature points in the direction that this line is oriented, and this direction is read directly off
the compass. During today’s lab you will learn how to measure the attitude of a layer using the Bruton or
Silva compass.

The concept of strike and dip is fundamental to the development of geological maps as it allows a
geologist to represent the 3D orientations of planes on 2D sheets like quadrangle maps. Below we will
consider the 3D geometry of two common folds: anticlines and synclines.

Anticlines and synclines are the up and down folds that usually occur together and are caused by
compressional stress.

Anticlines are folds in which each half of the fold dips

away from the crest.

Synclines are folds in which each half of the fold dips

toward the trough of the fold. You can remember the
difference by noting that anticlines form an “A” shape,
and synclines form the bottom of an “S.”
 After erosion has occurred, geologists can use the
patterns of rocks on the surface to determine where
anticlines and synclines exist. In the block diagram , the
top of the block represents the ground surface and what
would be shown on a geologic map. The sides of the
block show the underground geology. In anticlines, as
seen on the ground, the oldest rocks are in the center of
the fold. In synclines, the youngest rocks are in the
center of the fold.

This intensely folded limestone from Highland County shows how anticlines and synclines typically occur
together. These sharp folds are called "chevron" folds.

An essential importance of structural geology is to know areas that contain folds and faults because they
can form traps in which the accumulation and concentration of fluids such as oil and natural gas occur.

What are Geological Maps and what are they used for?

Geologic maps are uniquely suited to solving problems involving Earth resources, hazards, and
environments. Geologic maps represent the distribution of different types of rock and surficial deposits, as
well as locations of geologic structures such as faults and folds.

Geologic maps are the primary source of information for various aspects of land-use planning,
including the siting of buildings and transportation systems. And perhaps most importantly for the people
of New Mexico, such maps help identify ground-water aquifers, aid in locating water-supply wells, and
assist in locating potential polluting operations, such as landfills, safely away from the aquifers.

Digital geologic maps are interactive electronic documents that put earth science issues into
geospatial frameworks. They capture the size, the shape, the depth, and the physical and chemical contexts
of earth materials, and they blend data display with the results of interpretive research.

Geological Map Descriptors

 When recording observations, geologists use descriptive terms and rock names that are in
common use or unique to an area. These terms are then synthesized and rewritten into formal map unit
descriptions that are published with the map. With the advent of GIS and the ease with which digital maps
can be obtained and queried, geologists are recognizing the importance of a well-defined, standard
terminology in order to help users, at a desktop computer or on the Internet, query simultaneously two
maps made by different geologists.

Geological Map Databases

The main goal in many geological surveys no longer is to create a single geologic map but to create
a database from which many types of geologic and engineering geology maps can be derived. This requires
a database design or "data model" that is sufficiently robust to manage complex geologic concepts such as
three dimensional (spatial) and temporal relations among map units, faults, and other features

Elements of Geologic Maps

Color
It represent various types of geologic features or units (a particular type of rock with a known age
range). Geologic units are indicated by colors that can range from yellows and reds to purples and browns.

Letter
The set is usually composed of an initial capital letter followed by one or two lowercased letters.
The capital letter represents the age of the geologic unit. The lower-cased letters indicate the geologic unit's
name or the type of rock of which it is comprised.

Contact and fault lines.

When two geologic units are located next to each other, the place where they meet is called a
contact. The two main types of contacts are depositional contacts and faults.

Depositional contacts are created when geologic units are composed under, over, or next to each
other. The place where they meet is called a depositional contact and is indicated by a thin line.

Faults are cracks or fractures in Earth's crust (outer portion of Earth's surface) caused by the
movement of land masses, called plates, on either side of the fault line. When plates move suddenly, the
result is an earthquake.

A fault line (a thick line with the same geologic unit on both sides of the line) indicates geologic
units that have been moved by faults after they have been formed. Fault lines are especially important for
geologic maps of where faults are known to be active.

FOLDS, FAULTS AND JONT AND THEIR BEARING ON ENGINEERING CONSTRACTION

FOLDS

Is used in geology when one or a stack of originally flat, level surfaces, such as sedimentary rocks, are
bent or curved as a result of pressure and high temperature.

