Endogenic Processes

1. Igneous Processes
a. Volcanism
b. Plutonism
2. Tectonic Processes
(Diastrophism)
c. Folding
d. Faulting
 Endogenic Processes
2. Tectonic Processes (Diastrophism)
a.Folding
b.Faulting
 Tectonic processes
Crustal deformation
■Refers to all changes that occur to the
original form &/or size of a rock body; is
the bending, tilting, & breaking of the
Earth’s crust
■May produce changes in the location &
orientation of rocks
■Most occurs along plate tectonic
margins
 METAMORPHISM
• OR “CHANGE IN FORM” IS THE PROCESS
INVOLVED WHEN METAMORPHIC ROCKS ARE
FORMED THROUGH THE TRANSFORMATION OF
PRE-EXISTING ROCKS THAT INCLUDE IGNEOUS,
SEDIMENTARY, AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
ITSELF.
• THE PRE-EXISTING OR ORIGINAL ROCKS ARE
ALSO KNOWN AS PROTOLITH THAT WHEN
SUBJECTED TO HEAT AND PRESSURE BUT DOES
NOT MELT, ITS PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL, AND
MINERALOGICAL COMPONENTS AND TEXTURES
WILL CHANGE.
Metamorphic rocks are formed within the
Earth’s crust which are eventually exposed at
the surface by uplift and erosion of the
overlying rock can be a new mineral
composition and/or texture.
 ROCK DEFORMATION
• TECTONIC FORCES OPERATING INSIDE THE
EARTH CAUSES ROCKS TO UNDERGO
DEFORMATION.
• IT IS A PROCESS IN WHICH ROCKS CHANGE IN
SHAPE, SIZE, LOCATION, TILT OR BREAK DUE
TO SQUEEZING, STRETCHING, OR SHEARING.
• IT IS THE DOMINANT PROCESS IN THE
FORMATION OF MOUNTAIN BELTS.
• FORCE IS ANYTHING THAT TENDS TO PUT
STATIONARY OBJECTS IN MOTION OR
CHANGE THE MOTION OF MOVING BODIES.
 ROCK DEFORMATION
• STRESS
⮚ IS DEFINED AS THE AMOUNT OF FORCE APPLIED TO
A GIVEN AREA.
⮚ TWO TYPES OF STRESS;
1) UNIFORM – EQUAL STRESS IN ALL DIRECTIONS.
2) DIFFERENTIAL – VARYING STRESS IN DIFFERENT
DIRECTIONS.
• THE STRESS FORMED IN ROCKS ARE CALLED
DIFFERENTIAL STRESS SINCE THE FORCE APPLIED
IS NOT EQUAL IN ALL DIRECTIONS.
• THERE ARE THREE KINDS OF DIFFERENTIAL
STRESS:
Types of Crustal Deformation:

Differential Stresses:
Compressional
⮚stresses that shorten a rock
body are compressional in
nature
Tensional
⮚stresses that elongate a rock
body
Shear
⮚stresses that cause sections of
a rock body or two separate rock
bodies to slide past one another

Copyright © 2014 All rights reserved, Government of

Newfoundland and Labrador
Reverse and
Normal Strike-Slip
thrust
The hanging
wall is the block
of
rock above the
fault line.
The footwall is
the block of
rock below the
fault line.
 Tectonic processes – Folding
■When two forces push towards each
other from opposite sides, the rock
layers will bend into folds. The
process by which folds are formed are
due to compressional forces known as
folding.
There are large-scale and small-scale
folds. Large-scale folds are found
mainly along destructive plate
boundaries.
 Appear as
wave-like
structures
in rock
layers
https://www.geologyin.com/2015/02/types-of-folds-with-photos.html

anticline in Alberta, Canada in the Rocky Mountains

• Anticlines – are up curved

folds where the oldest rock
layers are in the center
• Synclines – are down
curved fold in which the
youngest layers are in the
center
 https://www.geologyin.com/2015/02/types-of-folds-with-photos.html

Monocline of sandstone at the Colorado National Monument. Grand Junction, Colorado,

USA.
• Monoclines - both ends stay horizontal but one side
is lower than the other
 Tectonic processes – Faulting
• Is the process where fracturing and
displacement of more brittle rock strata
along a fault plane has occurred, either
caused by tension or compression
• A break in rock along which a vertical or
horizontal rock movement has occurred is
called a fault.
• The line of fault which appears on land
surface is known as fault line (these are
often lines of weakness which allow molten
rock to rise up onto the Earth's surface when
there is active volcanic activity nearby.

