GENERAL GEOLOGY

C O URSE M AT E R I A L 1 : G E N ER A L G EO LOGY PA R T 4
E A RT H P R OC ESSES A N D E A RT H QUAK E
G EO LO GY F O R E N G I N E E R S
P R E PA R E D BY: E N G R . N E S LY N L . P R I N C I P I O, M S C E
Learning Outcome

1. Discuss the different earth processes.

2. Explain the origin and occurrence of
Earthquakes.
EARTH PROCESSES
DEFINITION OF TERMS
WEATHERING - process of decay, disintegration and decomposition of rocks
under the influence of certain physical and chemical agencies.
DECOMPOSITION - the process of breaking up of mineral constituents to form
new components by the chemical actions of the physical agents.
DISINTEGRATION - the process of breaking up of rocks into small pieces by the
mechanical agencies of physical agents.
DECOMPOSITION - the process of breaking up of mineral constituents to form
new components by the chemical actions of the physical agents.
DEUNUNDATION - general term used when the surface of the earth is worn away
by the chemical as well as mechanical actions of physical agents and the lower
layers are exposed.
FACTORS AFFECTING WEATHERING

NATURE OF ROCK LENGTH OF TIME CLIMATE

TYPE OF WEATHERING
1.Physical or mechanical
2.Chemical
PHYSICAL WEATHERING
•It is the physical breakdown of rock masses under the attack of certain
atmospheric agents.
•A single rock block is broken gradually into smaller irregular fragments and then
into particles of still smaller dimensions.
•It is the most active in cold, dry and higher areas of the earth surface
temperature variations are responsible to a great extent of physical weathering.
THERMAL EFFECT: EXFOLIATION
➢The breaking of the rock’s shell due to temperature fluctuations.
➢The effect of change of temperature on rocks is of considerable importance in
arid and semi arid regions where difference between daytime and nighttime
temperature is often very high.
➢Such temperature fluctuations produce physical disintegration in a normally
expected manner.
➢Expansion on heating followed by contraction on cooling.
➢ When the rock mass is layered and good thickness additional disturbing
stresses may be developed into by unequal expansion and contraction from
surface to the lower regions.
Spheroidal Weathering
➢Physical Weathering
➢The shell of rock is disintegrated in an onion-
like manner.
➢This is formed when weathering occurs part
of the disintegrated rock material is carried
away by running water or any other
transporting agent. Some of them are left on
the surface of the bedrock as residual
boulders.
 ➢The chemical decomposition of the rock is called
CHEMICAL chemical weathering which is nothing but chemical
reaction between gases of the atmosphere and
minerals of the rocks.
WEATHERING ➢The chemical changes invariably take place in the
presence of water generally rainwater –in which are
dissolved many active gases from the atmosphere like
C02, nitrogen, Hydrogen etc.
CHEMICAL WEATHERING

These conditions are

Chemical weathering is
defined primarily by
essentially a process of
chemical composition of the
chemical reactions between
rocks humidity and the
gases of the atmosphere
environmental surrounding
and the surface rocks.
the rock under attack.
TYPES OF CHEMICAL WEATHERING
Engineering importance of rock weathering:
As engineer is directly or indirectly interested in rock
weathering specially when he has to select a suitable
quarry for the extraction of stones for structural and
decorative purposes. The process of weathering always
causes a lose in the strength of the rocks or soil.
Engineering importance of rock weathering:
For the construction engineer it is always necessary
to see that:
◦To what extent the area under consideration for a
proposed project has been affected by weathering and
◦What may be possible effects of weathering processes
typical of the area on the construction materials
EARTHQUAKE
 Gigantic forces that constantly change the
earth

Thrusting of rocks up into enormous folds,

EARTHQUAKES twisting them and cracking them

Shaking of the surface of the earth resulting

from a sudden release of energy in the
earth’s lithosphere that creates seismic
waves
 Deep seated forces that lead to movements
within the earth’s uppermost layer.

Seismologist- scientist who studies

CAUSES earthquakes

Seismologists measure tremors of the earth

through seismograph and identify the
different movements that causes the
earthquake.
CRUST

• 70 km. (40 miles) beneath the

ocean
• 150 km. (90 miles) beneath the
CRUSTAL
continents PLATES AND
EARTHQUAKES
PLATES

• large fragments of crust

CRUSTAL PLATES AND EARTHQUAKES
Currents within the hot,
molten interior of the
earth, produced by
thermal convection and
earth’s rotation are
thought to underlie plate
movement.
CRUSTAL PLATES AND EARTHQUAKES
3 ways that plates are driven apart:
1.SEAFLOOR SPREADING
➢Plates are driven apart as new molten material is forced
upward between plates
2.Plates slide past each other
3.SUBDUCTION ZONES
➢Plates push directly into each other, causing one plate to slide
beneath the other.
➢Reverse of seafloor spreading
CRUSTAL PLATES AND EARTHQUAKES
FAULT- Rocks fracture along cracks
The difference in motion between plates no matter in what
direction, causes rocks to fracture along cracks, creating
earthquakes.
TYPES OF EARTHQUAKE

TECTONIC VOLCANIC MAN-MADE

EARTHQUAKES EARTHQUAKES QUAKES
TECTONIC EARTHQUAKES

Tremors caused by crustal

movements

95% of this kind of earthquake

occurs at the edges of plates
VOLCANIC
EARTHQUAKES
Local earthquakes caused by volcano
Produces by movements of
underground molten (magma)
straining and fracturing adjoining
surface rocks
Related to tectonic forces in the rocks
produced by interacting plates,
volcanic earthquakes are ultimately
tectonic in origin.
MAN-MADE QUAKES
Man made reservoirs and deep wells lead to an increase in the pore-
water pressure of underlying rocks, lessening their tensile strength

Increase in water content may “lubricate” already existing fracture

zones and local to active faulting

Similar events have occurred when fluids were injected into deep oil
wells to enhance petroleum production.
MAN-MADE QUAKES
tremors started in the Lake Mead
region when artificial lake by
Hoover Dam was constructed
1961

1936 US military dug a deep well near

Denver, Colorado, to dispose of
radioactive wastewater
• After a while, tremor was felt,
and seismograph shows it lasted
for seven years
ELASTIC REBOUND

“SNAP” of rocks in new

places when great strains
build up in these bending
rocks when their elastic limit
or breaking point is reached.
Energy is radiated over a broad spectrum of frequencies through the earth, in body waves
and surface waves.