3 types of Folds
Monoclines

is a form of a geological structure with folds in the rock strata which resemble steps. There are two or
more horizontal limbs in this structure which are joined by an inclined short limb.

Anticlines

form when rocks are compressed by plate-tectonic forces. They can be as small as a hill or as large as a
mountain range.

Synclines

is a fold with younger layers closer to the center of the structure.

FAULTS

Is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to
each other. This movement may occur rapidly, in the form of an earthquake or may occur slowly, in the
form of creep. Faults may range in length from a few millimeters to thousands of kilometers.

3 MAIN TYPES OF FAULTS

Normal faults

form when the hanging wall drops down.

Reverse faults

form when the hanging wall moves up.

Trans current or Strike-slip

faults have walls that move sideways, not up or down.

JOINTS

A brittle-fracture surface in rocks along which little or no displacement has occurred. Present in nearly all
surface rocks, joints extend in various directions, generally more toward the vertical than to the
horizontal.

GEOMECHANICS
 - involves the study of the mechanics of soil and rock. The two main disciplines of geomechanics
are soil mechanics and rock mechanics. The former deals with the behaviour of soil from a small scale to
a landslide scale. The latter Rock mechanics determines how a particular rock reacts when it is put to the
use required by mankind for buildings, roads, bridges, dams, tunnels, and other civil engineering uses.

SOIL MECHANICS

-Soil mechanics is a branch of soil physics and applied mechanics that describes the behavior
of soils. It differs from fluid mechanics and solid mechanics in the sense that soils consist of a
heterogeneous mixture of fluids (usually air and water) and particles (usually clay, silt, sand, and gravel)
but soil may also contain organic solids and other matter

ROCK MECHANICS

- Rock mechanics is the theoretical and applied science of the mechanical behaviour of rock. Also
deals with issues in geosciences related to rock mass characterization and rock mass mechanics, such as
applied to petroleum industry or high depths, tunnel design, rock breakage, and rock drilling.[ It is that
branch of mechanics concerned with the response of rock to the force fields of its physical environment.
Rock mechanics is concerned with the application of the principles of engineering mechanics to the
design of structures built in or of rock. The structure could include-but not limited to- a drill hole, a
mining shaft, a tunnel, a reservoir dam, a repository component, or a building. Rock mechanics is used in
many engineering disciplines, but primarily used in Mining, Civil, Geotechnical, Transportation, and
Petroleum Engineering.

It is convenient to subdivide Rock Mechanics into 2 branches

a) Structural rock mechanics, which is concerned with the stability of engineering structures
in which the material is predominantly rock.

b) Comminution, which is concerned with the reduction of rock to small fragments by the
application of external forces as in drilling, blasting, cutting and grinding.

Both these branches of rock mechanics involve the control of rock deformation and fracture
processes.

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF A ROCK

Physical properties of rocks are of interest and utility in many fields of work, including geology,
petrophysics, geophysics, materials science, geochemistry, and geotechnical engineering. The scale of
investigation ranges from the molecular and crystalline up to terrestrial studies of the Earth and other
planetary bodies.

DENSITY

Density varies significantly among different rock types because of differences in mineralogy and
porosity. Knowledge of the distribution of underground rock densities can assist in interpreting
subsurface geologic structure and rock type.

Rock Mechanics

Mechanical properties of rocks

  Those properties of a material that define its behaviour under applied forces are known as
mechanical properties.

 Strength

 Hardness

 Toughness

 Porosity

 Permeability

 Elasticity

 Plasticity

Strength

 The ability or capacity of a material to withstand or support a load without fracture is called
strength.

 A Strength of rock is a function of the confining pressure.

 The strength of rock is defined as the pulling force, required to rupture a rock sample.

Hardness

 The ability of a material to resists scratching abrasion penetration or wear on it known as

hardness or the ability of a material resists plastic deformation.

Toughness

 The ability of a material to withstand shock loading or impact before fracture is known as
toughness.

Porosity

 Is the percentage of void space in a rock.

 Is defined as the ratio of the volume of the voids or pore space divided by the total volume.

 Rocks with rounded grains are usually softer and more cumbly than rocks with interlocking
grains. So, porous rocks tend to be softer than non-porous rocks.

