Abstract

The question of whether single- or multi-layers of sedimentary rocks will fault or fold when subjected to
layer-parallel shortening is investigated by means of the theory of elastic-plastic, strain-hardening
materials, which should closely describe the properties of sedimentary rocks at high levels in the Earth's
crust. The most attractive feature of the theory is that folding and faulting, intimately related in nature,
are different responses of the same idealized material to different conditions. When single-layers of
sedimentary rock behave much as strain-hardening materials they are unlikely to fold, rather they tend
to fault, because contrasts in elasticity and strength properties of sedimentary rocks are low.
Amplifications of folds in such materials are negligible whether contacts between layer and media are
bonded or free to slip for single layers of dolomite, limestone, sandstone, or siltstone in media of shale.
Multilayers of these same rocks fault rather than fold if contacts are bonded, but they fold readily if
contacts between layers are frictionless, or have low yield strengths, for example due to high pore-water
pressure. Faults may accompany the folds, occurring where compression is increased in cores of folds.
Where there is predominant reverse faulting in sedimentary sequences, there probably were few
structural units.

(1). Crustal Deformation Processes: Folding and Faulting

The topographic map illustrated in Figure 10l-1 suggests that the Earth's surface has been deformed.
This deformation is the result of forces that are strong enough to move ocean sediments to an
eleveation many thousands meters above sea level. In previous lectures, we have discovered that this
displacement of rock can be caused by tectonic plate movement and subduction, volcanic activity, and
intrusive igneous activity.

Figure 10l-1: Topographic relief of the Earth's terrestrial surface and ocean basins. Ocean trenches and
the ocean floor have the lowest elevations on the image and are colored dark blue. Elevation is
indicated by color. The legend below shows the relationship between color and elevation. (Source:
National Geophysical Data Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration).

Deformation of rock involves changes in the shape and/or volume of these substances. Changes in shape
and volume occur when stress and strain causes rock to buckle and fracture or crumple into folds. A fold
can be defined as a bend in rock that is the response to compressional forces. Folds are most visible in
rocks that contain layering. For plastic deformation of rock to occur a number of conditions must be
met, including:

The rock material must have the ability to deform under pressure and heat.The higher the temperature
of the rock the more plastic it becomes.Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock. If it
does, fracturing occurs.Deformation must be applied slowly.

A number of different folds have been recognized and classified by geologists. The simplest type of fold
is called a monocline (Figure 10i-2). This fold involves a slight bend in otherwise parallel layers of rock.
Figure 10l-2: Monocline fold.

An anticline is a convex up fold in rock that resembles an arch like structure with the rock beds (or limbs)
dipping way from the center of the structure (Figure 10l-3).

Figure 10l-3: Anticline fold. Note how the rock layers dip away from the center of the fold are roughly
symmetrical.

A syncline is a fold where the rock layers are warped downward (Figure 10l-4 and10l-5). Both anticlines
and synclines are the result of compressional stress.

Figure 10l-4: Syncline fold. Note how the rock layers dip toward the center of the fold and are roughly
symmetrical.

Figure 10l-5: Synclinal folds in bedrock, near Saint-Godard-de-Lejeune, Canada. (Source: Natural
Resources Canada - Terrain Sciences Division - Canadian Landscapes).

More complex fold types can develop in situations where lateral pressures become greater. The greater
pressure results in anticlines and synclines that are inclined and asymmetrical (Figure 10l-6).
Figure 10l-6: The following illustration shows two anticline folds which are inclined. Also note how the
beds on either side of the fold center are asymmetrical.

A recumbent fold develops if the center of the fold moves from being once vertical to a horizontal
position (Figure 10l-7). Recumbent folds are commonly found in the core of mountain ranges and
indicate that compression and/or shear forces were stronger in one direction. Extreme stress and
pressure can sometimes cause the rocks to shear along a plane of weakness creating a fault. We call the
combination of a fault and a fold in a rock an overthrust fault.

Figure 10l-7: Recumbent fold.

Faults form in rocks when the stresses overcome the internal strength of the rock resulting in a fracture.
A fault can be defined as the displacement of once connected blocks of rock along a fault plane. This can
occur in any direction with the blocks moving away from each other. Faults occur from both tensional
and compressional forces.

Figure 10l-8 shows the location of some of the major faults located on the Earth.

Figure 10l-8: Location of some of the major faults on the Earth. Note that many of these faults are in
mountainous regions (see section 10k).

There are several different kinds of faults. These faults are named according to the type of stress that
acts on the rock and by the nature of the movement of the rock blocks either side of the fault plane.
Normal faults occur when tensional forces act in opposite directions and cause one slab of the rock to be
displaced up and the other slab down (Figure 10l-9).
Figure 10l-9: Animation of a normal fault.

Reverse faults develop when compressional forces exist (Figure 10l-10). Compression causes one block
to be pushed up and over the other block.

Figure 10l-10: Animation of a reverse fault.

A graben fault is produced when tensional stresses result in the subsidence of a block of rock. On a large
scale these features are known as Rift Valleys (Figure 10l-11).

Figure 10l-11: Animation of a graben fault.

A horst fault is the development of two reverse faults causing a block of rock to be pushed up (Figure
10l-12).

Figure 10l-12: Animation of a horst fault.

The final major type of fault is the strike-slip or transform fault. These faults are vertical in nature and
are produced where the stresses are exerted parallel to each other (Figure 10l-13). A well-known
example of this type of fault is the San Andreas fault in California.
Figure 10l-13: Transcurrent fault zones on and off the West coast of North America. (Source: U.S.
Geological Survey).

What is the difference between folding and faults?

