UNIVERSITY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY,

PESHAWAR

STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY (LAB)

(COURSE CODE MinE_204L)

NAME: MUGHEERA AYAZ

REG.NO: 20PWMIN0871

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR.TALAT BILAL

DEPARTMENT OF MINING ENGINEERING,

PESHAWAR
TABLE OF CONTENTS
1 Practical no 1 ......................................................................................................3
Title: Introduction to Structure Geology...............................................................3
2 Practical No 2 ...................................................................................................10
Title: To study different Geological Models ........................................................10
3 Practical No 3 ...................................................................................................12
Title: Elements of Structure Geology...................................................................12
4 practical No 4 ...................................................................................................19
Title: Fold and its Classification ...........................................................................19
5 Practical No 5 ...................................................................................................29
Title: Faults .............................................................................................................29
6 Practical no 6 ....................................................................................................37
Title: Unconformities .............................................................................................37
7 Practical No 7 ...................................................................................................40
Title: Joints terminology and its cassifiacation. ..................................................40
8 practical no 8 ....................................................................................................46
title: introduction to stereonet and how to draw plane of stereonet .................46
9 Practical No 9 ...................................................................................................50
Title: Introduction to Brunton compass. .............................................................50

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 PRACTICAL NO 1
TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURE GEOLOGY
1.1 AIM:
 To become familiar with geology and geology structure
 To know about structure which we will discuss in Structure Geology

1.2 THEORY:

1.3 GEOLOGY:
Geology is the science which is devoted to the study of earth. It deals with all of
the earth's surface and with the origin, composition, structure and inhabitants of the
earth

1.4 BRANCH OF GEOLOGY:

There are many branch of Geology some of them
are discuss below

1.4.1 PHYSICAL GEOLOGY (GEOPHYSICS):

It is concerned with the physical
processes and physical properties of the Earth and its surrounding space
environment, and the use of quantitative methods for their analysis.

1.4.2 STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY:

The study of the three-dimensional distribution of
rock units with respect to their deformational histories.

1.4.3 STRATIGRAPHY:
It is the studies rock layers (strats) and layering
(stratification). It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered
volcanic rocks.

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1.5 ROCK STRUCTURES:
The rocks have specific geometry and arrangement and
that features of rock constitutes its structure. The rock structure develops either at
the time of formation or after that due to some events or accidents. So, the rock
structure depends upon:

 The Formation processes

 The condition and
 Environment.
 Tectonic forces.

1.6 TYPES OF STRUCTURE GEOLOGY:

There are two types of structure in the Structure geology

 Primary Structure
 Secondary Structure
1.6.1 PRIMARY STRUCTURE:
Those structure which develop at the time of
formation of the rocks (e.g. sedimentary structures, some volcanic structure etc.).

Most of structural geology deals with structures that developed in rocks when they
were deformed by tectonic processes. However, in describing structures, it‟s
common to find structures that were developed while the rocks were forming.
These are called primary structures.

1.7 PRIMARY STRUCTURE IN SEDIMENTARY ROCK:

In sedimentary rocks,
primary structures are all-important clues to the environment of formation. The
study of sedimentary structures is a main focus of courses in sedimentology. Here
we will make a survey the most important sedimentary structures with an emphasis
on the ones most useful to structural geology. sedimentary rock are given below:

1.7.1 Bedding:
The layers formed in sedimentary and as well some metamorphic
rocks are called beds and the process is called bedding. The beds are formed when

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different layers of the sediments are deposited over one another. The deposition of
one sediment on another create a plane that is called a bedding plane

1.7.2 Ripple marks:

This structure is mostly found in the sedimentary rocks. Ripple marks are
ridges of sediment that form in response to wind blowing along a layer of
sediment. They are formed either by wind or water. The ripple formed by
water waves tells us about the rock formation. Different types of ripple
marks are symmetrical and asymmetrical.

1.7.3 Sole Markings

Sole marks are the primary structure that
are generated when the sediments are
deposited on a muddy substance. There
are different types of sole markings that

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 are groove casts, flute casts load structure .

1.7.4 Mud cracks:

These are formed by shrinkage of mud as it dries out. They are
visible when they are filled by different sediments. They thin downwards to a point
and they indicate a way. When the water present in the rock get evaporates, it
become dried and cracks or marks are formed

1.8 PRIMARY STRUCTURES IN IGNEOUS ROCKS

1.8.1 Intrusions
Intrusions by their nature do not typically show stratification, and cannot
usually be used to determine tilting or way-up. However, in unravelling the
structural history of a complex region, it is important to know the relative
timing of intrusions, and this is where contact relationships are all-important.

1.8.2 EXOCONTACT:
These features are formed in the host rock (also known
as country rock) by the effect of an intrusion. A metamorphic aureole (baked
zone) is often recognizable from changes in texture or mineralogy. There
may be minor intrusions where magma has filled cracks branching off the
main intrusion. These are called dykes (dikes in the US) unless they are
parallel to strata in the host rock, in which case they are sills.

1.8.3 ENDOCONTACT:
These features are formed within an intrusion, where it
comes in contact with the host rock. A chill zone is typically finer-grained
than the bulk of the intrusion. Xenoliths are pieces of host rock that broke
off and are surrounded by the intrusion

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1.9 SECONDARY STRUCTURE:
A secondary structure is, "any structure formed in
response to an applied stress that results from plate movement." Therefore, these
structures are tectonic, as they develop after lithification of sedimentary and
igneous rock, and after crystallization of metamorphic rock. Examples of
secondary structures include faults, folds, lineations, cleavage, and shear zones

1.9.1 Types of secondary geologic structures:

 Folds, which are a form of ductile deformation,
 Fractures, represented by faults and joints which generally result from the
brittle behaviour of rocks in response to stress.