https://youtu.be/wO7s5zIhX6k
 Moab fault, Utah, USA

Ketobe Knob in the San Rafael

Swell of Utah

https://youtu.be/qlk7IfYMufs?list=PL4Wzj82Z15gxkhB89uyoCcgQWwjIlu5yP
 Tectonic processes
The resulting change in the rocks due to the different
types of stress is called strain.
Strain
⮚causes an irreversible change in the shape, size, &
volume of a rock body subjected to stress. Original
configuration is not retained during deformation.
⮚Just like stress, strain has also kinds which include
stretching, shortening or contraction, and shearing.
Elastic Strain – a temporary change in shape of rocks
when subjected to stress
THE THREE SUCCESSIVE STAGES OF
DEFORMATION WHEN A ROCK IS SUBJECTED TO
INCREASING STRESS.
ROCKS ARE ALSO
CLASSIFIED
ACCORDING TO THEIR
BEHAVIOR WHEN
UNDER STRESS.
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR
DEPENDS ON FACTORS
SUCH AS
TEMPERATURE,
CONFINING PRESSURE,
AND STRAIN RATE.

Deformation mostly
happens deep within
Earth, and the products
are only revealed when
the rocks are exposed
due to weathering and
erosion. The branch of
geology concerned with
the study of rock
deformation is called
structural geology.
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT
CRUSTAL DEFORMATION
❖ THE FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE THE
STRENGTH OF A ROCK AND THUS HOW
IT WILL DEFORM INCLUDE;
1) TEMPERATURE
2) CONFINING PRESSURE
3) ROCK TYPE
4) TIME
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT
CRUSTAL DEFORMATION
1) TEMPERATURE
⮚ THE COLDER THE EARTH MATERIALS, THE MORE
BRITTLE THE DEFORMATION WILL BE.
⮚ THE WARMER THE EARTH MATERIALS, THE MORE
ELASTIC OR DUCTILE THE DEFORMATION WILL BE

2) CONFINING PRESSURE
⮚ CONFINING PRESSURE WILL ONLY RESULT IN ELASTIC
OR DUCTILE DEFORMATION AT VARIED DEPTHS
BENEATH EARTH’S SURFACE.
⮚ BRITTLE DEFORMATION TYPICALLY OCCURS ON THE
SURFACE WHEN THERE IS NO CONFINING PRESSURE
FROM ABOVE
 FACTORS THAT AFFECT
CRUSTAL DEFORMATION
3) ROCK TYPE
⮚ ALL ROCK TYPES CAN BE DEFORMED.
⮚ HOWEVER, SEDIMENTARY ROCKS COULD BE
MORE EASILY DEFORMED SINCE THEY ARE
SOFTER
4) TIME
⮚ RAPID DEFORMATION TENDS TO RESULT IN
BRITTLE DEFORMATION.
⮚ SLOWER DEFORMATION OVER LONGER PERIODS
OF TIME TENDS TO RESULT IN ELASTIC OR
DUCTILE DEFORMATION
 KEY WORDS ON THE STRUCTURES
PRODUCED BY DEFORMATION

• STRIKE – THE COMPASS DIRECTION (RECKONED FROM THE

NORTH) OF THE LINE FORMED BY THE INTERSECTION OF
AN INCLINED PLANE AND THE HORIZONTAL PLANE
• DIP – THE ANGLE BETWEEN THE INCLINED PLANE AND THE
HORIZONTAL PLANE; ITS DIRECTION IS PERPENDICULAR
TO THE STRIKE
• JOINTS – NATURAL CRACKS IN THE ROCKS PRODUCED BY
BRITTLE DEFORMATION; FORMED DUE TO TENSIONAL
STRESS IN BRITTLE ROCKS; CAN FORM WHEN ROCK COOLS
AND CONTRACTS, OR WHEN THERE IS DECREASE IN
PRESSURE FROM OVERLYING ROCKS AS A RESULT OF
EROSION
 KEY WORDS ON THE STRUCTURES
PRODUCED BY DEFORMATION

• FAULTS – PLANAR STRUCTURES RESULTING FROM

BRITTLE DEFORMATION, BUT THERE IS SLIDING
BETWEEN THE ROCKS
 KEY WORDS ON THE STRUCTURES
PRODUCED BY DEFORMATION
• FOLDS – PRODUCED BY DEFORMATION OF DUCTILE MATERIALS;
ARE CONTORTIONS OF ROCK LAYERS FORMING WAVE-LIKE
CURVES

• TECTONIC FOLIATION – THE ALIGNMENT OF DEFORMED

AND/OR REORIENTED GRAINS OF ROCKS; OFTEN OCCUR
DURING METAMORPHISM