Folds are bends in rocks that are due to compressional forces. Folds are most visible in rocks that
layered (also known as sedimentary rocks). Folds are formed when heat and pressure is applied to the
rock. The higher the temperature, the more pliable rocks become. Folds are more likely to occur when
the deformation caused by the compression is applied slowly.

If the pressure (compression) that is applied to a rock undergoing a fold is greater than the internal
strength of the rock, then the rock will fracture. This is how faults are formed. Faults are defined as the
displacement of rock that were once connected along a fault line.

What Are the Types of Stresses in the Earth's Crust?

By Rebekah Pierce ; Updated March 09, 2018

The Earth has three layers, the crust, the mantle and the core. The Earth’s crust is like the shell of an
egg; it is the thinnest of the Earth’s layers. The crust is broken into several parts, known as the
continental plates. When the plates are pulled or pushed together, stress occurs. Four types of stresses
affect the Earth’s crust: compression, tension, shear and confining stress.

Compression Stress

Compression is a type of stress that causes the rocks to push or squeeze against one another. It targets
the center of the rock and can cause either horizontal or vertical orientation. In horizontal compression
stress, the crust can thicken or shorten. In vertical compression stress, the crust can thin out or break
off. The force of compression can push rocks together or cause the edges of each plate colliding to rise.
Mountains are a result of high-impact compression stress caused when two plates collided.

The stress that squeezes something. It is the stress component perpendicular to a given surface, such as
a fault plane, that results from forces applied perpendicular to the surface or from remote forces
transmitted through the surrounding rock.
(Image courtesy of Michael Kimberly, North Carolina State Univ.)

Tension Stress

Tension is the opposite of compression. While compression forces the rocks and crust to collide and
move together, tension forces the rocks to pull apart. Tension can happen in two ways. Two separate
plates can move farther away from each other, or the ends of one plate can move in different directions.
Some scientists think tension stress caused the ancient, massive continent Pangaea to break off into the
seven continents we have today.

Shear Stress

When shear stress occurs, the force of the stress pushes some of the crust in different directions. When
this happens, a large part of the crust can break off, which makes the plate size smaller. Shear stress
usually happens when two plates rub against each other as they move in opposite directions. The
friction of a shear stress at the edges of the plate can cause earthquakes.

Confining Stress

When stress is applied to all sides of the crust, confining stress occurs. When this happens, the crust
compacts, which makes it look smaller. If the stress is too much for the crust to handle, the crust can
fracture from the inside. This causes the crust weight to decrease but the crust shape remains the same.
Because this type of stress can hollow out the insides of the crust, confining stress can cause sinkholes in
the Earth.

Stress in the Earth's Crust

When you think about an enormous plates of lithosphere traveling around on the planet's surface, you
can probably imagine that the process is not smooth. Most geological activity takes place where two
plates meet, at plate boundaries. In the Earthquakes chapter, you will learn that nearly all earthquakes,
volcanic eruptions, and mountain building occur at plate boundaries. In this chapter, you will learn more
about the geological activity that occurs because of plate tectonics, specifically mountain building and
earthquakes.

When plates are pushed or pulled, the rock is subjected to stress. Stress can cause a rock to change
shape or to break. When a rock bends without breaking, it folds. When the rock breaks, it fractures.
Mountain building and earthquakes are some of the responses rocks have to stress.

Causes and Types of Stress

Stress is the force applied to an object. In geology, stress is the force per unit area that is placed on a
rock. There are four types of stresses that act on materials.
A deeply buried rock is pushed down by the weight of all the material above it. Since the rock is trapped
in a single spot, it is as if the rock is being pushed in from all sides. This pushing causes the rock to
become compressed, but it cannot deform because there is no place for it to move. This is called
confining stress.Compression is the stress that squeezes rocks together. Compression causes rocks to
fold or fracture (break)(Figure 7.1). When cars driving around a parking lot collide, compression causes
the cars to crumple. Compression is the most common stress at convergent plate boundaries.

Figure 7.1: Stress caused these rocks to fracture.

Rocks that are being pulled apart are under tension(also called extension). Tension causes rocks to
lengthen or break apart. Tension is the major type of stress found at divergent plate boundaries.When
forces act parallel to each other but in opposite directions, the stress is called shear (Figure 7.2). Shear
stress causes two planes of material to slide past each other. This is the most common stress found at
transform plate boundaries.

Figure 7.2: Rocks showing dextral shear. Note how the white quartz vein has been elongated by shear.

If the amount of stress on a rock is greater than the rock's internal strength, the rock bends elastically.
This type of change is called elastic because when the stress is eliminated the rock goes back to its
original shape, like a squeezed rubber ball. If more stress is applied to the rock, it will eventually bend
plastically. In this instance, the rock bends, but does not return to its original shape when the stress is
removed. If the stress continues, the rock will fracture; that is, it breaks. When a material changes
shape, it has undergone deformation. Deformed rocks are common in geologically active areas (Figure
7.3).
Figure 7.3: When stress is applied to a material, it initially deforms elastically. With more stress, the
material deforms plastically and when the material's strength is exceeded, it fractures. The amount of
stress that can be applied before the material transitions to the next type of deformation depends on
the material and the conditions where it is located.

What a rock does in response to stress depends on many factors: the rock type; the conditions the rock
is under, primarily the surrounding temperature and pressure; the length of time the rock is under
stress; and the type of stress. It seems difficult to imagine that rocks would not just simply break when
exposed to stress. At the Earth's surface, rocks usually break quite quickly once stress is applied. But
deeper in the crust, where temperatures and pressures are higher, rocks are more likely to deform
plastically. Sudden stress, like a hit with a hammer, is more likely to make a rock break. Stress applied
over time often leads to plastic deformation.