1.9.1.1 Folds:
Folds are bends or flexures in the earth's crust, and can
therefore be identified by a change in the amount and/or direction of dip of rock
units. Most folds result from the ductile deformation of rocks when subjected to
compressional or shear stress. In order to understand and classify folds, we must
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study their forms and shapes, and be able to describe them. The following
definitions are therefore essential for the description of a fold:

1.9.1.2 Faults:
A fault is a fracture in the earth's rock units along which
there has been an observable amount of movement and displacement. Unlike folds
which form predominantly by compressional stress, faults result from either
tension, compression or shear

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 1.9.1.3 Joints:
Joints are fractures in the rocks characterized by no
movement along their surfaces. Although most joints are secondary structures,
some are primary, forming at the time of formation of the rocks.

1.10 UNCONFORMITIES:
Unconformity is a break in the geologic record
represented by an erosion surface separating younger strata from older rocks.

1.10.1 Factors affecting how a rock deforms:

1. Depth: Litho static pressure + heat
2. Time
3. Composition
4. Fluids

1.11 MEASURING GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURES:

1. Strike: (direction)
2. Dip: (direction & angle)

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 PRACTICAL NO 2
TITLE: TO STUDY DIFFERENT GEOLOGICAL MODELS
1.12 AIM:
 The aim of this lab is to get familiar with the different geological models

1.13 THEORY:
1.13.1 Structure Geology:
Structural geology is a sub discipline of geology that
studies how rocks deform in response to the stresses that act within the Earth.
Rocks and their forming minerals accommodate
the stresses acting upon them and keep a record
thereof by developing at times truly spectacular
geological structures, such as fractures, faults or
folds

Structural geology is the study of the three-

dimensional distribution of rock units with
respect to their deformational histories is called
structure geology.

1.13.2 Importance:
The study of structural geology has a primary importance
in economic geology, both petroleum geology and mining geology. The main
target of structural geology is to use measurements to understand the stress field
that resulted in the observed strain and geometries. We can also understand the
structural evolution of a particular area due to plate tectonics (e.g. mountain
building, rifting).

An essential importance of structural geology is to know areas that contain folds

and faults because they can form traps in which the accumulation and
concentration of fluids such as oil and natural gas occur.
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1.13.3 The Aim of Structure Geology:
The analysis of geological structures is
aimed at understanding why, how and when the Earth deformed. By means of
structural investigations it is possible to constrain the mechanical laws that control
how deformation is taken up by geological materials and to reconstruct the
evolution of mountain chains in space and through geological time.

1.13.4 Basic Branches:

The study of structural geology can be divided into three
parts which are strongly integrated and interlinked:

 The concepts of stress, strain and rheology of the lithosphere

 Description of structures from the grain scale over the outcrop scale to the
mountain and tectonic scale.
 Interpretation of geological maps and identifying the structures on them such
as folds and faults.

1.14 TECTONICS:
Tectonics are the processes that control the structure and
properties of the Earth's crust and its evolution through time.

The theory of plate tectonics states that the Earth's solid outer crust, the
lithosphere, is separated into plates that move over the asthenosphere, the molten
upper portion of the mantle. Oceanic and continental plates come together, spread
apart, and interact at boundaries all over the planet.

1.14.1 How many plates?

There are nine major plates, according to World Atlas. These plates are named
after the landforms found on them. The nine major plates are North American,
Pacific, Eurasian, African, Indo-Australian, Australian, Indian, South American
and Antarctic.

The largest plate is the Pacific Plate at 39,768,522 square miles (103,000,000
square kilometers). Most of it is located under the ocean. It is moving northwest at
a speed of around 2.75 inches (7 cm) per year.

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 PRACTICAL NO 3
TITLE: ELEMENTS OF STRUCTURE GEOLOGY
1.15 AIM:
The aim of this lab report is to known about the Element of structure Geology and
their uses and function

1.16 THEORY:
1.16.1 Formation:
Geological structures are formed by powerful tectonic forces
that occur within earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and
build mountains. The formation word refers to the formation of primary and
secondary rocks and formation of different geological structures due to tectonic
forces.

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1.16.2 Member:
In geology, a “Member” is a group of horizons and beds that can
be united together as they share common characteristics and features that help to
distinguish this group from the surrounding rocks. The strata have distinct
lithographic characteristics

In areas where detailed geological information is needed (for example, within a

mining or petroleum district) a formation might be divided into members, where
each member has a specific and distinctive lithology. The formation that includes
both shale and sandstone might be divided into members, each of which is either
shale or sandstone. In some areas, where particular detail is needed, members may
be divided into beds, but this is only applicable to beds that have a special
geological significance. Groups, formations, and members are typically named for
the area where they are found.

1.16.3 Contact:
A geological contact is a boundary which separates one rock body from another. A
contact can be formed during deposition, by the intrusion of magma, or
through faulting or other deformation of rock beds that brings distinct rock bodies
into contact.

The geologic sub-discipline of stratigraphy is primarily concerned with

depositional contacts, while faults and shear zones are of particular interest
in structural geology. Faults and shear zones can be regarded as a form of
secondary structure in the rock beds.

1.16.4 TYPES OF CONTACT:

 DEPOSITIONAL
 Conformable
 Non-conformable
 INTRUSIVE
 FAULT

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1.16.5 Foliation:
Foliation in geology refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic
rocks. Each layer can be as thin as a sheet of paper, or over a meter in thickness.
The word comes from the Latin folium, meaning "leaf", and refers to the sheet-like
planar structure. It is caused by shearing forces, or differential pressure. The
layer‟s form parallel to the direction of the shear, or perpendicular to the direction
of higher pressure. Nonaffiliated metamorphic rocks are typically formed in the
absence of significant differential pressure or shear. Foliation is common in rocks
affected by the regional metamorphic compression typical of areas of mountain
belt formation

1.16.6 Deformation:
“Deformation is the transformation from an initial to a final
geometry by means of rigid body translation, rigid body rotation, strain (distortion)
and/or volume change”

The term deformation is, like several other structural geology terms, used in
different ways by different people and under different circumstances. In most
cases, particularly in the field, the term refers to the distortion (strain) that is
expressed in a (deformed) rock.

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1.17 TRANSLATION DEFORMATION:
Translation moves every particle in the rock
in the same direction and the same distance, and its displacement field consists of
parallel vectors of equal length. Translations can be considerable, for instance
where thrust nappes (detached slices of rocks) have been transported several tens
or hundreds of kilometers.