 Common Porous rocks;

 Sandstone

 Limestone

 Clay

Permeability

 The property of rocks that is an indication of the ability for fluid to flow through rocks.

 High permeability will allow fluids to move rapidly through rocks.

 Permeability is affected by the pressure in a rock.

Elasticity of rocks
  The ability of material to regain its original shape and size after the removal of external load is
known as elasticity.

 Is the property of matter that causes it to resists deformation in volume of shape.

Stress

 Is the force applied to an object.

 Stress is equal to the force per unit area.

 S=F/A

 Confining

 Compression

 Tension

 Shear

 Rocks under stress may show strain or deformation.

 Deformation can be

 Elastic strain

 Ductile strain or plastic deformation

 Fracture

Strain

 Is a change in shape or size resulting from applied forces.

 Rocks only strain when placed under stress.

 Strain is equal to ∆Length/Original length

Young’s Modulus

 The tendency of an object to deform along an axis when opposing forces are applied along that
axis.

 Defined as tensile strain or stress/strain.

 Change of shape and size.

Shear Modulus

 An object’s tendency to shear when acted upon by opposing forces.

 Defined as shear stress over shear strain.

 Change of shape but not size.

Bulk Modulus

 The tendency of an object to deform in all direction when uniformly loaded in all directions.

 Defined as Bulk strain or volumetric stress/volumetric strain.

 Change of shape but not in size.

Plasticity

 The ability of a material to withstand permanent deformation without failure is known as

plasticity.

 Plasticity of rocks is a respond of rocks to load beyond the elastic limit.

 Defined as the property which enables a material to be deformed continuously and permanently
without rupture during the application of force.

Determining Dynamic Rock Properties

Typical Rock Properties

Modulus of Deformation – Young’s Modulus - E
Modulus of Rigidity – Shear Modulus – G
Modulus of Volume Expansion – Bulk Modulus - K
Poisson’s Ratio - μ
Bulk Density – ρ
Compressive Strength – σC
Tensile Strength – σT

Rock Properties Referenced to Blasting Actions

Young’s Modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to transmit load
Allows transmission of longitudinal stress from shock wave impact
Bulk Modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to change in volume
Allows transmission of transverse stress resulting from shock wave impact
Poissons’ ratio defines the amount of borehole expansion that can occur under dynamic loading just
before rock/ore failure
Maximum amount of ‘hoop’ stress that can be tolerated before cracks are generated
Compressive strength dictates the level of crushing that will occur at the borehole wall
Tensile strength dictates the level of tensile stress when crack formation will occur
Can have supersonic cracking as well as interstitial cracking

Dynamic or Static
Fragmentation of rock/ore is a dynamic process, not a static one
Rock/ore appears to be much stronger in the dynamic case, than the static one (rule of thumb is to
assume that dynamic such as compressive and tensile strength are twice the values of static properties)
Degree of fit (correlation with measurement properties) is better with dynamic rock/ore parameters
Easier and less expensive getting dynamic rock properties using dynamic loading such as detonating
explosive charges
Rock/ore core strength values do not appear to correlate well with dynamic values
Dynamic properties are preferred in computer models relating the dynamic processes of blasting action
to dynamic properties of the material being blasted

Local or Global
If rock/ore core is used, samples must be obtained that have not been exposed to dynamic process like
blasting operations
Properties that are acquired using static test methods can be considered to be ‘local’ properties since
individual samples taken at one time can define only a small portion of a rock or ore mass – prejudiced in
favour of strength
May be useful in determining rock or ore properties with a small confined blasting area or volume
(typically within one or two burden distance
Using dynamic value testing methods, a complete rock/ore mass can be characterized

Seismic Waves Types

Body waves
body waves arrive before surface waves (high frequency - hertz or cycles/second)
Surface waves
surface waves travel as Raleigh or Love waves along the surface boundary or the earth

Body Waves
P wave
primary wave is the fastest kind of seismic wave – first to arrive
can move through solids or fluids - compressional waveform with particles moving in the same
direction of motion – density change (volume)
S Wave
slower than a P wave can move through solids but not fluids – displacement waveform with particles
moving at right angles to the direction of motion – shape change

