STRESS AND STRAIN

&
ROCK DEFORMATION
UNDER STRUCTURAL
GEOLOGY
 STRESS AND STRAIN
 It is an important concepts in structural geology because they provide a framework
for understanding how rocks behave under different types of tectonic and geological
processes.
 By studying stress and strain, geoscientist can gain insights into the geological
history of a region, as well as the potential for geological hazards such as
earthquakes and landslide.
 Furthermore, understanding stress and strain is essential for resource exploration
and extraction, as well as for the development of new technologies and materials.
 Overall, it is a fundamental concept in structural geology and are essential for
understanding the processes that shape the Earth’s crust.
 STRESS
 It is the force exerted per unit area.
TYPES OF STRESS
1.Tensional stress
 A type of stress that occurs when
rocks are pulled apart or stretched.
 It is typically associated with tectonic
processes such as divergent plate
boundaries, where two plates are
moving away from each other.
 East African Rift Valley

Example
-Divergence of two tectonic
plates, leading to the formation
of rift valleys such as the East
African Rift Valley.
-Stretching and thinning of
Earth’s crust, leading to the
formation of normal faults
grabens.
-Cooling and solidification of
magma, leading to the formation
of columnar jointing.
2. Compressional Stress
 A type of stress that
occurs when rocks are
squeezed or pushed
together
 It is typically associated
with tectonic processes
such as plate convergence,
where two plates are
colliding and pushing
against each other.
Example Himalayas
-Collision of two continental
plates, leading to the formation of
mountain ranges such as the
Himalayas.
-Compaction of sedimentary
rocks, leading to the formation of
folds and thrust faults.
-Impact events, such as meteorite
impacts, can cause
compressional stress and lead to
the formation of deformation
structures.
3. Shear Stress
 A type of stress that occurs when
rock are subjected to forces that
cause them to slide past each other in
opposite directions.
 This type of stress is typically
associated with tectonic processes
such as transform plate boundaries,
where two plates are sliding past each
other.
Example
-Transform plate boundaries, such The San Andreas Fault
as the San Andreas Fault in
California, where two tectonic
plates slide past each other.
-Ductile deformation of rocks due
to shear stress, leading to the
formation of folds and cleavage.
-Movement of glaciers, causing
shears stress and leading to the
formation of glacial striations and
other landforms.
 STRAIN
 The physical change that result in response to
that force.
TYPES OF STRAIN
1.Elastic Strain
 Is a type of deformation that occurs in
a material when it is subjected to stress
but is able to return to its original
shape and size once the stress is
removed.
 This is because the material is
behaving elastically, line a spring,
under the applied stress.
2. Plastic Strain
 A type of deformation that occurs in
a material when it is subjected to
stress beyond its elastic limit.
 Unlike elastic strain, plastic strain is
permanent and irreversible, meaning
that the material does not return to
its original shape and size once the
stress is removed.
 ROCK DEFORMATION
 The process by which rocks change shape or size in response to
stress.
 Rocks can be deform in two main ways:
- Brittle deformation and Ductile deformation

BRITTLE DEFORMATION
 Is most common in the upper crust of the Earth, where the
temperature and pressure conditions are relatively low. Brittle
deformation can be produce a variety of features, including:
• Faults: Faults are fractures in rocks along which
there has been displacement. Faults can be caused
by a variety of stresses, including compression,
tension and shear.

• Joints: Joints are fractures in rocks that do

not show any displacement. Joints are often
caused by cooling or drying of rocks.

• Breccia: A type of rock that is made up of angular

fragments of other rocks. Breccia is often formed by
brittle deformation of rocks.
 DUCTILE DEFORMATION
 Themost common in the lower crust and mantle of the Earth, where the
temperature and pressure conditions are relatively high. Ductile deformation can
produce a variety of features, including:

• Folds: Folds are bend in rocks. Folds can be

caused by a variety of stresses, including
compression and tension.
• Foliation: A layering that can be seen in some
metamorphic rocks. Foliation is caused by the
alignment of minerals in the rock during ductile
deformation.

• Lineation: A linear feature that can be seen in

some metamorphic rocks. It is caused by the
alignment of minerals or elongated grains in the
rock during ductile deformation.