1.17.1 DIFFERENT TERMS RELATED TO DIP:

DIP DIRECTION: The dip direction is the azimuth of the direction the dip as
projected to the horizontal (like the trend of a linear feature in trend and
plunge measurements), which is 90° off the strike angle

DIP ANGLE: The dip angle, (for inclination), is the angle that the total field
vector makes with respect to the horizontal plane and is positive for vectors
below the plane.

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1.17.2 Types of Dip:
APPARENT DIP: Apparent dip is the inclination of geologic beds as seen
from any vertical cross section not perpendicular to the strike of the geologic
beds

TRUE DIP: When a vertical cross-section is perpendicular to the strike of the

beds, the inclination seen in the cross section is called the true dip.

1.17.3 Strike:
Strike, in geology, direction of the line formed by the intersection of
a fault, bed, or other planar feature and a horizontal plane.

1.18 TREND:
Trend is the direction of the line formed by the intersection of the
planar feature with the ground surface; trend is the same as strike only if the
ground surface is parallel to the horizontal plane

1.19 PLUNGE:
Plunge is the vertical angle between the horizontal plane and the
axis or line of maximum elongation of a feature. Plunge is measured along the axis
of a fold, whereas dip is measured along the limbs.

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1.20 FOLD:
fold is a stack of originally planar surfaces, such as sedimentary strata,
that are bent or curved during permanent deformation. Fold, in geology, undulation
or waves in the stratified rocks of Earth's crust. Stratified rocks were originally
formed from sediments that were deposited in flat horizontal sheets, but in a
number of places the strata are no longer horizontal but have been warped

1.21 FAULT:
A fault is a fracture or zone of fractures between two blocks of

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rock. Faults allow the blocks to move relative to each other.

Parts of Fault: The main components of a fault are

 The fault plane,

 The fault trace,
 The hanging wall, and
 The footwall.

1.22 JOINTS:
Joint, in geology, a brittle-fracture surface in rocks along which little
or no displacement has occurred. Present in nearly all surface rocks, joints extend
in various directions, generally more toward the vertical than to the horizontal.

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 PRACTICAL NO 4

TITLE: FOLD AND ITS CLASSIFICATION

1.23 AIM
 To know about fold and various agencies which cause them
 To know about different types of folds

1.24 ROCKS
Rock are the aggregate of minerals. Rocks are usually grouped into
three main groups: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and
sedimentary rocks. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of
its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the
asthenosphere.

1.25 STRUCTURE OF ROCKS

Structures may be divided into two broad classes: the primary structures that were
acquired in the genesis of a rock mass and the secondary structures that result from
later deformation of the primary structures. Most layered rocks (sedimentary rocks,
some lava flows, and pyroclastic deposits) were deposited initially as nearly
horizontal layers. Rocks that were initially horizontal may be deformed later
by folding and may be displaced along fractures. If displacement has occurred and
the rocks on the two sides of the fracture have moved in opposite directions from
each other, the fracture is termed a fault; if displacement has not occurred, the
fracture is called a joint. It is clear that faults and joints are secondary structures;
i.e., their relative age is younger than the rocks that they intersect, but their age
may be only slightly younger. Many joints in igneous rocks, for example, were
produced by contraction when the rocks cooled temperatures and pressures in
deeper crustal levels

1.26 TYPES OF GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES:

 Primary structures: those which develop at the time of formation of the
rocks (e.g. sedimentary structures, some volcanic structure.etc.).

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  SECONDARY STRUCTURES: which are those that develop in rocks after their
formation as a result of their subjection to external forces.

1.27 SECONDARY STRUCTURES

A secondary structure is, "any structure formed in
response to an applied stress that results from plate movement." Therefore, these
structures are tectonic, as they develop after lithification of sedimentary and
igneous rock, and after crystallization of metamorphic rock. Examples of
secondary structures include faults, folds, lineations, cleavage, and shear zones

1.28 TYPES OF SECONDARY GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES:

 Folds, which are a form of ductile deformation,
 Fractures, represented by faults and joints which generally result from the
brittle behaviour of rocks in response to stress.

1.28.1 Folds:
Folds are bends or
flexures in the earth's crust, and can
therefore be identified by a change
in the amount and/or direction of
dip of rock units. Most folds result
from the ductile deformation of
rocks when subjected to
compressional or shear stress. In
order to understand and classify folds, we must study their forms and shapes, and
be able to describe them. The following definitions are therefore essential for the
description of a fold

1.28.2 HINGE LINE:

Is the line of maximum curvature on a folded surface. The
hinge line almost always coincides with the axis of the fold defined as a line lying
in the plane that bisects a fold into two equal parts.

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1.28.3 Axial Plane:
The axial plane is an imaginary plane dividing the fold into
two equal parts known as limbs. It is therefore the plane which includes all hinge
lines for different beds affected by the same fold.

1.28.4 Crest:
The crest of a fold can be considered the highest point on a folded surface.

1.28.5 Trough:
The trough is the lowest point on a folded surface.

1.28.6 Interlinb Angle:

The interlimb angle: Is the angle between two limbs of the
same fold. It is measured in a plane perpendicular to that of the fold axis.

1.28.7 Angle of Plunge:

The angle of plunge of a fold is the angle between the fold axis and the horizontal
plane, measured in a vertical plane.

1.28.8 Direction of plunge:

The direction of plunge of a fold is the direction in
which the fold axis dips into the ground from the horizontal plane.

1.28.9 The median surface:

The surface that passes through points where the fold
limb changes its curvature from concave to convex.

1.28.10 Amplitude:
The amplitude of a fold: is the vertical distance between
the median surface and the fold hinge, both taken on the same surface of the same
folded unit.

1.28.11 Wavelength:
The wavelength of a fold system is the distance between
two consecutive crests or troughs taken on the same folded surface.