Testing Program for Defining Dynamic Rock/Ore Properties

Drill a series of holes for explosive in addition to water-filled monitoring holes – use small charges of fully
coupled explosives in holes having a depth of about 5 m (no fly muck) – use a trigger monitor (time zero)
Instrument the water-filled monitoring holes with pressure sensors in order to check P wave motion as
well as stress attenuation characteristics of rock/ore – observe long duration pressure sensor readings to
indicate gas entry into monitoring boreholes
Install radial and transfer accelerometers in a monitoring hole to sense primary wave and shear wave
components
After test program is completed (in difference zones of rock/ore) evaluate primary wave and shear wave
velocities in order to define dynamic property information
Evaluate stress attenuation characteristics
Determine dynamic tensile strength of rock/ore type in order to work out blasting pattern dimensions

The contents of Determining Dynamic Rock Properties

Shock Wave Travel in Rock/Ore: Dispersion and Impedance Mismatch Contribute to Attenuation
Characteristics in a Rock Mass
Scaling Laws and Geometrical Dispersion of Shock Waves
Stress Wave Attenuation in Rock/Ore Media
No Site Factor Data? What to Do?
Stress in a Rock Mass Due to Ground Vibrations and Seismic Waves
Blast Induced Damage to Rock Masses
Impedance Mismatch and Its Influence on Rock Breakage
Static and Dynamic Rock Properties
Static Test Methodology
Dynamic Test Methodology
Blast Design Considerations
Dynamic Measurements from Production Blasting Operations
Blast Monitoring Methods Using the Unit Charge Model
Production Blasting Measurement Methods
© iRing INC 2018

Types of Wave Theory

Seismic waves
Are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a result
of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma movement, large landslides and large man-
made explosions that give out low-frequency acoustic energy. Many other natural and anthropogenic
sources create low-amplitude waves commonly referred to as ambient vibrations.
Seismic waves are the waves of energy caused by the sudden breaking of rock within the earth .
They are the energy that travels through the earth and is recorded on seismographs, hydrophone (in
water), or accelerometer..
Seismology - is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the
earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves.
Types of Seismic Waves

• Body Waves - Traveling through the interior of the earth, body waves arrive before the
surface waves emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than
surface waves.
• Surface Waves - Travelling only through the crust, surface waves are of a lower
frequency than body waves, and are easily distinguished on a seismogram as a result.
Though they arrive after body waves, it is surface waves that are almost enitrely
responsible for the damage and destruction associated with earthquakes. This damage
and the strength of the surface waves are reduced in deeper earthquakes.

There are two types of body waves: P-waves and S-waves.

o P-waves - The P in P-waves stands for primary, because these are the fastest seismic waves and
are the first to be detected once an earthquake has occurred. P-waves travel through the earth’s
interior many times faster than the speed of a jet airplane, taking only a few minutes to travel
across the earth.

P-waves are predominantly compressional waves. As a P-wave passes, material compresses in the same
direction the wave is moving, and then extends back to its original thickness once the wave has passed. The
speed at which P-waves travel through material is determined by:

• rigidity—how strongly the material resists being bent sideways and is able to straighten itself out
once the shearing force has passed – the more rigid the material, the faster the P-waves
• compressibility—how much the material can be compressed into a smaller volume and then recover
its previous volume once the compressing force has passed; the more compressible the material, the
faster the P-waves
• density—how much mass the material contains in a unit of volume; the greater the density of the
material, the slower the P-waves

P-waves travel through liquids and gases as well as through solids. Although liquids and gases have zero
rigidity, they have compressibility, which enables them to transmit P-waves. Sound waves are P-waves
moving through the air.

o S-waves - The S in S-waves stands for secondary, because they are the second-fastest seismic
waves and the second type to be detected once an earthquake has occurred. Although S-waves are
slower than P-waves, they still travel fast, over half the speed of P-waves, moving at thousands of
kilometers per hour through the earth’s crust and mantle.

