Deformation

of the Crust
Deformation
When a rock is placed under
stress, it deforms, or changes
shape.

Deformation is the change in

shape, position, and/or
volume of a rock in response
to stress.

When layers of rocks are

found tilted, folded, or
displaced, this indicates that
deformation has occurred.
Stress
⚫ Whether a material bends or breaks depends on
⚫ How much stress is applied to the material.
⚫ Stress
⚫ Amount of force per unit area on a given material.
⚫ Different things happen to rock when different types
of stress are applied.
⚫ Deformation
⚫ Process by which the shape of a rock changes because
of stress.
⚫ Rock layers bend when stress is placed on them.
⚫ When enough stress is placed on rocks, they can reach their
elastic limit and break.
Three (3) Types of Stress

1.Compressional Stress
2.Tensional Stress
3.Shear Stress
⚫ Compressional Stress
⚫ The type of stress that occurs when an object is squeezed,
such as when two tectonic plates collide.
⚫ When compression occurs at a convergent boundary, large
mountain ranges can form.

Appalachian Mountains
⚫ Tensional Stress
⚫ stress that occurs when forces act to stretch an object.
⚫ Occurs at divergent plate boundaries, such as mid-ocean
ridges, when two tectonic plates pull away from each
other.
⚫ Shear Stress
⚫ This stress distorts a body by pushing parts of the body in opposite directions.
⚫ Sheared rocks bend, twist, or break apart as they slide past each other.
⚫ This occurs at transform boundaries where plates slide horizontally past each
other.
 Stages of Deformation
1. Elastic Deformation - The rock is strained enough that I its shape or size may
change, and the strain is reversible.
- Think of this 'elastic' change like rubber bands, if you pull it and then let it
go, the stretch is reversible because it can go back to its original shape.
2. Ductile Deformation – The rock can be changed into a new shape, but once
this happens, it stays that way because this strain is irreversible.
- This is like the metal wiring in your house which is usually made of copper.
Copper is ductile, meaning you can stretch it into long, thin wires. However, once
you have made this change, you cannot 'unstretch' it, and the same is true for
rocks in this stage of deformation.
3. Fracture – Finally, if rocks are stressed enough, they fracture. The strain is
irreversible wherein the material breaks. - If you fall hard enough, you may
fracture a bone in your body, and rocks experience the same thing when the
stress is great enough.
Each rock type deforms
differently when stress is
gradually applied.
That is to say rocks respond to
stress by deforming elastically.
This is what we call elastic
deformation.
Like a rubber band, the rock
will return to nearly its original
size when the force is
removed. This process is the
same thing that happens for
most earthquakes.
▪ There are 2 kinds of elastic deformation once the elastic
limit or strength of a rock is surpassed:
1. It either flows which we call ductile deformation.
2. It fractures in what we call brittle deformation.
 Factors Affecting Deformation
In other words, for deformation of rock to occur, the following
conditions must be met:
1. The rock material must have the ability to deform under
pressure and heat.
2. The higher the temperature of the rock the more elastic it
becomes.
3. Pressure must not exceed the internal strength of the rock,
otherwise, fracturing occurs.
4. Deformation must be applied slowly.
▪ In general, you can say that a rock has been
deformed if it has been:
▪ Translated (move) from its original position
▪ Changed in orientation (folding, rotation or
tilting)
▪ Changed in shape(distortion)
Fold
Fold can be defined as a bend
in rock that is a response to
compressional force.
It can be likened to the waves
in the ocean.
Earth has a crest or uphold
And a trough or down fold.
Folds are most visible in rocks
that contained layering.
 3 types of Folds
▪ The common types of
folds are the, anticline,
syncline and
monocline.
▪ Anticline = is a convex
up fold in rock that
resembles an “arch
like”
▪ Syncline = a type of fold
where the rock layers are
warped downward.

▪ Monocline = the simplest

type of fold which involves
a slight bend in otherwise
parallel layers of rock.
▪ More complex fold types
can develop in situations
where lateral pressures
become greater. Greater
pressure results in
anticline and synclines
that are inclined and
asymmetrical.
Faults
Faults form in rocks
when the stresses
overcome the internal
strength of the rock
resulting in a fracture.
It is defined as the
displacement of once
connected blocks of
rocks along a fault
plane.
▪ There are several kinds of faults, which are
named according with the type of stress
that acts on the rock and by the nature
of the movement of the rock blocks or
either side of the fault plane.
 Type of Faults
▪ Dip-slip-fault
are faults in which the movement is primarily
parallel to the inclination or dip of the fault
surface.
2 major types of dip slip fault
Normal fault = occurs when
tensional
forces act in opposite directions. This is
sometimes called “gravity fault”.

Reverse fault = reverse fault

develops when
compression forces exist. Compression cause
Graben Fault
Produced when tensional stresses result in
the subsidence of a block of rock. On a
large scale these features are known as rift
valleys.
Horst Fault
▪ The development of
two reverse fault
causing a block of
rock to be pushed up.
Strike-slip fault
Are vertical in nature and are
produced where the stresses are
exerted parallel to each other.
A transform fault is a special
kind of strike-slip fault that cuts
through the lithosphere and
accommodates motion between
two large crustal plates.
Oblique-slip fault

Happens when many faults are

mixed in slip type.