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1.29 CLASSIFICATION OF FOLD:
Folds are classified on different basis. Some of which are:

 Symmetrical character
 Upward or downward bend
 Occurrence of plunge
 Uniformity of bed thickness
 Behavior of fold with depth
 Miscellaneous folds

1.29.1 Symmetrical
On the basic of symmetrical fold is divided into

 Symmetrical fold
 Asymmetrical fold
 Overturned fold

1.29.1.1 Symmetrical Fold:

When the axial plane is vertical, and the
two limbs have the same amount of dip. Figure shows symmetrical fold

1.29.1.2 Asymmetrical Fold:

When the axial plane is inclined and the
limbs dip at different angles and in opposite direction.

1.29.1.3 Overturned Fold:

It has inclined axial plane with both the
limbs dipping in the same general direction usually at different angles.
Over folding indicates very severe degree of folding
One of the two limbs suffered a rotation through more than 90 degrees

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 1.29.1.4 Upward or Downward Bend:
Based on upward or downward bend; folds are:

a. Anticline

b. Syncline

1.29.1.5 Anticline:
When the beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is
called anticline. This fold is convex upwards. the limbs of anticline slope in
opposite directions with reference to its axial plane.

1.29.1.6 SYNCLINE:
When the beds are bent downwards the resulting
fold is called syncline. This fold is convex downwards. Its limbs dip towards
each other with reference to the axial plane.

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1.30 OCCURRENCE OF PLUNGE:
Based upon occurrence of plunge folds are classified as:

a. Plunging fold

b. Non-Plunging Fold

1.30.1 Plunging Fold:

 Any fold in which fold axis is NOT HORIZONTAL, i.e. it makes an angle
with the horizontal, or the top of axial plane is dipping in vertical plane
 The inclination of the fold axis with the horizontal is called plunge of the
fold.
 The strike lines in geological map for plunging fold will be converging or
diverging but not parallel

1.30.2 Non-Plunging Fold:

When the axis of the fold is horizontal and makes no
angle with the horizontal plane then it is known as non-plunging fold. In
geological map for non-plunging fold the strike lines will be parallel

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1.31 UNIFORMITY OF BED THICKNESS:
Depending on the intensity of
deformation, the beds of the fold may or may not have uniform thickness. These
folds are:

 Open Fold
 Close Fold

1.31.1 Open Fold :

 A fold, in which the limbs are folded in such a way that the thickness of
the limbs remains the same throughout the Fold, is called an open fold
 An Open fold indicates the strength of the beds (or limbs) which could
not be compressed into unequal thicknesses by the stresses, which are
responsible for the cause for the fold

1.31.2 Close Fold:

 A fold, in which the limbs are folded in such a way that the thickness of the
limbs is more at the crests and trough i.e. at anticline and syncline than that
between the crests and troughs, is called a closed fold
 Presence of an open fold indicates the strength of the bed rocks whereas the
presence of a closed fold indicates the weakness of the bed rocks.

1.32 BEHAVIOR OF FOLD WITH DEPTH:

Based on whether the shape of folds
remain the same or altered with depth, folds are grouped as:

 Similar fold
 Parallel fold

1.32.1 Similar fold

 Folds in which the layer thickness, measured parallel to the axial surface, is
constant
 Similar folds tend to have persistent profiles, that is, all adjacent layers
repeat the folded outline including wavelength, symmetry and general shape
of a given layer: the strata are bent into similar curves.

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1.32.2 Parallel fold:
A fold is parallel if the layer thickness, measured normal to
the bed, is constant all around the fold

 In other words, the layer boundaries are parallel curves

 The folded layers are parallel and the curvature is greatest at the center
reduces upwards in case of up-fold and downwards in case of down-fold.
 There are two types of parallel folds:

Rounded forms have smoothly curved limbs and broad hinges.

Angular forms have straight limbs and narrow hinge zones

1.33 MISCELLANEOUS FOLDS:

 Monoclinal Fold
 Isoclinal fold
 Overturned fold
 Recumbent fold
 Chevron fold
 Fan fold

1.33.1 Monoclonal Fold:

A fold, in which the limbs are folded locally in a single
bend or curvature which lies at different levels and opposite side of the bend,
is called a 26onoclonal fold

1.33.2 Isoclinal fold:

This type of folds shows parallel limbs which dip at the same
angle and in the same direction

1.33.3 Overturned fold:

Folds with inclined axial planes in which both the limbs
are dipping essentially in the same general direction. The amount of dip of
the two limbs may or may not be the same.

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1.33.4 Recumbent fold:
These may be described as extreme types of overturned
folds in which the axial plane acquires an almost horizontal attitude.

In such folds, one limb comes to lie exactly under the other limb

1.33.5 Chevron fold:

 Those folds in which the anticlinal and synclinal axis are sharp and angular
are called chevron folds
 These are characterized with well-defined, sharp hinge points and straight
planar limbs

1.33.6 Fan fold:

The folds in which the limbs of anticline dip towards each other
with reference to their axial plane and the limbs of syncline dip away from
each other with reference to their axial plane

1.34 MECHANISM OF FOLDING:

A force or stress leads to deformation of rock
layers. These rock layers tend to balance the deformation by folding of
layers with conservation of volume in the rock mass. The process or
mechanism to form fold by applied force or stress depends on the how layers
respond, actively or passively. This deformation of folds occurs in different
ways as given below:

 Flexural folds
 Flow folds
 Buckling
 Bending

1.34.1 Flexure Folds:

Flexural folds form when layers slip as stratified rocks are
bent. This results in the layers maintaining their thickness as they bend and
slide over one another. These are generally formed due to compressional
stresses acting; from either side

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1.34.2 FLOW FOLDS:
Flow folds form when rocks are very ductile and flow like a
fluid. Different parts of the fold are drawn out by this flow to different
extents resulting in layers becoming thinner in some places and thicker in
outer places. The flow results in shear stresses that smear out the layers

1.34.3 BUCKLING:
Folds form by buckling where force is applied parallel to
layering in rocks. The product of buckling is buckled fold. Buckling produce
layers shortening. Thin sheet under lateral pressure. Strain produced with in
the layer is determined by extension around the outer Arc and compression
in the Inner Arc

1.34.4 BENDING:
Bending involves application of force across layers. Generally, produce
folds that are very gentle with large inter limb angles. Layers in bending are
bent like an elastic beam the fold has been supported at the ends and loaded
in the middle

******************************************************************

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 PRACTICAL NO 5
TITLE: FAULTS
1.35 AIM:
The aim of this lab report is know about the fault, its terminology and its different
types of fault in a geology.