S-waves are shear waves (though that is not what the S stands for). They move by material flexing or
deforming sideways (shearing) from the direction of wave travel, and then returning to the original shape
once the wave passes. The speed at which S-waves travel through material is determined only by:

• rigidity — how strongly the material resists being bent sideways and is able to straighten itself out
once the shearing force has passed – the more rigid the material, the faster the S-waves
• density — how much mass the material contains in a unit of volume – the greater the density of the
material, the slower the S-waves

S-waves can travel only through solids, because only solids have rigidity. S-waves cannot travel through
liquids or gases.
There are two types of Surface Waves: Rayleigh waves and Love waves.
o Love waves - The first kind of surface wave is called a Love wave, named after A.E.H. Love, a
British mathematician who worked out the mathematical model for this kind of wave in 1911. It's
the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the surface of the
crust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.
o
o Rayleigh waves - The other kind of surface wave is the Rayleigh wave, named for John William
Strutt, Lord Rayleigh, who mathematically predicted the existence of this kind of wave in 1885. A
Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it
rolls, it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is
moving. Most of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be
much larger than the other waves.

Wave velocity

Wave velocity, distance traversed by a periodic, or cyclic, motion per unit time (in any direction).
Wave velocity in common usage refers to speed, although, properly, velocity implies both speed and
direction. The velocity of a wave is equal to the product of its wavelength and frequency (number of
vibrations per second) and is independent of its intensity.

earthquake: P waves and S waves P and S waves travel through the planet Earth after an earthquake.
Scientists studying the waves produced by earthquakes learned that Earth's core has separate liquid and
solid layers. S waves do not travel through liquid, but P waves do. A simplified diagram shows the S waves
on the left and the P waves on the right, but waves of both types would actually radiate in all directions.

If a point vibrates within a rigid solid, both transverse waves (those with points oscillating at right angles
to the direction of their advance) and longitudinal waves (those with points vibrating the same direction
as their advance) of the same frequency are sent out, and, because the longitudinal waves happen to have
longer wavelengths, they will move faster. Thus, seismic waves, being composed of both longitudinal
waves (P, primary) and transverse waves (S, secondary), move with two velocities through the Earth.

Longitudinal waves, such as sound, are transmitted through media with velocities depending on the
density and elasticity of the substance. Sound has a velocity of about 0.33 km per second (0.2 mile per
second) in air, 1.5 km per second in water, and 5 km per second in steel. All sound waves travel with the
same speed in air regardless of their frequency. The velocity of light in vacuo is also independent of
frequency; in a transparent medium, however, the velocity of light depends on the effect of dispersion in
the material, varying slightly more than 1 percent from blue to red.

The "velocity" of a wave is a more subtle concept. In fact, there are several kinds of wave velocities, the
most common of which are group velocity and phase velocity. Group velocity is the speed of energy
and information propagation and, for an electromagnetic wave, must be less than the speed of light c.
However, the velocity at which the phase of the wave travels can be greater than the group velocity.
The relationship between the two is called the dispersion relationship.

Phase velocity is defined as the velocity of a single wave. When one or more waves superimpose together
and results in a new wave, the individual velocities add up and the resulting final velocity of the resultant
wave is called group velocity.

Mathematically, phase velocity is the ratio of angular frequency to wave vector and group velocity is the
ratio of change in angular frequency to change in wave vector.

Phase velocity and Group velocity are two very important concepts in physics. They play a vital role in
fields such as wave mechanics, optics, quantum mechanics and even sound engineering.

• The group velocity is the velocity of the wave with lower frequency, but the phase velocity is the velocity
of the wave with higher frequency.

Phase velocity

The resulting wave may be a perturbation that acts over a short distance, i.e. a wave packet. This wave
packet can be considered to be a superposition of a number of harmonic waves, in other words a Fourier
series or integral.
A one-dimensional harmonic wave (Figure 1). This is a monochromatic wave (one frequency). There are
no strictly monochromatic waves in nature. For example, the generating source of the wave may move
slightly, introducing spurious frequencies.

From the point of view of sending information, these waves are not useful. They are the same throughout
time and space. Something must therefore be modulated, such as frequency or amplitude, in order to
convey information. The resulting wave may be a perturbation that acts over a short distance, i.e. a wave
packet. This wave packet can be considered to be a superposition of a number of harmonic waves, in
other words a Fourier series or integral.