•Body waves are two types:

1. P waves means transmitting energy via push-pull motion

2. S waves means transmitting energy via shear action at right angles to the direction
of motion

•Surface waves are also of two types:

1. Love waves means horizontally oscillating (analogous to body s waves)

2. Rayleigh waves means vertically oscillating.

 Surface waves
travel more
slowly than
body waves

Image Reference: https://daisyduckdiv1.weebly.com/uploads/9/8/4/6/9846546/5854365_orig.gif

 • These P waves can travel
through both solid rocks,
such as volcanic magma or
the water of the oceans.

• P wave's motion is the same as that of

sound wave in that, as it spreads out, it
alternatively pushes (compresses) and
pulls (dilates) the rock.
• S waves propagates, it shears the rock
sideways at right angles to the direction
of travel.
• S waves cannot propagate in oceans and
lakes
 https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/Lwave.gif

• Love waves moves the ground from

side to side in a horizontal plane but
at right angles to the direction of
propagation.
• It travel faster than Rayleigh waves.
• Do not propagate through water
Rayleigh waves moves like rolling
ocean waves. It can affect the bodies of
water such as lakes

https://web.ics.purdue.edu/~braile/edumod/waves/Rwave_files/image001.gif
EFFECTS OF
EARTHQUAKE
1.SOIL REACTIONS
▪Loosen soil and rocks and precipitate
▪Could lead to disastrous landslides
▪LIQUEFICATION – Earthquake hazard;
vibration of soil transform it from a firm
material to quick sand-like substance
▪COMPACTION – Occur during quakes;
soils settle due to compaction
▪ Depression results to land tilts and cracks and causes
fissures to open up.
EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKE
2. SEISMIC SEA WAVES
◦ Tsunami (Bay waves)
◦ Seismic sea wave – aquatic effects of
earthquake
◦ Could be up to 24 m (80ft) high
◦ Created by a sudden upward movement of
the sea-floor during faulting along a plate
boundary
EARTHQUAKE
MEASUREMENT

MAGNITUDE – Amount
of energy given by the
quake
Could be measured by a
Richter Magnitude
Scale – which is in
logarithmic scale
EARTHQUAKE
MEASUREMENT

INTENSITY- measure
of the effects of a
quake
Could be measured
by Mercalli intensity
scale
EARTHQUAKE PRECURSORS

PRECURSOR- any earth characteristic that

regularly exhibit a change before an earthquake

ANOMALIES- changes occur

EARTHQUAKE PRECURSORS
Subsidence Water level in
Seismicity Wave Speed
and Uplift wells

Radon Content
Geomagnetism Geo-electricity Strains of Ground
Water

Animal
Statistical Data Seismic Gaps
Behavior
 SEISMICITY- recorded foreshocks or a swarm
of small frequent tremors

SUBSIDENCE AND UPLIFT- vertical

movements of the surface of the land
EARTHQUAKE indicate a built-up of strains in the crust
PRECURSORS WAVE SPEED- change in the ratio of P and S
seismic wave velocity at nearby experimental
stations
WATER LEVELS IN WELLS- water level in wells
often rise and fall before earthquakes
 GEOMAGNETISM- changes in the earth’s
magnetic field

GEO-ELECTRICITY - as water content in rock

changes, so does the electrical resistivity
EARTHQUAKE • The lower electrical resistivity, the higher the possible
PRECURSORS presence of rock straining

STRAINS- could be determined by the

relative displacement between two points
• Change in displacement
 RADON CONTENT IN GROUNDWATER

• Radon- radioactive gas is found naturally in ground water and well

water, an increase of it indicates changes in the rock underground.

ANIMAL BEHAVIOR –animals unusual restless behavior

EARTHQUAKE
PRECURSORS
STATISTICAL DATA- earlier recorded quakes

• Also significant in planning stage

SEISMIC GAPS – when build up strains are released or

strains are quiet, it is usually and indication of stresses
building up.
ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS
The time and intensity of the earthquake can never be predicted. The only
remedy that can be done at the best, it is provide additional factors in the design
of structure to minimize the losses due to shocks of an earthquake. This can be
done in the following way:
❑ To collect sufficient data, regarding the previous seismic activity in the area.
❑ To assess the losses, which are likely to take place in furniture due to
earthquake shocks
❑ To provide factors of safety, to stop or minimize the loss due to sever earth
shocks.
Following are the few precautions which make
the building sufficiently earthquake proof.
The foundation of a Excavation of the
building should rest on a foundation should be The concrete should be
firm rock bed. Grillage done up to the same laid in rich mortar and
foundations should level, throughout the continuously
preferably be provided. building.

Masonry should be done All the parts of building

Flat R.CC slab should be
with cement mortar of should be tied firmly
provided.
not les than 1:4 max. with each other.

Cantilevers, projections,
Building should be Best materials should be
parapets, domes etc.,
uniform height. used.
should be provided.
End. ☺
NEXT TOPIC: MINERALOGY