1.36 THEORY:
1.36.1 Rocks:
Rock are the aggregate of minerals. Rocks are usually grouped into
three main groups: igneous rocks, metamorphic rocks and
sedimentary rocks. Rocks form the Earth's outer solid layer, the crust, and most of
its interior, except for the liquid outer core and pockets of magma in the
asthenosphere.

1.36.2 Structure of rocks:

Structures may be divided into two broad classes: the
primary structures that were acquired in the genesis of a rock mass and the
secondary structures that result from later deformation of the primary structures.
Most layered rocks (sedimentary rocks, some lava flows, and pyroclastic deposits)
were deposited initially as nearly horizontal layers. Rocks that were initially
horizontal may be deformed later by folding and may be displaced along fractures.
If displacement has occurred and the rocks on the two sides of the fracture have
moved in opposite directions from each other, the fracture is termed a fault; if
displacement has not occurred, the fracture is called a joint

1.36.3 Types of geologic structures:

 Primary structures: those which develop at the time of formation of the
rocks (e.g. sedimentary structures, some volcanic structure.etc.).
 SECONDARY STRUCTURES: which are those that develop in rocks after their
formation as a result of their subjection to external forces.

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1.36.4 Secondary structures:
A secondary structure is, "any structure formed in
response to an applied stress that results from plate movement." Therefore, these
structures are tectonic, as they develop after lithification of sedimentary and
igneous rock, and after crystallization of metamorphic rock. Examples of
secondary structures include faults, folds, lineations, cleavage, and shear zones

1.36.5 Types of secondary geologic structures:

 Folds, which are a form of ductile deformation,
 Fractures, represented by faults and joints which generally result from the
brittle behaviour of rocks in response to stress.

1.36.5.1 Faults:
A fault is a fracture in the earth's rock units along
which there has been an observable amount of movement and displacement.
Unlike folds which form predominantly by compressional stress, faults result from
either tension, compression or shear. Fault, in geology, a planar or gently
curved fracture in the rocks of Earth‟s crust, where compressional or
tensional forces cause relative displacement of the rocks on the opposite sides of
the fracture.

1.36.5.2 Range of Faults in lengths:

Faults range in length from a few
centimeters to many hundreds of kilometers, and displacement likewise may range
from less than a centimeter to several hundred kilometers‟ along the fracture
surface (the fault plane). In some instances, the movement is distributed over a
fault zone composed of many individual faults that occupy a belt hundreds of
meters wide.

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1.36.6 Terminology of faults:
In order to correctly describe a fault, it is essential
to understand its components:

1.36.6.1 Fault plane:

The plane of dislocation or fracture along which
displacement has occurred. The fault plane therefore separates one or more
rock units into two blocks.It is the planar (flat) surface along which there is
slip during an earthquake. Its intersection with the horizontal plane gives the
strike direction of the fault

1.36.6.2 Hanging wall and footwall blocks:

The fault plane is not
vertical, then the block lying on top of the fault plane is known as the
hanging wall block, whereas that lying below this plane is known as the
footwall block.

1.36.6.3 The downthrown and up thrown blocks:

The downthrown
block is the one that has moved downwards relative to the other block,
whereas the upthrown block is that which registers an upward relative
movement.

1.36.6.4 The Dip:

The fault plane is the angle of inclination of the fault
plane measured from the horizontal plane perpendicular to its strike.

1.36.6.5 Fault Throw:

The vertical displacement of a fault.

1.36.6.6 DIP SLIP:

The amount of displacement measured on the fault plane in the direction of
its dip.
1.36.6.7 STRIKE SLIP:
The amount of displacement measured on the
fault plane in the direction of its strike. It is the direction of the line of

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 intersection of a fault plane and horizontal plane. The direction along which
the fault plane has the maximum slope is its true dip direction

1. NET SLIP:
The total amount of displacement measured on the fault plane in
the direction of movement.

This may be along the strike direction or the dip direction or along both

1.36.7 Types of Faults:

Faults may be vertical, horizontal, or inclined at any
angle. Although the angle of inclination of a specific fault plane tends to be
relatively uniform, it may differ considerably along its length from place to place.
Some of them are given below

1.36.7.1 Normal fault:

Is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to
have moved downwards relative to the footwall (i.e. downthrown block = hanging
wall block)The “normal fault” is generated by the traction with vertical motion
with respect to the “fault plane”, which typically has an angle of 60° from the
horizontal plane, and as we have seen, generates a “hanging wall” and a “foot

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wall” where rocks on one side of the fault sink over rocks from the other side of
the fault.

There are areas in a fault where the rock is separated, so that the crust in a specific
area is able to occupy more space and do not create rocky ledges

1.36.7.2 Reverse fault:

Is a fault in which the hanging wall appears to
have moved upwards relative to the footwall Because the displacement in both
normal and reverse faults occurs along the dip of the fault plane, they may be
considered types of dip slip faults.

The “reverse fault” is generated by compression. It has horizontal movements

where the upper block (hanging wall) is located above the lower block (footwall).

It occurs in areas where the rocks are compressed against each other so that the
rocky crust area occupies less space, creating an exposed area of the fault called
“outbound.”

1.36.7.3 Thrust fault:

Is a reverse fault in which the fault plane is
dipping at low angles (< 45°). Thrusts are very common in mountain chains (fold
and thrust belts) where they are characterized by transporting older rocks on top of
younger ones over long distances.

1.36.7.4 STRIKE SLIP (WRENCH, TEAR OR TRANSCURRENT) FAULT:

Is a
fault in which the movement is horizontal along the strike of the fault plane. Strike
slip faults are either dextral or sinistral. When viewed on end,a dextral fault (also
known as right lateral fault) is one in which the block on the observer's right hand
side appears to have moved towards him, whereas a sinistral strike slip fault (also
known as left lateral) is one in which the block on the observer's left hand side
appears to have moved towards him.