Group Velocity

The envelope (the green line) is given by u1 and travels at the group velocity. The carrier wave (the blue
line) travels at the phase velocity and is given by u2.

The wave packet moves at the group velocity. It is the envelope which carries information. Group velocity
and phase velocity are not necessarily the same.

In order to convey information, something more than a simple harmonic wave is needed. However, the
superposition of many such waves of varying frequencies can result in an "envelope" wave and a carrier
wave within the envelope. The envelope can transmit data. A simple example is the superposition of two
harmonic waves with frequencies that are very close (w1 ~ w2) and of the same amplitude.

Dispersion is when the distinct phase velocities of the components of the envelope cause the wave
packet to "spread out" over time. The components of the wave packet (or envelope) move apart to the
degree where they no longer combine to complete the envelope.

Static and Dynamic Moduli Elasticity

Modulus of Elasticity – is a material property that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of the most
important properties of solid materials.
Stress – refers to the cause of a deformation.

Types of Stress

• Tensile Stress – occurs when equal and opposite forces are directed away from each other.
• Compressive Stress – occurs when equal and opposite forces are directed toward each other

Strain – refers to the effect of deformation.

Determination of Elasticity

The method that have been used to measure modulus of elasticity are following: tension (or
compression) test, bending test and natural frequency vibration test.

The static method is based on pulling or bending a sample of the material in an instrument which
measures force and measuring the changes of the length. The tension and bending test are based on the
principle of Hooke’s law and they are called static methods.

Hooke’s Law - a law stating that the strain in a solid is proportional to the applied stress within the elastic
limit of that solid.
Robert Hooke (1660) – an English scientist who discovered the law of elasticity.

Extensometers - an instrument for measuring the deformation of a material under stress.

Wellbore stability - requires a proper balance between production. It requires a proper balance between
the uncontrollable factors of earth stresses, rock strength, and pore pressure.

In-situ stress - is the natural, local stress within a rock mass formation. In-situ stress defines the quantity
and direction of compression that is being applied to a rock at a specific location.

❖ Dynamics modulus of elasticity

Dynamic modulus - (sometimes called complex modulus) is the ratio of stress to strain under vibratory
conditions (calculated from data obtained from either free or forced vibration tests, in shear, compression,
or elongation). It is a property of viscoelastic materials.

Viscoelasticity - is studied using dynamic mechanical analysis where an oscillatory force (stress) is applied
to a material and the resulting displacement (strain) is measured.

Dynamic modulus of elasticity - is determined by either pulse technique or forced resonant frequency
technique. It is generally 20, 30, and 40% higher than the static modulus of elasticity for high, medium, and
low strength concrete respectively.
 • The dynamic moduli of rocks, such as Young's modulus (E) and Poisson's ratio (µ) were
determined, using both mechanical resonance frequency and classic P and S wave ultrasonic
velocity techniques.
• ASTM-C215 or Resonant Frequency - (A Standard Test Method for Fundamental Transverse,
Longitudinal, and Torsional Resonant Frequencies of Concrete Specimens) is a test that allows
the determination of Ed.
• Ed – is known to be different (higher) from that obtained by direct static testing of a cylinder drawn
from the structure.

Resonance Frequency test allows us to determine:

➢ Dynamic elastic properties:

• Modulus of elasticity - used to express the deformability of rocks is very important for
the design of structures. This is determined either by static and/or dynamic methods.
• Poisson Ratio (µ) - the absolute value of the ratio of transverse strain to the
corresponding axial strain resulting from uniformly distributed axial stress below the
proportional limit of the material.
• Shear modulus (G) - or modulus of rigidity is defined as shear stress over shear strain.
The shear modulus is part of the derivation of viscosity.
➢ Monitoring damage as a result of exposure to accelerated weather.
➢ Quality Control of manufactured products.

Resonance frequency meter

Features:

• LCD 7" Touch screen integrated monitor

• Integrated PC card
• Software utility for positioning of measuring and impact points
• Automatic measurement of resonance frequencies values
• Display of harmonic frequencies
• Storage of data on USB memory
• RES - Lab software included
Measuring Principle

• Longitudinal mode & Transverse Mode (Modulus of Elasticity = E𝑫)

• Torsional Mode (Modulus of Rigidity = G𝑫)

1. An acoustic vibrator is positioned on one side of the specimen.

2. An accelerometer is mounted on another side.
3. A generator drives the acoustic vibrator at a given frequency.
4. The vibration of the specimen is measured by the accelerometer.
5. The frequency of the acoustic vibrator is varied continuously.
6. The corresponding amplitude of specimen vibration is monitored.
7. When the specimen is driven at its resonant frequency fr – the amplitude of specimen vibration
is at its maximum.

CALCULATION Of Ed:

W Weight of specimen (kg)

fLr Longitudinal frequency (Hz)
Dcylinder 519.4x10-5 L/d 2 (sec 2/cm2)
Dprism 408x10-5 L/bt (sec 2/cm2)
L Length of specimen in cm
B,t Dimensions of cross section of prism in cm

GROUTING

GROUT is generally a mixture of cement, sand and water or chemical used to fill gaps. They are used in
the repair of concrete cracks, fill seams and gaps in tiles, seal and fill gaps for waterproofing, and for soil
stabilization. It is also used for giving extra strength to the foundations of load-bearing structures. Grouts
are used in a variety of application such as repair of cracks, water – stopping in submerged structures
such as canals, tunnels, etc., fill seams between tiles, and for stabilizing soil. Here we have briefed about
types of grouts used in the repair of cracks.

TYPES OF GROUT:
1. Cementitious Grout

Cement grouting is also known as slurry grouting or hydraulic cement grouting. Cementitious grout is
used to seal wide cracks particularly in gravity dams, canal linings, foundations and thick concrete walls
and also used for enhancing extra strength to machine foundations, base plate or anchor bolts for
machines or equipment and others. It is divided into the following class depending upon the size of
particles:

• Ordinary Portland Cement Grout: This is the most common type of grout used for repair of concrete
cracks. Wider cracks can fill up using OPC grout as they have the particulate size of 15 microns.

• Microfine Cement Grout: It is finely ground slag, fine fly ash, or Portland cement that are all mixed with
water for allowing penetration into the fine cracks. Silica flume or any other fine pozzolana can be used
with microfine. The particulate size of microfine cement grout ranges from 6 to 10 microns.

• Ultrafine Cement Grout: They are used for sealing very fine to hairline cracks. They have particles of size
3 to 5 micron.

2. Chemical Grout

Chemical grouts consist of polymers such as acrylic, polyurethane, sodium silicate, epoxy or any other
suitable polymer. Chemical grouts are an emulsion of water and liquid resin. Chemical grouting requires
injection of specially formulated chemical grouts into finer cracks that cannot be possible by cement
grouts. They can be applied in moist environments and can fill very fine cracks.

3. Polyester Based Grout:

Polyester grout is used for anchoring to impart strength to foundations that must be achieved in limited
available space. It can also be made to have special characteristics such as fast setting, free flow, no-shrink
and others by an addition of different additives as per the end-user requirement.

4. Non-Shrink Grout:

Non-shrink grout is useful for sealing of cracks where shrinkage cracking is anticipated. Such grouts are
specially formulated and have a special blend of cement, aggregates, and other additives to compensate
for possible shrinkage, flowability and setting time considerations. Non-shrink grouts are also used for
connecting precast concrete sections.

GROUTING METHODS:

1. Permeation Grouting consists of injecting grout under controlled, low pressure in order to permeate
the strata without causing fracturing. It can be applied in both soil and rock. Cement grouts are typically
used to treat the bedrock beneath dams. Fractures and joints in the rock can be easily sealed; reducing the
overall permeability of the rock formation. This mitigates potential seepage related issues and increases
the dam’s overall longevity. Chemical grouts are typically used to treat and stabilize granular soils for
tunnel and sewer construction and for excavation support. In locations where loose soils are a concern,
the soil can be stabilized prior to tunneling and or excavation. We have performed permeation grouting
on sewer installation projects and for numerous dam foundation grouting projects.
2. Jet Grouting creates in-situ columns of grouted soil using very high pressure grout injection. Grouting
is performed by pumping high velocity jets of grout (or sometimes grout and air or grout, water and air)
through the side of a grout monitor, attached at the end of the drill string. The jets erode and mix the soil
as the drill string and the monitor are being rotated and withdrawn. The jet grouting process constructs
jet grout panels, full columns or anything in between (partial columns) with designed strength and
permeability. Jet Grout column size is dependent on soil type, soil density, injection pressures and flow
rates of the various fluids employed, rotation speed, lift rate and type of system used.