1.36.7.5 Oblique slip fault:

It is one in which the displacement was
both in the strike and dip directions (i.e. the displacement has strike and dip

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components). Keep in mind that an oblique slip fault can also be either normal or
reverse.

1.36.7.6 Strick slip fault:

The “strike-slip fault” or “transform fault”
has a predominant horizontal component and a small vertical component. The rock
block from one side moves to one direction, while the opposite block is moving in
an opposite direction. It is identified due to the discontinuity of a field

1.36.7.7 Dip slip fault:

The “Dip-slip fault” has a predominant vertical
component and a small horizontal component. The rock block from upward to
downward in direction, while the top block is moving in an down direction. It is
identified due to the discontinuity of a field

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Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where the blocks have mostly shifted
vertically. If the rock mass above an inclined fault moves down, the fault is termed
normal, whereas if the rock above the fault moves up, the fault is termed reverse.

1.36.7.8 Oblique Faults:

Oblique-slip faults have simultaneous
displacement up or down the dip and along the strike. The displacement of the
blocks on the opposite sides of the fault plane usually is measured in relation to
sedimentary strata or other stratigraphic markers, such as veins and dikes. The
movement along a fault may be rotational, with the offset blocks rotating relative
to one another.

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 1.36.7.9 Parallel faults:
Faults which accommodate crustal shearing,
extension or compression are frequently arranged in groups of parallel faults.
Frequently, parallel faults form an echelon pattern

1.36.7.10 Peripheral Faults:

Curved faults of more or less circular, or
are like outcrops on level surface are called peripheral faults

1.36.7.11 Echelon Faults:

Echelon fault are comparatively short faults
which overlap each other

1.36.7.12 Graben or Rift fault:

When two normal faults fade towards
each other and the beds between them are thrown down in the from of a wedge, the
structure is called graben or rift fault

1.36.7.13 Horst:
A horst consists of a central block on the both sides of
which adjacent beds appear to have been faulted down

1.36.7.14 Radial faults:

A number of faults exhibiting a radial pattern
are descried as radial faults

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 PRACTICAL NO 6

TITLE: UNCONFORMITIES
1.37 Unconformity:
An unconformity is a contact between two rock units in
which the upper unit is usually much younger than the lower unit.

An unconformity is a buried erosional or non-depositional surface separating two

rock layers or strata of different ages, indicating that sediment deposition was not
continuous.

1.37.1 Plane of unconformity:

The plane of unconformity that separate upper
younger than lower unit.

1.38 TYPES OF UNCONFORMITY:

The type of unconformity are given below

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1.38.1 Disconformity:
A disconformity is an unconformity between
parallel layers of sedimentary rocks which represents a period of erosion or non-
deposition. Disconformities are marked by features of subaerial erosion.
A disconformity is an erosional surface between horizontal layers of sedimentary
rock with younger layers overlying older layers.

Fig: Disconformity
1.38.2 Nonconformity:
A nonconformity exists between sedimentary rocks
and metamorphic or igneous rocks when the sedimentary rock lies above and was
deposited on the pre-existing and eroded metamorphic or igneous rock. Namely, if
the rock below the break is igneous or has lost its bedding due to metamorphism,
the plane of juncture is a nonconformity.

1.38.3 Angular unconformity:

An angular unconformity is an unconformity
where horizontally parallel strata of sedimentary rock are deposited on tilted and

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eroded layers, producing an angular discordance with the overlying horizontal
layers. The whole sequence may later be deformed and tilted by
further orogenic activity.

Fig: angular unconformity

1.39 SIGNIFICATION OF UNCONFORMITIES:

 An unconformity can sometimes negate one or more geologic principles.
 An unconformity represents an interval of time that is missing from the rock
record.
 The creation of an unconformity favors the deposition and lithification of
rock layers.
 An unconformity shows a more detailed history for a particular interval of
time in the rock record.
 An unconformity is a series of rock layers that is completely uninterrupted.
 Unconformity represents a break or an interval in deposition of beds and
forms a record of time gap.
 Unconformity indicates a stratigraphical hiatus (pauses or breaks) and
represents the period during
 which the region was a land mass and eroded subsequently.
 In certain situations, unconformity produces potential oil traps and aquifers.
 Unconformity helps visualizing paleogeography of a region.
 Unconformity is an important structural feature that affects site foundations
for engineering works. It generally forms a weak zone.
 Recognizing unconformities is important for understanding time
relationships in sedimentary sequences.
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 PRACTICAL NO 7
TITLE: JOINTS TERMINOLOGY AND ITS CASSIFIACATION.
1.40 AIMS:
To become familiar with different joints and its identification in rocks.

1.41 JOINTS:
Joints are cracks or fracture that divide the rock into parts and there
is no relative displacement.

 It occure in all types of rocks.

 They are like cleavage in minerals.

1.42 TERMINOLOGY:
1.42.1 Joint set:
Joint that share a similar orientation in the same area.or it is a
family of parallel evenly spaced joint.

1.42.2 Joint system:

Two or more intersecting joint set in the same area.

1.42.3 Open joint:

Which the rock have separated for the small distance to right
angle to the fracture surface.

1.42.4 Close joint:

There is no such a separation joint may a capable of allowing
fluid ( gas and water) to pass through the rock.

1.42.5 Small joint:

Small in their extension confined to only one part of layer. It
also called as discontinuous joints.

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1.42.6 Master joint:
Extensive joint referred as a continuous joint. The more
prominent continouos joint are called as master joints.

1.43 FORMATION OF JOINTS:

Joint are result from brittle fracture of a rock body
as the result of tensile stresses and compression stresse.

When these happened the rock fracture in a plane paralle to the maximum principle
stress and perpendicular to the minimum principal stress.

 Joint are cause due to different reasons.

1.43.1 Formation of joints due to;
 Contraction during formation.
 Expansion and contraction.
 Crustal disturbance.
1.43.1.1 Contraction during formation:
Sedimentary rock especially those
plastic natures and rich in moisture in initial stages undergoes some
contraction on drying up which might have resulted into irregular
jointing.

1.43.1.2 Expansion and contraction;

 Rocks and some other solid expand with rise in temperature and
contract with cooling.
 Such repeated expansion and contraction is one of the reason for the
joint formation
 Removal of overburden due to weathering or other process of rock
wasting also cause Expansion of the under lying rocks.
1.43.1.3 Crustal disturbance:
 Many joint types especially those associated with folded and
faulted rocks are clearly related to the process of crustal disturbance
that are responsible for building of mountains and continants

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  Sudden seismic shock have also been suggested by some as a
possible cause for the development of joints in many rocks.

1.44 CLASSIFICATION OF JOINTS:

I. Spatial relationship.
o Systematic
o Non systematic
II. Geometry
o Stike joint
o Dip joint
o Oblique joint
III. Genesis
o Tension
o Shear
o Compression.

1.45 BASED ON SPATIAL RELATIONSHIP.:

1.45.1 Systematic joint:
 these show a distinct regularity in their occurrence.
 They occre in parallel or sub parallel joint sets that are repeated in the rock
at regular intervals.
 Based upon the angle at which joint sets of systematic joint intersect to form
a joint system, they can be subdivided into conjugate and orthogonal joint
sets.
1.45.2 Nonsystematic joints:
Joints that are so irregular in form, spacing, and
orientation that they cannot be readily grouped into distinctive through going
joint sets.

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1.45.3 Strike Joints:
Joints that are parallel to the strike of rocks are called „Strike
Joints‟.

1.45.4 Dip Joints:

Joints that are parallel to the dip of rocks are called „Dip
Joints‟.

1.45.5 Oblique Joints:

Joints, which run in a direction that lies between the strike
and dip direction of the rock beds, are called „Oblique Joints‟.

Based on genesis:
1.45.6 Tension joints:
Tension joints are those, which are formed as a result of tension forces.
These joints are relatively open and have rough and irregular surfaces.

1.45.7 Shear joints:

Shear joints are those, which are due to shearing stresses involved in folding and
faulting of rocks.

These joints are rather clear-cut and tightly closed. Shear joints occur in two sets

and intersect at a high angle to form a “conjugate joint system”.

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1.46 OCCURRENCE OF JOINTS:
Joints are perhaps the most common structural
features of all types of rocks occurring everywhere in the world. It is seldom that
we find any big rock mass on the surface free from joints.

1.47 ROCKS OF ALL THE THREE MAIN CLASSES:

(a) Igneous,

(b) Sedimentary and

(c) Metamorphic, show joints of various types.

1.47.1 IGNEOUS ROCKS:

The igneous rocks are formed by cooling and
crystallization of hot molten material called magma or lava. As such, in most cases
they show joint systems related to the tensile stresses developing during the
process of cooling and crystallization.

The three regular or systematic types of joints observed in igneous rocks are:
1. Sheet joints,

2. Mural joints, and

3. Columnar joints.

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Sheet Jointing:
In granites and other related igneous rocks, a horizontal set of joints often divides
the rock mass in such a way as to give it an appearance of a layered sedimentary
structure, called in this case as a Sheeting Structure.

Sheet joints are sometimes caused due to weathering and removal of overlying
rock masses, which cause expansion of the underlying igneous and other rocks as a
consequence of unloading.

Mural Jointing:
In granitic and other rock masses, there may occur three sets of
joints in such a way that one set is horizontal and the other two sets are vertical, all
the three sets being mutually at right angles to each other. This sort of geometrical
distribution of joints dividing the rock mass into cubical blocks or murals is called
mural jointing.

Columnar Jointing:
These types of joints are typical of volcanic igneous rocks
although they may also be observed in other rocks.

These are also called prismatic joints. The joints divide the rock mass into
polygonal blocks, each block being bounded by three to eight sides. Five and six
sided blocks are common

Sedimentary Rocks:
Most sedimentary rocks are generally profusely jointed.
Joints may be of systematic and non-systematic classes. These joints may be
closely and regularly spaced sets, parallel or sub-parallel to each other and bearing
varying relationships with the attitude of the rocks. Since sedimentary rocks are
often folded and faulted, the joints in them are genetically related to those forces
that have caused the major structural deformations.

1.47.2 Metamorphic Rocks:

These rock types are heavily jointed in many cases, the
joints being of irregular or non-systematic types. These joints are often the result of
local and regional stresses acting on rocks as a source of metamorphism.

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 PRACTICAL NO 8

TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO STEREONET AND HOW TO

DRAW PLANE OF STEREONET

1.48 OBJECTIVE:
 To know about terminologies related to stereonet.
 To know how to plot line, plane and poles of plane on stereonet.

1.49 SOFTWARE:
Stereonet software is used to draw the projection of line, plane
etc

1.50 THEORY:
1.50.1 stereonet:
A stereonet look like a glob or a map of the entire there are a great
circle and the small circles on it. A stereonet is used by the geologists to display
the orientation data when the spatial relation of the individual observation with
respect to each other is not important.

1.50.2 Use:
It‟s used to represent 3-d into 2-d.

It‟s is used for the projection of line, plane, strike, dip and plunge

1.50.3 Upper-hemisphere:
The upper part of the globe in a stereonet is called upper hemisphere.

1.50.4 Lower-hemisphere:
The lower part is called lower hemisphere. Also the
lower-hemisphere is called stereonet. It‟s used for the analysis of geologic
structures. It‟s used to plot any discontinuity projection

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1.50.5 Terminology:
The term use in a stereonet are given below:

Great circle:
The Lines that run from the north to south
pole in a stereonet are termed great circles and it is same
like a lines of longitude on a globe.

Small circle:
Circular arcs that run east-west are termed
small circles. Small circles can be visualized by rotating
the horizontal line.

North-pole:
Top portion of the stereonet is called North
Pole.

South Pole
The lowest portion is called South Pole.

ZENITH:
The upper most point of the hemisphere is
called Zenith.

EQUILATERAL PLANE:
The plane which divide the whole globe into two
parts; upper and lower hemisphere that plane is called Equilateral Plane

Equator:
The line who‟s divided the stereonet into two equal parts is called
equator.