 Single fluid jet grouting - The single fluid system is the simplest. This simplicity is due to exclusive
reliance on the high velocity of Jetstream to cut, remove and mix the in-situ soil.

 Double fluid jet grouting - The double fluid system is the simultaneously injection of high velocity
grout stream within a cone of compressed air. The double fluid system is capable of creating a larger
column than the single fluid system.

 Triple fluid jet grouting - The triple fluid system is the most complicated jet grouting system due to
the simultaneous injection of three different fluids, air, water, and grout. The triple fluid system can
create the largest diameter of column among the three types.

3. Compensation Grouting, sometimes referred to as fracture grouting, involves the injection of grout to
intentionally fracture the ground, creating “grout lenses” to displace the surrounding soil in order to
provide controlled heave of soils and structures. It is commonly used to protect buildings by mitigating
settlement caused by tunneling operations. Sleeve port pipes (tube-a-manchettes), containing rubber
sleeves over pre-drilled holes, or ports, for injection, are installed to facilitate compensation grouting. An
array of sleeve port pipes are used to ensure complete coverage and control, in the area requiring
treatment, is achieved. Multiple injections are performed through the sleeve port pipes, at discrete
locations, in order to treat the area. A surface monitoring program is required in order to monitor and
provide early detection of surface movements so that the compensation grouting program can be
initiated, controlled, and directed.

4. Compaction grouting is typically performed in loose or weak soils to mitigate settlements and is also
used for sinkhole remediation. Compaction grouting involves the injection of a very stiff, mortar like,
cementitious grout into soil to densify or compact the soil under high pressure. When injected, the grout
will not permeate the surrounding soils, but instead form “grout bulbs” that laterally displace the soil. By
repeating the process in adjacent holes the soil between the holes is densified through the lateral
displacement.

5. Chemical grouting can be used to stabilize soils for tunneling, control water seepage, and provide
excavation support. Chemical grout is injected under pressure in order to permeate soils and create a
homogeneous mass with increased strength and reduced permeability. In many applications, a sleeve
port pipe (tube-a-manchette), containing rubber sleeves over pre-drilled holes, or ports, for injection, is
installed into a drilled hole. This allows the chemical grout to be injected at discrete locations along the
sleeve port pipe. The rubber sleeves are equally spaced and permit multiple grout injections through the
same sleeve. The more commonly used chemical grouts include polyurethane, epoxy, sodium silicate and
acrylamide/acrylate.

6. Hot Bitumen Grouting is a special type of grouting where melted bitumen is used as grouting
material. Hot-Bitumen grouting is often used to cut off high magnitude, subterranean water inflows. The
major feature of hot bitumen grout is its temperature dependent viscosity. The bitumen is first preheated
up to approximately 200° Celsius. At this temperature, the grout has a dynamic viscosity in the range of
15 to 100 cp, which is only slightly greater than water at room temperature. Unlike the least viscous
chemical resin grouts or the stiffest cement-based mortar grouts, which each have curing processes that
are time-dependent, hot bitumen's curing is thermally driven. When hot bitumen is injected into medium
saturated with water, it cools quickly at the interface, and turns from its fluid state to a highly viscous,
tenaciously sticky, elasto-plastic state. Eventually, after enough hot bitumen is injected, the aperture
through which the inflow passes becomes plugged. Hot bitumen grout is often used in conjunction with
cement based suspension grout, in order to reduce grout spread, to make bitumen less creep susceptible,
and to increase the mechanical strength of the end product. There are many types of bitumen with wide
range of characteristics, but the desirable type for use in grouting, is a “hard” oxidized environmentally
friendly type of bitumen with a high solidification point.

REFERENCES

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