Pole:
It is defined as the representation by a single point which is used for mainly
multiple points. The pole is always opposite to Dip-direction.

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PLUNGE:
Plunge is the vertical angle between the horizontal plane and the axis or
line of maximum elongation of a feature. Plunge is measured along the axis of a
fold, whereas dip is measured along the limbs.

TREND:
Trend is the direction of the line formed by the intersection of the planar
feature with the ground surface; trend is the same as strike only if the ground
surface is parallel to the horizontal plane.

PROCEDURE:
Take a stereonet paper and fix it on the drawing board and after
that take a tracing paper and place fix it above the stereonet and put the thumb pin
on the middle of both the paper so we can easily rotate the tracing paper in drawing
the stereonet projection

1.50.6 PLOTTING OF LINE: (44/76):

Plot a lineation with altitude 44/76

Here we have 44 which is plunge and 76 is trend.

 First Draw the circle of stereonet in a tracing paper

 Now the poles as North, South, East and West on tracing paper.
 Now we go to mark the trend which is 76 degrees so we mark the 76 degree
in the circle
 Now rotate the tracing paper such that the arrow is aligned with the nearest
horizontal plane.
 Now mark the 44 on horizontal plane as a dark dot.
 So the line is draw on the stereonet
1.50.7 PLOTTING OF PLANE: (242/44) NE:
Plot a dipping plane with altitude: 242/44 NE

Here we have 242 which is strike and 44 as the dip angle.

 First Draw the circle of stereonet in a tracing paper

 Now the poles as North, South, East and West on tracing paper.

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  Plot the 242 on tracing paper as arrow heading in outward direction shows
the strike.
 Rotate the tracing paper such the arrow is aligned with North Pole or south
pole
 Now make the dip 44 as point on horizontal plane.
 Join the drawn point with north and south poles respectively which make a
line.
 So we get a line on stereonet paper but it is actually the plane
1.50.8 PLOTTING OF POLE OF PALNE:
Plot the pole of dipping plane: 246/40 NW

_here we have 246 as strike of dipping plane and 40 as dip angle.

 First Draw the circle of stereonet in a tracing paper

 Now the poles as North, South, East and West on tracing paper.
 Plot the 242 on tracing paper as arrow heading in outward direction shows
the strike.
 Rotate the tracing paper such the arrow is aligned with North Pole or south
pole
 Now make the dip 44 as point on horizontal plane. And also for the pole go
to 90 points more than the point from 44 and take that point and mark it as
pole
 Join the drawn point with north and south poles respectively which make a
line.
 So we make a pole of dipping plan in that stereonet

****************************************************************

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 PRACTICAL NO 9
TITLE: INTRODUCTION TO BRUNTON COMPASS.
1.51 AIM:
 To know about the burton compass
 To know about its different parts and their uses.

1.52 THEORY:
1.52.1 Introduction :
The Brunton is a specialized instrument used widely by
those needing to make accurate degree and angle measurements in the field. These
people are primarily geologists.

Compasses work because the earth acts like a giant bar magnet. Motions in the
liquid nickel-iron core of the earth induce a magnetic field with a north and south
pole. Magnetic lines of force connect the earth north and south magnetic poles.

A Brunton compass, properly known as the Brunton Pocket Transit, is a precision

compass made by Brunton, Inc. of Riverton, Wyoming. The instrument was
patented in 1894 by a Canadian-born geologist named David W. Brunton. Unlike
most modern compasses, the Brunton Pocket Transit utilizes magnetic induction
damping rather than fluid to damp needle oscillation. Although Brunton, Inc.
makes many other types of magnetic compasses, the Brunton Pocket Transit is a
specialized instrument used widely by those needing to make accurate navigational
and slope-angle measurements in the field. Users are primarily geologists, but
archaeologists, environmental engineers, mining engineers and surveyors also
make use of the Brunton capabilities.

1.52.2 Brunton compass:

A fancy, highly-precise compass used by geologists
(and surveyors, engineers, archaeologists, etc.) for navigation and also to measure
the strike and dip of rock layers in the field.

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Components:

Long Level :
Use for taking azimuth measurements of strike.

Circular Level :
Use for taking angle measurements of dip.

Iron Needle:
Points to magnetic North and it is damped using the magnet below
the pivot point. But the bearing can be adjusted accordingly by rotating the
declination zero pin.

360-degree Graduated Circle :

Use for azimuth readings that are accurate to half
of a degree.
90-degree Dip Circle:
Use for measuring dip using the long level on the Vernier.

Needle Pin:
Helps to lock the needle in place in order to take a reading.

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Vernier:
The Vernier is used for inclination measurements with an accuracy to 30
minutes.

Rare Earth Magnet ;

A cast Nd Fe magnet which allow the iron needle to seek
North accurately and quickly. It also reduces the magnetic interferences from the
nearby environment.

\Declination Zero Pin:

An arm behind the compass is used to move the pin. Using
tabulated data on magnetic declination, the degree of correction is set.

Uses of brunton compass:

 Locate north
 Strike and dip
 Bearing
 Trend and plunge
 Sight angles
 Measuring height /thickness of feature
Using the right hand:

 Place your right hand on the surface (if the feature you are interested in is
visible).
 Rotate your hand so that the four fingers points down towards the dip
direction.
 Finally, extend your thumb on the same plane. The direction which your
thumb is pointing to is the direction of the strike.

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1.53 PROCEDURES FOR MEASURING DIP & STRIKE:

1.53.1 Measuring of strike:

 Place the bottom edge of the compasss flat against the plane of interest.
 Adjust the compass orientation making sure the bottom edge is always flat
against, until the air bubble in the bull‟s eye level is centered.
 Read either end of compass needle to obtain the value of strike.

1.53.2 Measuring of Dip:

 After determine strike, rotate the compass 90degree.
 Place the side of compass flat against the plane.
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  Adjust the lever on the back of the compass until the air bubble in the
“clinometer level” is centered.
 Read the dip directly from the scale in the compass.

THANK YOU

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